Assignment 1

Name: Satyarthsinh Gohil

Regno: 16BCE1125
Course: Internet And Web Programming
Faculty: Sandhya.P
Slot: E2
1.Networks
A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network
devices, peripherals, or other devices connected to one another to allow the
sharing of data. An excellent example of a network is the Internet, which
connects millions of people all over the world. Below is an example image of a
home network with multiple computers and other network devices all connected
to each other and the Internet.

Examples of network devices

 Desktop computers, laptops, mainframes, and servers
 Consoles and thin clients
 Firewalls
 Bridges
 Repeaters
 Network Interface cards
 Switches, hubs, modems, and routers
 Smartphones and tablets
  Webcams

Network topologies and types of networks

The term network topology describes the relationship of connected
devices in terms of a geometric graph. Devices are represented as vertices, and
their connections are represented as edges on the graph. It describes how many
connections each device has, in what order, and it what sort of hierarchy.
Typical network configurations include the bus topology, mesh
topology, ring topology, star topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.

Most home networks are configured in a tree topology that is connected to the

Internet. Corporate networks often use tree topologies, but they typically
incorporate star topologies and an Intranet.
What was the first computer network?
One of the first computer networks to use packet
switching, ARPANET was developed in the mid-1960s and is considered to be
the direct predecessor of the modern Internet. The first ARPANET message was
sent on October 29, 1969.

Wired and wireless technologies

 Networks may use a mix of wired and wireless technologies. Network
devices communicate through a wired or wireless transmission medium. In
wired networks, this may consist of optical fiber, coaxial cable or copper wires
in the form of a twisted pair. Wireless network pathways include computer
networks that use wireless data connections for connecting endpoints. These
endpoints include broadcast radio, cellular radio, microwave and satellite.
Networks can be private or public. Private networks require the user to
obtain permission to gain access. Typically, this is granted either manually by a
network administrator or obtained directly by the user via a password or with
other credentials. Public networks like the internet do not restrict access.
LANs, WANs, MANs and SANs
Networks may also be categorized by the scope of their domains. Local
area networks (LANs) interconnect endpoints in a single domain. Wide area
networks interconnect multiple LANs, and metropolitan area networks
interconnect computer resources in a geographic area. Storage area
networks interconnect storage devices and resources. Networks may also be
divided into subnetworks, also called subnets.

2.Internet Overview
The Internet is a collection of computers connected by network cables or
through satellite links. Rather than connecting every computer on the Internet
with every other computer, individual computers in an organization are
normally connected in a local area network (LAN). One node on this local area
network is physically connected to the Internet. So the Internet is a network of
networks. There are millions of computing devices that are connected to this
network either permanently or for a short duration. These devices run network
applications that communicate through copper or fibre optic cables, radio or
satellite transmission. The communication is governed by protocols established
by an international body - Internet Engineering Task Force.
The Internet connectivity is provided by Internet Service Providers (ISP).
These corporations dedicate computers to act as servers - that is they make
information (such as Web pages or e-mail) available to users of the Internet.
One can look upon the structure of the Internet as having an edge and a
core. At the edge are host systems that run application or client programs or
provide a service through server programs. At the core of the Internet is a
network of routers.
3.Web Protocols
World Wide Web Protocols
 Technically the World-Wide Web hinges on three enabling protocols, the
Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML) that specifies a simple mark-up
language for describing hypertext pages, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) which is used by web browsers to communicate with web clients, and
Uniform Resource Locators (URL's) which are used to specify the links
between documents.
Hyper Text Mark-up Language
The hypertext pages on the web are all written using the Hypertext Mark-
up Language (HTML), a simple language consisting of a small number of tags
to delineate logical constructs within the text. Unlike a procedural language
such as postscript (move 1 inch to the right, 2 inches down, and create a green
WWW in 15 pointer bold Helvetica font), HTML deals with higher level
constructs such as "headings," "lists," "images," etc. This leaves individual
browsers free to format text in the most appropriate way for their particular
environment; for example, the same document can be viewed on a MAC, on a
PC, or on a line mode terminal, and while the content of the document remains
the same, the precise way in which it is displayed will vary between the
different environments.
The earliest version of HTML (subsequently labelled HTML1), was
deliberately kept very simple to make the task of browser developers easier.
Subsequent versions of HTML will allow more advanced features. HTML2
(approximately what most browsers support today) includes the ability to embed
images in documents, layout fill-in forms, and nest lists to arbitrary depths.
HTML3 (currently being defined) will allow still more advanced features such
as mathematical equations, tables, and figures with captions and flow-around
text.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Although most Web browsers are able to communicate using a variety of
protocols, such as FTP, Gopher and WAIS, the most common protocol in use on
the Web is that designed specifically for the WWW project, the Hype rText
Transfer Protocol. In order to give the fast response time needed for hypertext
applications, a very simple protocol which uses a single round trip between the
client and the server is used.
In the first phase of a HTTP transfer the browser sends a request for a
document to the server. Included in this request is the description of the
document being requested, as well as a list of document types that the browser
is capable of handling. The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
standard is used to specify the document types that the browser can handle,
typically a variety of video, audio, and image formats in addition to plain text
and HTML. The browser is able to specify weights for each document type, in
order to inform the server about the relative desirability of different document
types.
In response to a query the server returns the document to the browser using one
of the formats acceptable to the browser. If necessary, the server can translate
the document from the format it is stored in into a format acceptable to the
browser. For example, the server might have an image stored in the highly
compressed JPEG image format, and if a browser capable of displaying JPEG
images requests the image it would be returned in this format. However, if a
browser capable of displaying images only if they are in GIF format requested
the same document the server would be able to translate the image and return
the (larger) GIF image. This provides a way of introducing more sophisticated
document formats in future but still enabling older or less advanced browser to
access the same information.
In addition to the basic "GET" transaction described above the HTTP is also
able to support a number of other transaction types, such as "POST" for sending
the data for fill-out forms back to the server and "PUT" which might be used in
the future to allow authors to save modified versions of documents back to the
server.
TCP/IP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) are two
different procedures that are often linked together. The linking of several
protocols is common since the functions of different protocols can be
complementary so that together they carry out some complete task. The
combination of several protocols to carry out a particular task is often called a
"stack" because it has layers of operations. In fact, the term "TCP/IP" is
normally used to refer to a whole suite of protocols, each with different
functions. This suite of protocols is what carries out the basic operations of the
Web. TCP/IP is also used on many local area networks. The details of how the
Web works are beyond the scope of this article but I will briefly describe some
of the basics of this very important group of protocols. More details can be
found in the references in the last section.
When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into
smaller pieces or "packets". The use of packets facilitates speedy transmission
since different parts of a message can be sent by different routes and then
reassembled at the destination. It is also a safety measure to minimize the
chances of losing information in the transmission process. TCP is the means for
creating the packets, putting them back together in the correct order at the end,
and checking to make sure that no packets got lost in transmission. If necessary,
TCP will request that a packet be resent.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used to route information to the
proper address. Every computer on the Internet has to have its own unique
address known as the IP address. Every packet sent will contain an IP address
showing where it is supposed to go. A packet may go through a number of
computer routers before arriving at its final destination and IP controls the
process of getting everything to the designated computer. Note that IP does not
make physical connections between computers but relies on TCP for this
function. IP is also used in conjunction with other protocols that create
connections.
UDP and ICMP
Another member of the TCP/IP suite is User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
(A datagram is almost the same as a packet except that sometimes a packet will
contain more than one datagram.) This protocol is used together with IP when
small amounts of information are involved. It is simpler than TCP and lacks the
flow-control and error-recovery functions of TCP. Thus, it uses fewer system
resources.
A different type of protocol is Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
It defines a small number of messages used for diagnostic and management
purposes. It is also used by Ping and Traceroute.
Mail Protocols POP3 and SMTP
Email requires its own set of protocols and there are a variety, both for
sending and for receiving mail. The most common protocol for sending mail is
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). When configuring email clients, an
Internet address for an SMTP server must be entered. The most common
protocol used by PCs for receiving mail is Post Office Protocol(POP). It is now
in version 3 so it is called POP3. Email clients require an address for a POP3
server before they can read mail. The SMTP and POP3 servers may or may not
be the same address. Both SMTP and POP3 use TCP for managing the
transmission and delivery of mail across the Internet.
A more powerful protocol for reading mail is Interactive Mail Access
Protocol (IMAP). This protocol allows for the reading of individual mailboxes
at a single account and is more common in business environments. IMAP also
uses TCP to manage the actual transmission of mail.

File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) lives up to its name and provides a method
for copying files over a network from one computer to another. More generally,
it provides for some simple file management on the contents of a remote
computer. It is an old protocol and is used less than it was before the World
Wide Web came along. Today, its primary use is uploading files to a Web site.
It can also be used for downloading from the Web but, more often than not,
downloading is done via HTTP. Sites that have a lot of downloading (software
sites, for example) will often have an FTP server to handle the traffic. If FTP is
involved, the URL will have ftp: at the front.

4.Web Organization and Addressing

World Wide Web (WWW) can be viewed as a huge distributed system
with millions of clients and servers for accessing linked documents. Servers
maintain collections of documents while clients provide users an easy-to- use
interface for presenting and accessing those documents. A document is fetched
from a server, transferred to a client, and presented on the screen. To a user
there is conceptually no difference between a document stored locally or in
another part of the world.
 A reference called Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is used to refer a
document.
 The DNS name of its associated server along with a file name is
specified.
 The URL also specifies the protocol for transferring the document across
the network.

5.Web Browsers and Web Servers

A web browser is a computer program application found on all modern

computers. They are also now a common feature of mobile phones or
other mobile devices and tablet computers like the iPad or Android tablets.

Web browsers are used by people to find and look at web sites on
the Internet. The first web browser was created in 1990. Many different web
browsers are available for free. All web browsers can go to websites but each
browser has good things and bad things about it. For example, some browsers
focus on data security and keeping computers safe from viruses. Other browsers
are made so that web pages appear on screen faster.

Some popular web browsers available to download:

 Internet Explorer
 Google Chrome
 Mozilla Firefox
 Opera
  Safari

Other browsers are:

 Flock
 Maxthon
 Epiphany
 Galeon
 Lynx
 Sleipnir
Web Servers
A Web server is a program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
to serve the files that form Web pages to users, in response to their requests,
which are forwarded by their computers' HTTP clients. Dedicated computers
and appliances may be referred to as Web servers as well.
The process is an example of the client/server model. All computers that
host Web sites must have Web server programs. Leading Web servers include
Apache (the most widely-installed Web server), Microsoft's Internet
Information Server (IIS) and nginx (pronounced engine X) from NGNIX. Other
Web servers include Novell's NetWare server, Google Web Server (GWS) and
IBM's family of Domino servers.
Web servers often come as part of a larger package of Internet- and
intranet-related programs for serving email, downloading requests for File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) files, and building and publishing Web pages.
Considerations in choosing a Web server include how well it works with the
operating system and other servers, its ability to handle server-side
programming, security characteristics, and the particular publishing, search
engine and site building tools that come with it.

6.Security and Vulnerability

Wireless networks are much more susceptible to unauthorized use than
cabled networks. Wireless network devices use radio waves to communicate
with each other. The greatest vulnerability to the network is that rogue machines
can "eves-drop" on the radio wave communications. Unencrypted information
transmitted can be monitored by a third-party, which, with the right tools (free
to download), could quickly gain access to your entire network, steal valuable
passwords to local servers and online services, alter or destroy data, and/or
access personal and confidential information stored in your network servers. To
minimize the possibility of this, all modern access points and devices have
configuration options to encrypt transmissions. These encryption methodologies
are still evolving, as are the tools used by malicious hackers, so always use the
strongest encryption available in your access point and connecting devices.
A NOTE ON ENCRYPTION: As of this writing WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy) encryption can be easily hacked with readily-available free tools which
circulate the internet. WPA and WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access versions 1 and
2) are much better at protecting information, but using weak passwords or
passphrases when enabling these encryptions may allow them to be easily
hacked. If your network is running WEP, you must be very careful about your
use of sensitive passwords or other data.
Three basic techniques are used to protect networks from unauthorized
wireless use. Use any and all of these techniques when setting up your wireless
access points:
Encryption.
 Enable the strongest encryption supported by the devices you will be
connecting to the network. Use strong passwords (strong passwords are
generally defined as passwords containing symbols, numbers, and mixed
case letters, at least 14 characters long).
Isolation.
 Use a wireless router that places all wireless connections on a subnet
independent of the primary private network. This protects your private
network data from pass-through internet traffic.
Hidden SSID.
 Every access point has a Service Set IDentifier (SSID) that by default is
broadcast to client devices so that the access point can be found. By
disabling this feature, standard client connection software won't be able to
"see" the access point. However, the eves-dropping programs discussed
previously can easily find these access points, so this alone does little
more than keep the access point name out of sight for casual wireless
users.
Advantages of wireless networks:
 Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can be
available throughout a school, at the mall, on an airplane, etc. More and
more businesses are also offering free WiFi access ("Hot spots").
  Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless
network can be as simple as clicking "Connect to a Network" -- in some
cases, you will connect automatically to networks within range.
 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective
than buying and installing cables.
 Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as easy as
turning the computer on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum
number of devices).
Disadvantages of wireless networks:
 Security - Be careful. Be vigilant. Protect your sensitive data with
backups, isolated private networks, strong encryption and passwords, and
monitor network access traffic to and from your wireless network.
 Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar
techniques for transmission, they are susceptible to interference from
lights and electronic devices.
 Inconsistent connections - How many times have you hears "Wait a
minute, I just lost my connection?" Because of the interference caused by
electrical devices and/or items blocking the path of transmission, wireless
connections are not nearly as stable as those through a dedicated cable.
 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving;
however, faster options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables.
If you are only using wireless for internet access, the actual internet
connection for your home or school is generally slower than the wireless
network devices, so that connection is the bottleneck. If you are also
moving large amounts of data around a private network, a cabled
connection will enable that work to proceed much faster.
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of
HTTP, the protocol over which data is sent between your browser and the
website that you are connected to. The 'S' at the end of HTTPS stands for
'Secure'. It means all communications between your browser and the
website are encrypted. HTTPS is often used to protect highly confidential
online transactions like online banking and online shopping order forms.
 Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome also display
a padlock icon in the address bar to visually indicate that a HTTPS
connection is in effect.
 HTTPS pages typically use one of two secure protocols to encrypt
communications - SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer
Security). Both the TLS and SSL protocols use what is known as an
'asymmetric' Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) system. An asymmetric system
uses two 'keys' to encrypt communications, a 'public' key and a 'private' key.
Anything encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted by the private
key and vice-versa.
As the names suggest, the 'private' key should be kept strictly protected and
should only be accessible the owner of the private key. In the case of a website,
the private key remains securely ensconced on the web server. Conversely, the
public key is intended to be distributed to anybody and everybody that needs to
be able to decrypt information that was encrypted with the private key.
When you request a HTTPS connection to a webpage, the website will
initially send its SSL certificate to your browser. This certificate contains the
public key needed to begin the secure session. Based on this initial exchange,
your browser and the website then initiate the 'SSL handshake'. The SSL
handshake involves the generation of shared secrets to establish a uniquely
secure connection between yourself and the website.
 When a trusted SSL Digital Certificate is used during a HTTPS connection,
users will see a padlock icon in the browser address bar. When an Extended
Validation Certificate is installed on a web site, the address bar will turn green.
All communications sent over regular HTTP connections are in 'plain text'
and can be read by any hacker that manages to break into the connection
between your browser and the website. This presents a clear danger if the
'communication' is on an order form and includes your credit card details or
social security number. With a HTTPS connection, all communications are
securely encrypted. This means that even if somebody managed to break into
the connection, they would not be able decrypt any of the data which passes
between you and the website.
7.Web System Architecture
Web-based systems are organized as simple client-server architectures.

Although Web started as simple two-tiered client-server architecture for

static Web documents, this architecture has been extended to support advanced
type of documents.

 Because of the server-side processing, many Web sites are now organized
as three-tiered architectures consisting of a Web server, an application
server, and a database server.
 User data comes from an HTML form, specifying the program and
parameters.
  Server-side scripting technologies are used to generate dynamic content:
 Microsoft: Active Server Pages (ASP.NET)
 Sun: Java Server Pages (JSP)
 Netscape: JavaScript
 Free Software Foundation: PHP

8.URL

Addresses for web sites are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locators).
Most of them begin with http (HyperText Transfer Protocol), followed by a
colon and two slashes. For example, the URL for the Florida Center for
Instructional Technology is http://fcit.usf.edu/.
Some of the URL addresses include a directory path and a file name.
Consequently, the addresses can become quite long. For example, the URL of a
web page may be: http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/default.htm. In this example,
"default.htm" is the name of the file which is in a directory named "holocaust"
on the FCIT server at the University of South Florida.

9.Domain Name

An Internet address has four fields with numbers that are separated by
periods or dots. This type of address is known as an IP address. Rather than
have the user remember long strings of numbers, the Domain Name System
(DNS) was developed to translate the numerical addresses into words. For
example, the address fcit.usf.edu is really 131.247.120.10