Magnetic properties of solids Page 1 of 3

Magnetic Properties of Solids

Materials may be classified by their response to externally applied magnetic
fields as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. These magnetic
responses differ greatly in strength. Diamagnetism is a property of all
materials and opposes applied magnetic fields, but is very weak.
Paramagnetism, when present, is stronger than diamagnetism and produces
magnetization in the direction of the applied field, and proportional to the
applied field. Ferromagnetic effects are very large, producing magnetizations
sometimes orders of magnitude greater than the applied field and as such are
much larger than either diamagnetic or paramagnetic effects.

The magnetization of a material is expressed in terms of density of net

magnetic dipole moments µ in the material. We define a vector quantity
called the magnetization M by

M = µtotal/V
.

Then the total magnetic field B in the material is given by

Index
B = B0 + µ0M
where µ0 is the magnetic permeability of space and B0 is the externally
applied magnetic field. When magnetic fields inside of materials are
calculated using Ampere's law or the Biot-Savart law, then the µ0 in those
equations is typically replaced by just µ with the definition

µ = Kmµ0
where Km is called the relative permeability. If the material does not respond
to the external magnetic field by producing any magnetization, then Km = 1.
Another commonly used magnetic quantity is the magnetic susceptibility
which specifies how much the relative permeability differs from one.

Magnetic susceptibility χm = Km - 1
For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials the relative permeability is very
close to 1 and the magnetic susceptibility very close to zero. For
ferromagnetic materials, these quantities may be very large.

Another way to deal with the magnetic fields which arise from magnetization

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of materials is to introduce a quantity called magnetic field strength H . It

can be defined by the relationship

H = B0/µ0 = B/µ0 - M
and has the value of unambiguously designating the driving magnetic
influence from external currents in a material, independent of the material's
magnetic response. The relationship for B above can be written in the
equivalent form

B = µ0(H + M)
H and M will have the same units, amperes/meter.

Ferromagnetic materials will undergo a small mechanical change when

magnetic fields are applied, either expanding or contracting slightly. This
effect is called magnetostriction.

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Diamagnetism
The orbital motion of electrons creates tiny atomic current loops, which
produce magnetic fields. When an external magnetic field is applied to a
material, these current loops will tend to align in such a way as to oppose the
applied field. This may be viewed as an atomic version of Lenz's law:
induced magnetic fields tend to oppose the change which created them.
Materials in which this effect is the only magnetic response are called
diamagnetic. All materials are inherently diamagnetic, but if the atoms have Index
some net magnetic moment as in paramagnetic materials, or if there is long-
range ordering of atomic magnetic moments as in ferromagnetic materials,
these stronger effects are always dominant. Diamagnetism is the residual
magnetic behavior when materials are neither paramagnetic nor
ferromagnetic.

Any conductor will show a strong diamagnetic effect in the presence of

changing magnetic fields because circulating currents will be generated in
the conductor to oppose the magnetic field changes. A superconductor will
be a perfect diamagnet since there is no resistance to the forming of the

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current loops.

Table of magnetic susceptibilities

Magnetic properties of solids

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Paramagnetism
Some materials exhibit a magnetization which is proportional to the applied
magnetic field in which the material is placed. These materials are said to be
paramagnetic and follow Curie's law:

Index
All atoms have inherent sources of magnetism because electron spin
contributes a magnetic moment and electron orbits act as current loops which
produce a magnetic field. In most materials the magnetic moments of the
electrons cancel, but in materials which are classified as paramagnetic, the
cancelation is incomplete.

Table of magnetic susceptibilities

Magnetic properties of solids

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