13

Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Alloys

fatroduction. 2. Ferrous Alloys. 3. Cast Iron, 4. Effect of Impurities on Cast Iron. 5. Types
n t iron, 6. Steel. 7. Steels Designated on the basis of Mechanical properties. 8. Steels
cienated on the basis of chemical Composition. 9. Plain Carbon Steel. 10 Efects
rities on Steel. 11. Alloy Steel. 12. Tool and Die Steels. 13.
Special Steel. 14. High Speea
Sel.15. Stainless Steel. 16. Heat Resisting Steel. 17. Free Cutting Steels. 18. Spring Steels
Non-ferrous Metals.20. Aluminium. 21. Aluminium Alloys. 22. Copper. 23. Copper Alloys.
4 Brass. 25. Bronze. 26. Gun metal. 27. Lead. 28. Lead-base Alloys. 29. Tin. 30. Tin-base

Aloys (Babbit Metal). 31.

Zinc. 32 Zinc-baseAlloys. 33. Nickel
4 Nickel-base Alloys. 35. Magnesium. 36. Cadmium. 37. Vanadium. 38. Antimony.
9 Bearing Metals. 40. Zirconium Alloys. 41. Shape-memory Alloys. 42. Biomaterials
43. Materials for Hip joint Replacement.

13.1 INTRODUCTION

The metals play an important role in an

engineering
ndustry. because the process of all manufacturing starts with the
raw materials. The materials, mainly used in actual practice máy
be broadly divided into the following two groups:
as their
1. Ferrous metals. The metals, which contain iron
called ferrous metals. The various
main constituent, are

ferrous metals used in industry are pig iron, cast iron, Illustrating various metal parts
chapter, shall discuss like springs and clips. These are
wrought iron and steel. In this we
characteristics of wide range of
only about cast iron and steel. applications of metals.
contain a metal.
2. metals. The metals, which
Non-ferrous
called non-ferrous metals. Other than
various non-
The iron as their main constituent, are tin
aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, brass,
etc.
ferrous metals used in industry are
and non-ferrOus metal in the following articles.
We shall now discuss, the important ferrous
m be noted that we shall discuss in detail the
mechanical properties and uses of the ferrous and
y
on- extraction of these
metals is beyond the scope of this book.
r o u s metals. The production or

132 FERROUS ALLOYS

ferrous metals are those which contain iron
discussed in the last article that
have already extensively used in engineering
Rc e
As a matter fact, the ferrous metals are
Amain constituent.
ndustry
aue to the following
characteristics:
welding and machining)
(casting, rolling,
Cach of fabrication processes
2. Resistance to corrosion,
. Magnetic properties, and
4. Weight.
253
 254 Materials Science
The important ferrous metals used in engineering industry are pig iron, cast iron, wrought
iron and steel. However, we shall discuss only about cast iron and steel, which are important frO
om
the subject point of view.

13.3 CAST IRON

The cast iron is an eutectic alloy of iron and carbon. Thus it has relatively low melting
oint
(about 1200°C). This is advantageous because it can be easily melted, requires less fuel and mOr
easily operated in furnaces. Moreover, the molten metal easily fills intricate moulds completely
These characteristics lead to an inexpensive material and versatility in product design.
The carbon content in cast Iron varies from 2% to 4.5%. It also contains small amounts oe
siicon, sulphur, manganese, and phosphorus. The cast iron is a brittle material, therefore it canmo
be those parts which are subjected to shocks. The properties of cast iron, which
used in material for makest
a
valuable its low cost, good casting
engineering purposes are characteristics, hieh
compressive strength, wear resistance, and excellent machinability. The conmpressive strength of
cast iron is much greater than its tensile strength. Following are the *values of ultimate strengths
of cast iron:
Tensile = 100 to 200 MPa
Compressive = 400 to 1000 MPa
Shear = 120 MPa

13.4 EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON CAST IRON

We have discussed that the cast iron contains small
percentages of silicon, sulphur,
manganese and phosphorus. The effect of these impurities on cast iron are as follows:
1. Silicon. It may be present in cast iron
upto 3%. It provides the formation of free graphite,
which makes the iron soft and easily machinable. It also
produces sound castings free
from blow holes, because of its high affinity for
oxygen.
2. Sulphur. It makes the cast iron hard and brittle. Since too much
sulphur gives unsound
casting, therefore it should be kept well below 0.1% for most foundary purposes.
3. Manganese. It makes the cast iron white and hard. It is often kept below of 0.75e. It
helps to exert a controlling influence over the harmful effect of sulphur.
4. Phosphorus. It aids
fusibility and fluidity in cast iron, but induces brittlenes. It is rarely
allowed to exceed 1%. Phosphoric irons are useful for casting of intricate design and tor
many light engineering castings when cheapness is essential.
13.5 TYPES OF CAST IRONS
Though there are many types of cast irons, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view.
1. Gray cast iron. It is an ordinary commercial cast iron having the following approximae
compositions:
Carbon =
3% to 3.5%, Silicon 1%
=
to 2.75%
Manganese = 0.4% to 1%;
Phosphorus =0.15 to 1%
Sulphur 0.02% to 0.15% and the
=

remaining is iron.
The gray colour is due to the fact the carbon is
a low tensile strength,
present in the form of free graphite.
high compressive strength and no ductility. It can be easiuly
machined. A very good property of gray cast iron is that
the free graphite in its structu

MPa means megapascal. One MPa = 1 x 106 N/m2

 255
and Non-Ferrous Alloys
F e r r o u sa n d N o n - p

sliding
where
parts
a lubricant. Due to this reason, it is very suitable for those
machine
bodies.
tool bo
The used for
an
is
action is desired. iron
gray casting
are widely implements.
automobile le cylinder blocks, pipes and pipe fittings and gricultural
white
fracture. It has
ron. It is a particular variety of cast iron, which, shows a
White cast iro
2.
following approximate compositions:
Carbon = 2% to 2.3%; Silicon = 0.85% to 1.2%
0.1oto 0,4%; Phosphorus 0.05% to 0.2%
=
Manganese =

iron.
Sulphur 0.12% to 0.35% and the remaining is
=

form of carbide (known a

colour is due to the fact that the carbon is in the
The white
The is caused by quick
which is the hardest constituent of iron. This cementite low
te)
c e m e n t i t e )

strength and
a
iron. The white cast iron has a high tensile
of molten for
cooling
Since it is hard, therefore it cannot be
machined. It is used
pressive strength. surface of a r
c
compr
and in places where hard coating is required as
in the outer
inferior casting the production of
malleable
white cast iron is also used as a raw material in
The
wheels.
cast iron
and wrought iron.
molten iron. The
iron produced
cast iron. It is a white cast by quick cooling of
3. Chilled
iron.
called chilling. The iron so is known as chilled
produced
quick cooling generally
1s
with the cool sand
are chilled at their outer skin by
contact of the molten iron
All castings to a very small depth
(less
the mould. But in most castings, this hardness penetrates becomes
in chilled
is chilled intentionally and sometimes
than 1 mm). Sometimes, casting
a
inserts of
considerable depth. Intentional chilling is
carried out by putting
accidently to a comes in contact
with the
steel (chills) into the mould. When the molten metal
iron or used
conducted away and the hard
surface is formed. Chills are
chill, its heat is rapidly withstand wear and friction.
which are required to be hard to
on the faces of a casting, crusher
used in the casting of rolls for crushing grains
and jaw
The process of chilling is chilled.
of railcarriage wheels is also
plates. The running surface cast iron in composition.
in between gray and white
4. Molted cast iron. It is a product where certain wearing surfaces
is obtained in castings
colour and general properties. It
have been chilled.
cast iron is obtained
from white cast iron by a suitable
5. Malleable cast iron. The malleable combined
The annealing process separates the
heat treatment process (i.e., annealing).
nodules of free graphite.
carbon of the white cast iron into
be bent without breaking or fracturing
the
The malleable cast iron is ductile and may
than that of gray cast iron and has
excellent
Section. Its tensile strength is usually higher
parts
machine for which the steel forgings
matching qualities.It is used for making
should have a fair degree of accuracy, e.g..
be and in which the metal
WOuld expensive
for railway rolling stock,
brake supports, parts of
nubs of wagon wheels, small fittings
door hinges, locks etc.
gricultural machinery, pipe fittings,
6. ductile cast iron spheroidal graphite (i.e., S.G.) cast
Odular cast iron. It is also known
as

nodular cast iron is produced by adding magnesium

ron or high strength cast iron. The converts the graphite
of cast iron from flake form
O the molten cast iron. The magnesium
mechanical properties are considerably
or nodular form.
This way, the
Spheroidal
improved.
It is usually used for pressure-resisting castings
nodular
iron behaves like steel.
e cast
for rolling mill and centrntugally
cast products.

uraulic cylinder heads, rolls irons. The alloy cast

discussed above are called plaun cast
Oy cast iron. The cast irons elements 1ke niekel, chromium, molybdenum.
o n is produced bv adding alloying
 256 Materials Sciencs
copper, silicon and manganese. These alloying elements give more strength and resule

improvement of properties. The alloy cast iron has special properties like increa in
strength, high wear resistance, corrosion resistance or heat resistance. The alloy cast ieased
are extensively used for automobile parts like cylinders, pistons, PIston rings, Cranl
irons
Ank
cases, brake drums. parts of crushing and grinding machinery etc.

13.6 STEEL
It is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content upto a maximum of 1.4%. The carbe
occurs in the form of iron carbide (Fe,C). because of its ability to increase the hardness and
arbon
strength of the steel. Other elements e.g., silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese are alo
present to a greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired properties to it. Most of the stel
produced now-a-days is plain carbon steel. A plain carbon steel is defined as a steel which hasit
properties mainly due to its carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and
1.5% of manganese. The plain carbon steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.4% carbon are
divided into the following four types depending upon the carbon content:
1. Dead mild steel = 0.06%-0.12% carbon.
2. Low carbon or mild steel = 0.10%-0.25% carbon.
3. Medium carbon = 0.25%-0.55% carbon.
4. High carbon steel = 0.55-1.4% carbon.
According to Indian Standard [IS 1762 (Part-1)- 1974], a new system of designating the
steel is recommended. According to this standard, steels are designated on the following two
basis:
(a) On the basis of mechanical properties and
(b) On the basis of chemical
composition.
We shall now discuss, in detail, the
designation of steel on the above two basis, in the
following pages.

Ilustrating a basic oxygen

furnace used in the production
lustrating a close up of the rocker assembly
on a mountain bike
of steel

13.7 STEELS DESIGNATED ON THE BASIS OF

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
These steels are carbon and low alloy stecls where the
main criterion in the selection
inspection of steel is the tensile strength or yield stress. According to Indian Standard
(Part-I)- 1978), these stecls are designated by a symbol 'Fe' or "FeE' depending on [IS: 15
whether tn
 and Non-Ferrous Alloys
errous
257
an
SDecified on the basis of minimum tensile
hasating minimum tensile strength or yield stressstrength yield strength fooor
eans
ina minimum tensile in N/mm?. For example, t
igure
1 s t e e lh a v i n g
strength of 290 N/mm2 and
o f 220 N/mm2
'Fe-220' means a steel having yield
ngth
Note: According to Is: 1S/0-1961,
these steels were
designated 'St' followed y a
i g u r ei n d i c a t i n g
the tensile strength in kgf/m by the symbol

13.8 STEELELS DESIGNATED ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL cOMPOSITION

According to Old Indian Standard (IS : 1570-1961) the carbon steels were designated by the
Cfollowed
lphabet 'C by numerals which indicate the average percentage of carbon in it. FOr
C-40 means a plain carbon steel containing 0.35% to 0.45% carbon (0.40% average).
example,

Now, a c c o r d i n
ing to New Indian Standard [IS 1570 (Part-I)-1970, the carbon steels, are
designated
in the following order:
dicating
1. Figure indic: 100 times the average percentage of carbon content.
Letter C, and
2.
arter
Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content. The figure
multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
0.15% to
For example, 20 C 8 (old designation (C-20) means a carbon steel containing
rounded off to 0.8% on
0.25% (0.20% on an average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90% (0.75%
an average manganese.

13.9 PLAIN CARBON STEELS

due to
article that steels which have its properties mainly
We have already discussed in last called plain
contain more than 0.5% silicon and 1.5% manganese
are

its carbon content and do not materials. They can be

ductile and used in expensive
carbon steels. These steels are strong, tough, Unfortunately, plain carbon
machined and heat treated to a wide range of properties.
cast, worked, can be protected easily by
painting.
corrosion resistance. But it
steel has poor atmospheric
enamelling or galvanizing. content. The
the presence of carbon
carbon steels depend upon increase due
The properties of plain content. These properties
with an increase in carbon decreases with an
araness and strength increases
cementite. The ductility and toughness
brittle of plains
tne presence of hard and 13.1 shows s o m e of the
important applications
Table
in the carbon content.
dse
steels.
carbon steels
Applications of
plain
Table 13.1 Uses
Types of steels rivets, ship hulls,
Chain links, nails,
mild steels car bodies,
bridges, cams, light duty
Low-carbon steels or

(<0-2S Mo C) gears etc.

rods, gears, wheels

Axles, connecting
(o-2S<c<o.4) and rails etc.
2 Medium carbon steels for trains
razor blades scissors,
Clutch plates,
punches, dies etc.
knives, files,
3.
High carbon steels (o-6 <CKA4)
STEEL
ON sulphur, the manganese and
3.10 EFFECTSOF IMPURITIES

impurities
like silicon,
effects of
The lowing are
tant eftc
important

POsph
 258
Materials Science
1. Silicon. The amount of silicon in the finished steel
usually ranges from 0.05% to 0,309
Silicon is added in low carbon steels to
prevent them from becoming porous. It remove
the gases and oxides, blow holes and thereby makes the steel tougher and harden
prevent
2. Sulphur. It occurs in steel either as iron
because of its melting point
sulphide or manganese sulphide. Iron sulphide
produces red shortness, whereas manganese sulphide doee
not effect so much. Therefore
manganese sulphide is less objectionable in steel than irqn
sulphide.
3. Manganese. It serves as a valuable deoxidising and purifying agent in steel.
also combines with Manganese
sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effects of this element in
the steel. When decreases the
harmful effects of this element in the steel. When
ordinary low carbon steels, manganese makes the metal ductile and of used in
good
qualities. In high speed steels, it is used to toughen the metal and to increase bendino
its critical
temperature.
4. Phosphorus. It makes the steel brittle. It alsc produces cold shortness in
carbon steels, it raises the steel. In low
yield point and improves the resistance to
corrosion. The sum of carbon and atmospheric
phosphorus, usually, does not exceed 0.25%.
13.11 ALLOY STEEL
We have
already discussed in the previous articles about plain carbon steels.
contain carbon These steels
together with small amounts of manganese and silicon. A steel in which
other than carbon are added in elements
sufficient quantity, in order to obtain
as
alloy steel. The alloying of steel is special properties, known
is
Tesistance to abrasion and wear and togenerally
done to increase its
strength, hardness, toughness,
alloying elements improve electrical and magnetic properties.
The various
are nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, cobalt, vanadium, manganese, silicon and
tungsten. The effects of these alloying elements are discussed below:
1. Nickel. It is one of the
most important
nickel and 0.1% to 0.5% carbon. In alloying elements. Steel sheets contain 2% to 5%
this range, nickel
elastic limit, imparts
hardness, toughness and reduces rust improves tensile strength, raises
for boiler plates automobile formation. It is largely used
engine
When nickel is added to steel in parts, large forgings, crankshafts, connecting rods etc.
appreciable
strength steels with improved shock and proportions (about 25%) it results in higher
corrosion and heat. It is used in the fatigue resistance. It makes the steel resistant to
pump barrels, sparking plugs for petrolmanufacture of boiler tubes, valves for
gas engines,
engines,
alloy containing about 36% nickel and 0.5%% liners and pump parts etc. A nickel steel
forged, turned and drawn. It has nearly zero carbon is known as invar. It can be rolled,
for making coefficient of expansion. So it is widely used
2.
pendulums of clocks, precision measuring instruments etc.
Chromium. Addition of chromium to steel
resistance. A chrome steel containing 0.5 toincreases its strength,
2% chromium is hardness and corOSio
races for bearings, dies, rolls for used for balls, rollers and
A steel
rolling mills, permanent magnets, etc.
containing 3.25% nickel, 1.5% chromium and 0.25% carbon is
chrome steel. The combination of known as nicKC
chromium produces a steel of toughening effect of nickel and the
high tensile strength with hardening effect o
extensively used for motor car crank
shafts, axles and gears great resistance to shock. It
i
hardness. requiring great strength a
3. Vanadium. It is added in low and medium
and carbon steels in order to
tensile strength properties. A very useful increase ther yi
imparts to the harden ability of effect of vanadium is the
0.25% while for tool steels steel. constructional steels, it is addedimprovemen
In
and other to an exten
special steels, increased
percentage vanadiun is
Ferrous
and Non-Ferrous Alloys

bination with 259

5% chromium, 0.15% chromium
to 0.3% (i.e.
chrome-vanadium
rked effect on the properties of vanadium and 0.1
.13% to 1.1% carbon), it
.5%
hese steels are largely used steel and makes the steel ktremely tough produ
hafts. locomotives and for
making spring extremely and strong.
Tut esten. The wagon axles, steels, high
chassis and speed tools,
crank steels
addition of other parts of
*Sed for increasing tungsten raises the automobiles.
strength of critical temperature
hardness and
abrasi1on alloyed steels at high of steel and
hence is
resistance properties to steel. When
Ao. it gives the steel good temperatures. It imparts
in magnetic
electrical instruments added to the extent orCu5o to
properties. Thus it is commonly
etc,
used for magnei,
The tungsten is, usualy, used in
tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% conjunction with other elements. Steel
steel. Since the tool made with
vanadium and 0.7% carbon containing 18%
this is called tool steel or
even at elevated
temperatures,
steel
therefore
the ability to maintain its sharp high speed
Such as cutters, drills, dies, it is used for
making
çutting edge
broaches, reamers etc.
high speed cutting tools
5. Manganese. It isadded to steel in
order to reduce the
combining with sulphur. It
is, usually, added in formation of iron sulphide by
manganese. It makes the steel hard, the form of
containing over 1.5% manganese withtough and wear
resisting.
ferro-manganese or silico-
The mangnese alloy steels,
a carbon
for gears, axles, shafts, and of
other parts where range 0.40% to 0.55% are widely used
is required. high strength combined with fair
A steel
ductility
containing manganese varying from 10% to
form an alloy steel, which 14% and carbon from 1% to
is 1.3%
abrasion. It is largely used for extensively hard and tough and has a high resistance to
6. Silicon. It mining, rock crushing and railways
increases the strength and hardness of steel without
equipment.
Silicon steels lowering its ductility.
containing from 1% to 2% silicon and 0.1% to 0.4%%
magnetic permeability and high electrical resistance. It carbon have good
can withstand
even at elevated
temperatures. These steels are principally used for impact and fatigue
transformers in the form of laminated cores. generator and
1. Cobalt.
It is added to
high speed steel from 1% to 12%, to give
ofhard carbides at high temperatures. It ends to decarburise red hardness by retention
It increases steel during heat treatment.
hardness and strength. But too much of cobalt it decreases
of steel. It
also increases residual mangnetism and coereive impact resistance
magnets. magnetic force in steel for
.
Molybdenum. A small quantity (0.15% 0.30%) of molybdenum is generally used with
to
Chromium and manganese (0.5% to0.8%) to make molybdenum steel. These
posSess extra steels
tensile strength and are used for aeroplane and automobile
eplace tungsten in high parts. It can
speed steels.
13.12 TOOL
AND DIE STEELS
These the
Omineare
ng and blan steels used in making tools
and dies which are required for
cutting, shaping,
wear resist lanking of materials. These steels should have high hardness, greater abrasion or
OeTiciennCe,
cient greater toughness, high impact strength, high thermal conductivity, low
« nction
I etc. The tool and dies steels are of the following types:
1. Plain cart
carbon steels. These steels contain carbon from 0.0% to 1.4% and are hardened
either
by by oil
oil oror water quenching. The important advantage of these steels is that they low
cost 8Ood machinability and high impact resistance, These steels are used for keys,
sle
hammers, stamping dies, spanners, cold heading and cold drawing die
drilgeneral wood working and leather cutting tools etc. twist
 260 Materials Science
2. Low-alloy tool steels. These steels contain alloying elements like vanadium
chromium
tungsten and silicon. The presence of alloying elements refines the structure and increas
the toughness and impact resistance. These steels have a greater ases
ability to retain the
sharpness and serviceability of the cutting edge than plain carbon steels. The low-allow
tool steels are extensively used for
heavy duty pneumatic tools, pavement breakers etc
3. High speed steels. These steels are used for cutting metals at a much
higher speed than
ordinary carbon tool steel. The important high speed steels are 18-4-1 high speed
molybdenum high speed steel and saper high speed steel. For details steel
please refer to An.
13.14
4. High carbon high chromium steels. These steels are much cheaper than high
but have greater speed steels
importance than high speed steels. These are widely used for variouS
types of dies like those used for drawing, coining, blanking, forming and thread
They are also used for reamers gauges, rolls for forming and bending sheet rolling.
metal etc.
13.13 SPECIAL STEEL
Steels manufactured for
special purposes, such as high speed steel, stainless steel, heat
resisting steel, free cutting steel and spring steel, are called special steels. We shall now discuss
these types of steels in the
following pages.
13.14 HIGH SPEED STEEL
These steels are used for
cutting metals, at a much cutting speed than ordinary carbon
tool steel. The carbon steel cutting tools do not retain theirhigher
sharp cutting
speeds. This is due to the fact that at high speeds, sufficientedges
and higher under heavier loads
heat may be developed
during the cutting operation and causes the temperature of the
red hot. This cutting edge of the tool to reach a
temperature would soften the carbon tool steel and thus the tool
efficiently for a longer period. The high speed steels have the valuable will not work
hardness even when heated to red hot. Most of of
property retaining their
the high speed steels contain
alloying element. But other alloying elements like tungsten as the chief
present in some proportions. Following are the different cobalt, chromium, vanadium etc., may be
types of high speed steels.
1. 18-4-1 High
speed steel. This steel contains 18%
vanadium. It is considered to be one of the tungsten, 4% chromium and 1
best of all
used for drills, lathes, purpose tool steels. It is widely
planer and shaper tools, milling cutters, reamers, threading dies,
punches etc.
2. Molybdenum high speed steel. This steel contains 6%
chromium and 2% vanadium. It has an excellent
tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 40
molybdenum high speed steels are better and toughness and cutting ability. 1ne
cheaper than other types of steels. lt
particularly used for drilling and tapping operations.
3. Super high
speed steel. This steel is also called cobalt
added from 2% to 4% in order to high speed steel, because cobat
increase the cutting
temperatures. This steel contains 20% tungsten, 4% efficiency especially at higu
cobalt. Since the cost of this steel is chromium, 2% vanadium and 12
more, therefore it is
cutting operations, which impose high principally used for heavy
pressures and temperatures on the tool.
A3.15 STAINLESS STEEL
It is steel, which when correctly
a

attack from corrosive media. heat-treated and finished, resists

Following are the different types of stainlessoxidation and coTosSi
1. Ferritic stainless steels. These steels:
steeis contain a
20%) and about 0.1% carbon. greater amount of nickel (from 1D** b to

They
resistance to corrosion. These steels have great strength, toughness and extremely good
can be welded, forged, rolled and machined. hey
 and
Non-Ferro Alloys 261
Ferrou
rous

are
used manufacture of vats and pipes in the
in the
sist nitric
acid corrosion. chemical and food plant equipments
Thy are also
toines.,
machines, iin the manufacture used in highly stressed fittings o
of bars, shects, strips, wires etc.
2 ainless steels. These steels
Martenisic stain
0.35%
hon. These steels can be hardened bycontain 11%heat
suitable %chromium and about
to 14%
treatment and have satisfactory
:ion resistance qualities. These can be
welded and machined. Such stecls are us d
corr

for
making steam valves, turbine blades, shafts, scissors, knives, ars. ball bearings,
tlery, surgical and dental instruments and other
springs, cutle where hard edges are
required.
purposes
Austentic stain ainless steels. These steels contain 18% chromium and 8% nickel (commonly
3.
ferred to as 18/8 steel). These
steels have resistance to corrosion and good
greatest
tensile strength. These are very tough and can be welded, forged or rolled. but they offer
oreat difficulty 1n machining.They are used in the manufacture of pump sets. rail road,
car frames, SCrew nuts and bolts etc. They are also used in chemical plants, appliances,
storage and transport tanks for chemical industries, utensils and cutlery.

HEAT RESISTING STEEL

13.16
A steel which can resist the creep and oxidation athigh temperatures and retain sufficient
is called heat resisting steel. A number of heat-resisting steels have been developed.
crength
are discussed
below:
which
The main applications of these
1. Low alloy steels. These steels contain 0.5% molybdenum.
service temperatures are
steels are for superheater tubes and pipes in steam plants, where
in the range of 400° to 500°C.
Si)
steels such as silchrome (0.4% C, 8% Cr. 3.5%
2. Valve steels. The chromium-silicon
0.5% Mo) are used for automobile valves. They
and volmax (0.5% C, 8% Cr, 3.5% Si,
their strength at elevated
resistance to scaling at dull red heat, although
possess good diesel engine valves 13/
is relatively low. For aeroplane engines and marine
temperatures
valve steei is usually used.
13/3, nickel-chromium tungsten
chromium steels consists of
3. Platinum chromium steel. The plain
and
(a)Martensitic chromium steels
with 12% to 13% Cr,
with 18% to 30% Cr.
(b) Ferritic chromium steels temperatures as compared
for oxidation resistance at high
These steels are very good conditions, Maximum operating
is not high at such
whereas for ferritic steels it
to their strength, which is
steels is about 750°C,
martensitic
lemperature for
about 1000°C-1150°C. mechanical properties at high
have good
These steels
chromium-nickel steels. alloys contain a minimum of 18%
4STenitic resistance. These
scaling carbide forming elements such
mperatures with good with titanium. Other
stabilised strength. Such
romium and 8% nickel in order to improve creep
also be added
may bine
turbir discs and blades.
as
nolybdenum or tungsten
and are used for gas
alloys are suitable for use upto 1100°C

13.17 FREE CUTTING STEELS the prime

requirement. They have higher

machining is steels
c o n t e n t of such steel vary from
Thes steels are
are used where rapid the carbon
sulphur cor
% to o
than other carbon
steels. In general,
machinability of this
steel improves withthe increase
s a c r i t i c e of some of its
cold
0.3%. The
uphur0
and sulphur upto
limits. But
it is always
at
the 5% to 0.2% instead of
phur content
ent within reasonable
reasonable
davs nm used from 0.05%
lead is used
ncontent Now-a-days
of steel without the loss of
King, welding and forging of
machinability
sulphur qualities. machinability
the
improves

ughness. ause lead also greatly

gre
 262 Materials Scien
13.18 PRING STEELS
The most suitable materials for springs are those which can store the maximum
amount ar
work or energy in a given weight or volume of spring material, without permanent
deformatioon.
These steels should have a high elastic limit as well as high deflection value. For
automobile purposes, the spring steel should possess maximunm strength against
aircraft and
and shocks. The steels most commonly used for making springs are as Follows:
fatigue effeetss
1. High carbon steels. These steels contain 0.6% to 1.1% carbon, 0.2% to 0.5% silicon and
0.6% to 1% manganese. These steels are heated to 780°C-850°C
according to the
composition and quenched in oil or water. It is then tempered at 200°C-500°C to suit tho
particular application. These steels are used for laminated springs for locomotives
carriages, wagons for heavy road vehicles. The higher carbon content oil hardening steel
are used for volute,
spiral and conical springs and for certain types of petrol engine inlet
valve springs.
2. Chrome-vanadium steels. These are high quality spring steels and contains
0.45% to
0.55% carbon, 0.9% to 1.2% chromium, 0.15% to 0.20% vanadium, 0.3% to 0.5%
and
silicon
0.5% to0.8% manganese. These steels have high elastic limit, resistance to
and impact stresses. Moreover, it can be machined without fatigue
difficulty and given a smooth
surface free from tool marks. It is hardened
by oil quenching at 850°C-870°C and
tempered for vehicle and other spring purposes at 470°C-510°C. It is used for motor car
laminated and coil springs for suspension purposes, automobile and aireraft
engine valve
springs.
3. Silicon manganese steel. These steels contain 1.8% to 2% silicon, 0.5% to 0.6%
carbon
and 0.8% to 1% manganese. These steels have
high fatigue strength, resistance and
toughness. It is hardened by quenching in oil at 850°C-900°C and then tempered at
475°C-525°C. It is the usual standard quality modern spring material and is much uscd
for many engineering purposes.
13.19 NON-FERROUS METALS
We have already discussed that the non-ferrous metals are those which contain metal other
than iron as their chief constituent. The non-ferrous metals are usually employed in industry due
to the following characteristics:
1. Ease of fabrication (casting, rolling, forging, welding and machining).
2. Resistance to corrosion,
3. Electrical and thermal conductivity, and
4. Weight.
The various non-ferrous metals used in engineering practice are aluminium, copper, lead, tin
zinc, nickel etc. and their alloys. We shall now discuss these non-ferrous metals and their aloys
in detail, in the following pages.

13.20 ALUMINIUM
It is a white metal produced by electrical process from the oxide (alumina), which is
prepared from a clayey mineral called bauxite. It is a light weight metal having specific graviy
2.7 and melting point 660°C.
In its pure state, the metal would be weak and soft for most purposes. But when mixed with
small amounts of other alloys,
it becomes hard and rigid. So, it may be blanked, formed,
is
drawn
and die cast. lts good electrical conductivity is an important property
turned, cast, forged
videly used for overhead cables. The high resistance to corosion and its non toxicity makes it a
and
useful metal for cooking utensils under ordinary conditions. It is extensively used in aircraft and
automobile components where saving of weight is an
advantage.
 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Alloys 263

13.21 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

The aluminium may be alloyed with one or more other elements like copper, magnesium,
converts the
manganese. silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements
soft and weak metal into hard and strong metal, while
still retaining its light weight. The main
aluminium alloys are:
1. Duralumin 2. Y-alloy
3. Mangalium 4. Hindalium
These alloys are discussed as below:
is
1. Duralumin. It is an important and interesting wrought alloy. Its composition as

follows
0.4% to 0.7%
Copper = 3% to 4.5%; Manganese =

0.4% to 0.7% and rest is aluminium.

Magnesium =

after heat treatment and age hardening. After

The alloy possesses maximum strength
if the metal is allowed to age for 3 or 4 days, it will be hardened. This
working.
phenomenon is known as age hardening.
conditions for forging, stamping, bars,
sheets, tubes and rivets.
It is widely used in wrought and
conditions at a temperature of
500°C. However, after forging
It can be worked in hot be
and light weight, this alloy may
it can also be cold worked. Due to its high strength
annealing,
used in automobile and aircraft components.
The addition of copper to pure
also called copper-aluminium alloy.
2. Y-alloy. It is of this alloy is as
creases its strength
and machinability. The composition
aluminium

follows: 1.7%
4.5%; Manganese =1.2%
to
Copper = 3.5% to
Iron = 0.6% each and
Nickel = 1.8% to 2.3%, Silicon, Magnesium,
the rest is aluminium.
carried
duralumin. The ageing process is
hardened like
treated and age
This alloy is heat
for about five days. like
out at r o o m temperature used for forged components
purposes.
But it c a n also be
It is mainly used for casting
temperatures,
duralumin) at high
has better strength (than
duralumin. Since Y-alloy, for cylinder
heads and pistons.
used in aircraft engines, in a
therefore it is mainly to 10% magnesium
aluminium with 2%
the
is made by melting of 100 to 200 atmospheres.
3. Magnalium. It v a c u u m or
under a pressure mechanical
then cooling it in and good
a
v a c u u m and
Due to its light weight
about 1.75% copper. automohile components.
It also contains
used for aircraft and with a small quantity
of
properties, it is mainly and magnesium
aluminium Aluminium
Hindalium. It is an alloy of alloy produced by
Hindustan
4. of aluminium mainly
chromium. It is the trade
name
as a rolled
product in 16 gauge,
Renukoot (U.P).
It is produced
Corporation Ltd.,
manufacture.

for anodized utensil

malleable and
industry. It is a soft,
13.22 COPPER in
metals point is
is 8.9 and melting
non-ferrous

of the most widely used Its specific gravity and

It is one electrical cables
reddish-brown
appearance.
used in making coins and
with a It is largely in making
ductile material electricity.
c o n d u c t o r of electroplating
083°C. It is a good in electrotyping,
and appliances
electrical machinery
Wires for
household utensils.
 264
Materials Scienc
It may
be casted, forged, rolled and drawn into wires. It is non-corrosive under
ordinam.
conditions and resists weather very effectively. Copper in the form of tubes is
widely used i
mechanical engineering. It is also used for making ammunitions. It is used for making
alloys with tin, zinc, nickel and aluminium.
usefut

13.23 COPPER ALLoYS

The copper alloys are broadly classified into the following two groups:
1. Copper-zinc alloys (Brasses), in which zinc is the principal alloying metal, and
2. Copper-tin alloys (Bronzes), in which tin is the principal alloying metal.

13.24 BRASS
The most widely used copper zinc alloy is brass. There are various types of
depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc. This is fundamentally a binary alloy ofbrasses,
copper
with zinc each 50%. By adding small quantities of other elements, the
properties of brass may be
greatly changed. For example, the addition of lead (1% to 2%) improves the machining quality of
brass. It has a greater
strength than that of copper, but has a lower thermal and electrical
conductivity. Brasses very resistant to atmospheric corrosion and can be easily fabricated by
are

processes like spinning and Y-chromium. The Table 13.2 shows the composition of various
of brasses according to Indian Standards. types

Table 13.2
I.S.I. designation Composition in percentages Uses
Cartridge brass Copper 70 It is a cold working brass used
Zinc 30 for cold rolled sheets, wire
drawing, deep drawing pressing
and tube manufacture.
Yellow brass Copper 60 It is suitable for hot working
(Muntz metal) Zinc = 40
by rolling, extrusion and stamping.
Leaded brass Copper 62.5
Zinc 36
Lead 1.5 These used for
are plates,
tubes etc.
Admiralty brass Copper 70
Zinc = 29
Tin
Naval brass Copper 59 It is used for marine castings.
Zinc =:40
Tin 1
Nickel brass Copper = 60.45 It is used for valves, plumbing
(German silver) Zinc = 35.20 fittings, automobile fittings,
Nickel = 5.35 type writer parts and musical
instruments.
13.25 BRONZE
The alloys of copper and tin are, usually, temed as bronzes. The useful range of
compositton is 75 to 95% copper and 5to 25% tin. The metal is comparatively hard, rest
surface wear and can be shaped or rolled into wires, rods and sheets very easily.Incorosion
 265
Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Alloys
bronzes are as
of
erties, bronzes
esistant properties, are superior to brasses. Some of the common types

Phosphorus, it is called phosphor bronze

follows:

Phosphor bronze. When bronze contains

1.
Phosphorus increases the strength, ductility and soundness of castings. 1ne a
and high elasticity. The metal is resistant salt waer to
possesses good wearing qualities whether it is to be forged
to
corrosion. The composition of the metal varies according the following
of phosphor bronze has
wrought or made into castings. A common type
composition according to Indian Standards:
Copper = 87% to 90%
Tin = 9% to 10%

Phosphorus = 0.1% to 0.3%

parts,
worm wheels, gears, nuts
for machine lead screws, pump
It is used for bearings,
for making springs.
other purposes. It is also suitable
linings and for many silicon and 1% manganese
or zinc. It
has
It contains 96% copper, 3%
2. Silicon bronze. It can be
combined with higher strength.
resistance of copper all
good general
corrosion
cold and it can be welded by
and pressed either hot or
casted, rolled, stamped, forged
the usual methods. corrosion
where high strength
and good
stoves or
tanks,
It iswidely used for boilers,
resistance is required. and 2.25%
about 97.75% copper
is a alloy containing
copper base cold and hot corrosion
3. Beryllium bronze. It fatigue limit and excellent
point, high electrical
beryllium. It has high yield suitable material
for springs, heavy duty
by copper is
five times
resistance. It is particularly resistance of beryllium
bushes. Since the
w e a r
metal in place of phosphor
switches, c a m s and be used as a bearing
therefore it may suitable
which makes it more
that of phosphor bronze, soft lubricating property,
bronze. It has a film
forming and
as bearing metal. of manganese. The
zinc and little percentage
It is an alloy of copper,
4. Manganese bronze. is as follows
usual composition of this bronze
Copper 60%

Zinc = 35%

Manganese = 5%6 bronze.

harder and stronger than phosphor
corrosion. It is etc.Worm gears are
resistant to rods
is highly pumps,
bushes, plungers, feed
This metal
used for
It is generally bronze. aluminium bronze with
made from this and
a l u m i n i u m . The

Trequently copper suitable for

an alloy of
a r e most
It is properties. Thy
A l u m i n i u m bronze. working added to these
valuable cold When iron is
a l u m i n i u m has
conditions.
corrosion
6 to 8% size and improving
exposed to s e v e r e
ref+ning the grain
by
improved
making c o m p o n e n t s properties
are
mechanical
Dronzes, the propellers condenser
bolts.
the ductility. widely
used for making
gears,
etc. Cams and rollers are
bronzes
are valves and bushes,
The aluminium side which is used
tubes, air
pumps, has a fine gold colour,
components, a l u m i n i u m alloy
pump A 6%
this alloy. d e c o r a t i v e p u r p o s e s .
also made from
and
Tor imitation jewellery
7ino
10% tin and 2% c.
copper,
13.26 GUN METAL It usually
contain 88%
to clean the
metal and to
mo
tin and zinc. The zinc is added
It is an alloy of copper, metal.
admirality gun
This is also known as
tal
increase its fluidity.
266
Materials Science
It is not suitable for working in the cold state. But it
may be forged when at about 600°C Th
metal is very strong and resistant to corrosion by water and
atmosphere. Originally, it was mad
for casting guns. It is extensively used for casting boiler fittings, bushes, bearings, glands etc,
13.27 LEAD
It is a bluish grey metal
having specific gravity 11.36 and melting point 326°C, It is soft
can be cut even with a knife. It has no and
tenacity. It is
lining for acid tanks, cisterns, water pipes and as
extensively used for making solders, as
coating for electrical cables. a

13.28 LEAD BASE ALLOYS

The lead basc alloys are
employed where a cheap and corTOSion resistant
material is
required. An alloy containing 83% lead, 15% antimony, 1.5% tin and 0.5% copper is used
large bearing subjected to light service. for

13.29 TIN
It is a brightly shining white metal. It is
soft, malleable and ductile. It can be rolled into very
thin sheets. It is used for
making important alloys, fine solder, as a protective coating for iron
steel sheets and for making tin foil used as and
moisture proof packing.
13.30 TIN BASE ALLOYS
(BABBIT METAL)
A tin base alloy
containing 88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper is called babbit metal. It
is a soft material with a low coefficient of
friction and has little strength. It is the most common
bearing metal used with cast iron boxes where the bearings are
load. An alloy of 60% tin and 40% lead is a common subjected to high pressure and
solder alloys. But alloys containing 85% tin
and 15% lead are
commonly used solder alloys.
13.31 ZINC
The zinc is bluish white metal which in pure state has
a
Its bright smooth crystals at its fracture.
specific gravity is 7.1. And its melting point is 420°C. It boils at 940°C and can easily be
distilled. It is not very malleable and ductile at
and rolled into thin sheets or drown into wires
ordinary temperatures. But it can be readily worked
by heating it to 100°C-150°C. At about 200°C, it
becomes so brittle that it may be powdered. Its tensile
resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
strength is 19 to 25 MPa. It offers high
It is used for covering steel sheets
to form
galvanised iron due to its high resistance to
atmospheric corrosion. The covering is done by dipping the sheets into the molten metal after
initial fluxing. The galvanised wire, nails etc. are also made
by this process. When rolled into
sheets, zinc is used for roof covering and for providing a damp proof non-corrosive lining to
containers etc. The other important uses of zinc are in the manufacture of brasses and in the
production of zinc base die casting alloys. The oxide of zinc is used in
as pigment paints.
13.32 ZINC BASE ALLOYS
The most of the die
castings are produced from zinc base alloys. These alloys can be casted
easily with a
good finish at fairly low temperatures. They have also considerable and
cost. The usual alloying elements for zinc are aluminium, copper and magnesiumstrength
and they arelow
all
held in close limits. The composition of two standard die casting zinc alloys are as follows :
1. Aluminium 4.1%, copper 0.1%,
magnesium 0.04% and the rest is zinc.
2. Aluminium 4.1%, copper 1%,
magnesium 0.04% and the rest is zinc.
The aluminium improves mechanical
properties and also reduces the tendency of zinc o
dissolve iron. Copper increases the tensile strength, hardness and ductility. Magnesium has tne
 and Non-Ferrous Alloys
Fero 267
effect of making
castings the
eneve
otive industry hioh permanently Thes alloys are widely used in
anently stable. These
and for other
high production
the

gutoators, radios. phonographs, television sets, markets such as washing

business machines etc
13.33 NICKEL

It is silvery white
a metal capable of
taking a high polish, Its specific gravity is 8.85 and
noint 1452°C. It is almost as
hard as soft steel. When it
meltin

contains a smail au of
it 1S quite.malleable. It can be
carbon,
arbon.
satisfactorily rolle with as little as 0.005 per cent of
t is somewhat less ductile than soft steel. But
small amount of magnesium improves
considerably. It resists the attacks of most of the acids. the
But it dissolves readily in nitric
acid.
It is used an alloy1ng metal in some types of steels and cast irons. It is extensively used as a
ating for other metals such as steel, copper, brass etc., for both decorative and corrosion
coatin
protection purposes.

13.34 NICKEL BASE ALLOYS

The nickel base alloys are widely used in engineering and industry on account of their high
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance etc. The most important nickel base alloys are
discussed below:

1. Monel metal. It is an important alloy of nickel and copper. It contains 68% nickel, 29%
copper and 3% other constituents like iron, manganese, silicon and carbon. Its specific
gravity is 8.87 and melting point 1360°C. It resembles with nickel in appearance and is
strong, ductile and tough. It is superior to brass and bronze in corrosion resisting
properties. It is used for making propellers, pump fitings, condenser tubes, steam turbine
blades, sea water exposed parts, tanks and chemical and food handling plants.
2. Iconel. It consists of 80% nickel, 14% chromium and the rest is iron. Its specific gravity
is 8.55 and melting point 1395°c. This alloy has excellent mechanical properties at
ordinary and elevated temperatures. It can be casted, rolled and cold drawn. It is used for
making springs, which have to withstand high temperatures and are exposed to corrosive
action. It is also used for exhaust manifolds of aircraft engines.
3. Nichrome. It consists of 65% nickel, 15% chromium and 20% iron. It has a high heat and
Oxidation resistance. It is used in making electrical resistance wire for electric furnaces
and heating elements.
4. Nimonic. It consists of 80% nickel and 20% chromium. It has high strength and ability
to operate under intermittent heating and cooling conditions. It is widely used in gas
turbine engines.
13.35 MAGNESIUM
It is the
the lightest metal used as an engineering material. The tensile strength of cast metal is

MPa cast aluminium. preferable when reduction of

It is
WeioWhich is the same as that of ordinary
1.74. The tensile strength of rolled and annea
because of its low density of
Magne portant, iron. It is harder than
that of a good quality of grey cast ir
1s 175 MPa which is equal to
alumin machined. It takes high polish
under the buffing wheel.
m. It can be readily
and chromiumim). The metals with
it metals (not with iron
with most
which dily forms alloys cadmium, and copper. It is mployed in the formn
zinc,
of she mostly alloyed are aluminium, chiefly used for degasificatiion
The magnesium
tubes etc.
is now
ribbon
ch as barium nitr
of
Tadio Wires, rods; mixed with an oxidising agent such as
or
Potass . In the powdered form, in the manufacture of flash light powo wder and in
military
Pyroe chlorate, it is employed signals and flares.
rockets,
u e for the production of
268 Materials Science
13.36 CADMIUM
It is a white metal with a bluish tinge, capable of taking a high polish. Its specific gravity
8.65 and melting point 321°C. It is slightly harder than tin but is softer than zinc. It is malleabla
and ductile and can be readily rolled and hammered into foils and drawn into wire. At 80C.
becomes so brittle that can be pulverised under the hammer.
It is chiefly used in antifriction alloys for bearings. It is also used as a rust proof coating for
iron and steel. Generally bolts, nuts and other small parts employed in automobile manufacture
refrigerator trimmings, locks and wire products are plated with it. e
13.37 VANADIUM
It is silvery white in colour. Its specific gravity is 5.68 and melting point 1710°C. It is
harder
than quartz. But it is sufficiently malleable and tough, so that when heated to a
temperatures, it may be rolled and hammered into rods and drawn into wires. The chief use of
suitable
vanadium is in manufacture of alloy steels. Non-ferrous alloys of vanadium are those of copper
and aluminium, from which excellent casting may be made.

13.38 ANTIMONY
It is silvery white, hard, highly crystalline and so brittle that it
may be readily powdered
under the hammer. Its specific gravity is 6.62 and
melting point 630°C. It is mostly used as an
alloying elements with most of the heavy metals. The metals, with which antimony is most
commonly alloyed are lead, tin and copper.
13.39 BEARING METALS
The following are widely used bearing metals:
1. Copper-base alloys;
2. Lead-base alloys,
3. Tin-base alloys and
4. Cadmium-base alloys.
The copper-base alloys are the most important bearing alloys. These alloys are harder and
stronger than the white metals (lead base and tin base alloys) and one used for bearings subjected
to heavy pressures. These include brasses and bronzes which are discussed in Art. 13.23 and
13.24. The lead base and tin base alloys are discussed in Art 13.27 and 13.29. The cadmium base
alloys contain 95% cadmium and 5% silver. It is used for medium loaded bearings subjected to
high temperature.
The selection of a particular type of bearing metal depends upon the conditions under which
it is to be used. It involves factors
relating to bearing pressures, rubbing speeds, temperatures,
lubrication etc. A bearing material should have the following
properties
1. It should have low coefficient of friction.
2. It should have good wearing qualities.
3. It should have ability to withstand bearing pressure:
4. It should have ability of operate satisfactorily with suitable lubrication means at the
maximum rubbing speeds.
5. It should have a sufficient melting
point.
6. It should have high thermal conductivity.
7. It should have good casting qualities.
8. It should have minimum shrinkage after
casting.
9. It should have non-corrosive
properties.
10. It should be economical in cost.