Take-Home Exercise.

Soil Chemistry

1. pH is the balance between what two ions? How are the concentrations of these two ions
related?

Answer: Since pH is measured in water-based solutions, there is always a balance

between H+ (hydrogen ions) and OH– (hydroxide ions). The balance between the H+ and
OH– concentrations in water are related by this expression [H+] means "concentration of
H+". This equation shows that the more hydrogen ions a solution has, the fewer hydroxide
ions it must have. So an acidic solution that has a large amount of H + will have very little
OH. And a basic solution that has very little H + will have more OH–. A solution that is
exactly neutral will have the same amount of H+ and OH–.

2. What are the four different pools of soil acidity?

Answer: The different kinds of pools are Active acidity, exchangeable acidity, and
Residual acidity. Active acidity is the quantity of hydrogen ions that are present in the soil
water solution. The active pool of hydrogen ions is in equilibrium with the exchangeable
hydrogen ions that are held on the soil’s cation exchange complex. This pool most readily
affects plant growth. Active acidity may be directly determined using a pH meter, such as
an electron probe.

Exchangeable acidity, refers to the amount of acid cations, aluminum and hydrogen,
occupied on the CEC. When the CEC of a soil is high but has a low base saturation, the
soil becomes more resistant to pH changes. As a result, it will require larger additions of
lime to neutralize the acidity. The soil is then buffered against pH change. (See base
saturation discussion.

Residual acidity comprises of all bound aluminum and hydrogen in soil minerals. Out of
all pools, residual acidity is least available.

3. Describe three processes that cause soil acidity and three processes that cause alkalinity.

Answer: The three processes that causes soil acidity are rainfall and leaching,
nitrification, and organic matter decay. Rainfall is most effective in causing soils to
become acidic if a lot of water moves through the soil rapidly. Sandy soils are often the
first to become acidic because water percolates rapidly, and sandy soils contain only a
 small reservoir of bases due to low clay and organic matter contents.  In nitrification, the
use of fertilizers, especially those supplying nitrogen, has often been blamed as a cause of
soil acidity. Acidity is produced when ammonium containing materials are transformed to
nitrate in the soil. The more ammoniacal nitrogen fertilizer is applied, the more acidic the
soil gets. Decaying organic matter produces H+ which is responsible for acidity. The
carbon dioxide produced by decaying organic matter reacts with water in the soil to form
a weak acid called carbonic acid. This is the same acid that develops when CO2 in the
atmosphere reacts with rain to form acid rain naturally.
The processes that causes soil alkalinity are the presence of soil minerals
producing sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate upon weathering. Another source of
man-made sodium salts addition to the agriculture fields / land mass is in the vicinity of
the wet cooling towers using sea water to dissipate waste heat generated in various
industries located near the sea coast. And also The application of softened
water in irrigation (surface or ground water) containing relatively high proportion
of sodium bicarbonates and less calcium and magnesium.

4. What is the difference between acid saturation and base saturation?

Answer: Base saturation indicates the balance between acid and base cations adsorbed
by the cation exchange complex (CEC) of a soil. The term is a partial misnomer
because a base is a chemical compound that can react with an acid to form a salt. While
acid saturation is a measure of the soil’s ability to retain and supply nutrients, specifically
the positively charged nutrients called cations. These include calcium (Ca ++), magnesium
(Mg++), potassium (K+), ammonium (NH4+), and many of the micronutrients. 

5. How does rainfall affect soil pH?

Answer: Rainwater, in its pure state, is naturally mildly acid (specifically carbonic acid)
because of carbon dioxide dissolving in rainwater. As carbon dioxide levels rise, rain will
gradually become slightly more acid. As this rain falls on soil, the acid hydronium ions
will tend to force basic ions like calcium, magnesium, and potassium off of their cation
exchange sites on clay an organic matter and into the soil solution, where they may leach
away.
 6. What does soil buffering refer to?

Answer: Soil buffering is the ability of the soil to stop nutrient of pH changes by
absorption. For soils, it is the capability of absorbing nutrients and also releasing them
(cation exchange capacity.

7. How does acid rain influence soil pH?

Answer: Sulfuric and nitric acid solutions cause rainwater to become overly acidic. Acid
rain deceases the pH of the soil, causing its acidity to increase, which decrease the level
of important nutrient found in the soil. This process can negatively affect then nutrition
and overall growth of crops.

8. How do salt-affected soils develop? Where are you most likely to find salt-affected soils?

Answer: Soils containing high concentrations of soluble salts will interfere with normal
growth and development of salt-sensitive crops. Such soils are called saline soils. Plants
grown in these soils often appear drought stressed even when adequate water is available
because the osmotic potential of the soil prevents the roots from taking in water. These
areas often remain wetter compared to the rest of the field, and they usually have a white
surface crust when dry. Fully 20 % of all irrigated areas is estimated to be salt-
affected, mostly in intensively cultivated areas of India, Pakistan, China, Iraq and Iran.

9. Describe the four different ways to measure and report soil salinity/sodicity.

Answer: Soil Salinity can be measured in a number of ways. Simple field tests using a hand-
held salinity meter are quick and easy and are useful for conducting preliminary investigations,
point sampling of selected areas and ongoing monitoring activities. Electromagnetic mapping
(EM) using instruments such as an EM38 and EM31 can be used to characterize and map spatial
variability of soil and apparent salinity over larger areas. This is a valuable tool for land use
planning and provides a rapid assessment of differences across a paddock. It allows areas of low
and high electrical conductivity and related attributes to be identified. More precise soil and
water laboratory tests can be performed and should be used to confirm preliminary field testing
where a possible salinity problem is suspected.
Salinity measurements are often reported with subscript abbreviations to indicate the origin of
the sample tested and the method used to determine the salinity measurement. The method used
will influence the accuracy of the results and confidence in interpretation. 
10. Describe the three different classes of salt-affected soils.

Answer: The three different classes of salt-affected soils are Saline Soil, Sodic Soils and
Saline-Sodic Soil. Saline soil is soil that contains sufficient soluble salts to impair its
productivity. These salts are mainly of chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium and
magnesium. In arid climatic regions, saline soils may have excessive amount of boron,
fluoride as well as nitrates. Sometimes appreciable amount of sparingly soluble gypsum is
also observed in some patches. Sodic soils are non-saline soil containing sufficient
exchangeable sodium (Na) to adversely affect crop production and soil structure under most
conditions of soil and plant type. Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium are the dominant
salts and the concentration of neutral salts is very low. Sparingly soluble gypsum is nearly
absent in such soils. Saline-Sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the
saturation extract greater than 4 dSm-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) greater
than 15. The pH is variable and usually above 8.5 depending on the relative amounts of
exchangeable sodium and soluble salts. These soils form as a result of the combined
processes of salinisation and alkalisation. If the excess soluble salts of these soils are leached
downward, the properties of these soils may change markedly and become similar to those of
sodic soil.
 Take-Home Exercise: Soil Organic Matter

1. List five reasons soil organic matter is important.

Answer: First, Organic matter includes any plant or animal material that returns to the soil
and goes through the decomposition process. In addition to providing nutrients and habitat
to organisms living in the soil, organic matter also binds soil particles into aggregates and
improves the water holding capacity of soil. Second, soil organic matter - the product of
on-site biological decomposition - affects the chemical and physical properties of the soil
and its overall health. Third, nutrient exchanges between organic matter, water and soil are
essential to soil fertility and need to be maintained for sustainable production purposes.
Fourth, healthy soil is teeming with microscopic and larger organisms that perform many
vital functions including converting dead and decaying matter as well as minerals to plant
nutrients. Different soil organisms feed on different organic substrates. Their biological
activity depends on the organic matter supply. And lastly, soil organic matter content is a
function of organic matter inputs and litter decomposition. It is related to moisture,
temperature and aeration, physical and chemical properties of the soils as well as
bioturbation, and leaching by water and humus stabilization.

2. Explain the role of soil in the global carbon cycle.

Answer: The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere helps plants to grow. When these plants
grow, they create new leaves, roots, and shoots. At the end of the season, leaves fall to the
ground, and turn into different types of soil organic matter. This dead organic matter creates
food for microbes, which respire and create carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. When
plants or the soil are burned, this also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In the soil,
there are two major types of soil carbon. Biomass, which is the living bacteria and fungi, and
non-biomass carbon, which is the cellulose, starch, and lignin in dead plants. Some of these
bind soil particles together into soil structure. 

3. Which soil order contains the greatest amount of carbon? What two factors account for the
fact that the soil order contains the greatest amount of carbon?
 Answer: The soil order contains the greatest amount of carbon is the Gelisols. Gelisols

are soils of very cold climates that contain permafrost within 2 meters of the

surface. These soils are limited geographically to the high-latitude polar

regions and localized areas at high mountain elevations. Gelisols may occur on

very old land surfaces, they show relatively little morphological development.

Low soil temperatures cause soil-forming processes such as decomposition of

organic materials to proceed very slowly. As a result, most Gelisols store large

quantities of organic carbon.

4. How does organic matter influence soil physical properties?

Answer: As soil organic matter increases with conservation tillage systems, soil physical
properties change for the better in many ways. Soil structure is formed from the interaction
of mineral particles and organic matter. Soil organisms generate organic compounds, such
as polysaccharides, that act as glues holding soil particles together to form water-stable
micro-aggregates. Soil organic matter impacts soil-water characteristics including the
infiltration, distribution and retention of water in soil. For water to infiltrate into soil, pores
or channels have to be open at the soil surface. These are often referred to as macropores,
meaning large pores. As soil organic matter increases, more water-stable aggregates are
formed, which increases the number of macropores and improves water infiltration. Soil
organic matter also helps keep fertilizers, pesticides and other agro-chemicals from leaving
the field through erosion. Soil conditions, including moisture, organic matter and the

presence of living roots from crops or cover crops, affect a soil’s resistance to compaction. 

5. How does organic matter influence soil chemical properties?

Answer: Soil organic matter influence soil chemical properties in the cation exchange
capacity and the capacity for buffering changes in soil pH. It also influences the effects of
chemical amendments, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.

6. Explain the difference between the active and passive pools of soil organic matter.

Answer: Active soil organic matter is primarily made up of fresh plant and animal
residues that break down in a very short time, from a few weeks to a few years. This kind
 of organic matter is associated with a lot of biological activity. While Passive soil organic
matter, also known as humus, is not biologically active, meaning it provides very little
food for soil organisms. It may take hundreds or even thousands of years to fully
decompose.

7. List five factors that promote gains in soil organic matter content and five factors that
promote losses in soil organic matter content.

Answer: The five factors that promote gains in soil organic matter content are the
Temperature, Soil moisture and water saturation, soil texture, topography, and vegetation
and biomass production. While the five factors that promote losses in soil organic matter
content are the climate, soil hydrology, texture, land use (tillage), and vegetation.

8. How does climate influence soil organic matter content?

Answer:. Climate has a significant influence on the properties of soil. Soils in warmer or
wetter climates are more developed than soils in cooler or drier climates. How developed a
soil is can be determined from looking at the profile. A profile can be found by digging
into the ground and looking at the different layers of soil, also known as horizons. Soils
that are more developed have more horizons and deeper horizons than soils that are less
developed. Wet conditions favor leaching, or moving deeper with water, of clay and other
minerals so that E and B horizons develop. Warm conditions promote the chemical and
biological reactions that develop parent material into soil.

9. Which generally has a higher soil organic matter content, grassland or forests? Why?

Answer: Grassland has a higher soil organic matter content that supplies plant nutrients,
increases soil aggregation, limits soil erosion and also increases cation exchange and water
holding capacities. The soil of the temperate grasslands is deep and dark, with fertile upper
layers. It is nutrient-rich from the growth and decay of deep, many-branched grass roots.
The rotted roots hold the soils together and provide a food source for living plants.

10. How does soil organic matter content of agricultural soils compare to soils with
natural vegetation? Why?
Answer: Soil is frequently referred to as the "fertile substrate", not all soils are suitable for
growing crops. Agriculture soil are balanced in contributions from mineral components,
soil organic matter (SOM), air, and water. The balanced contributions of these components
allow for water retention and drainage, oxygen in the root zone, nutrients to facilitate crop
growth; and they provide physical support for plants.