Abou Al-Sood et al.

International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13

http://www.journal-ijeee.com/content/3/1/13

ORIGINAL RESEARCH Open Access

Rapid thermodynamic simulation model for

optimum performance of a four-stroke,
direct-injection, and variable-compression-ratio
diesel engine
Maher M Abou Al-Sood*, Mahmoud Ahmed and Yousef M Abdel-Rahim

Abstract
A thermodynamic simulation model for the performance of a four-stroke, direct-injection diesel engine is
developed. The simulation model includes detailed sub-models for fuel burning rate, combustion products,
thermodynamic properties of working fluid, heat transfer, fluid flow, and both soot and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
formation mechanisms. To validate the model, comparisons between experimental and predicted results for
different engines, operating under different conditions, were conducted. The comparisons show that there is a
good concurrence between measured and predicted values. An optimization analysis is conducted for seeking an
optimum variation of compression ratio to achieve pre-set objective targets such as constant minimum
brake-specific fuel consumption and constant maximum torque. The optimization analysis is performed under the
constraint that the maximum pressure and temperature inside the cylinder do not exceed the maximum allowable
pressure and temperature of the conventional engine (constant compression ratio).The varying compression ratio is
optimized with each of the previous conditions separately. Results indicated that varying the compression ratio to
achieve previous targets leads to saving fuel consumption, higher brake efficiency and power, and reduction in
soot emission from the engine. Also, an increase in NOx is noticed at low speed. This drawback is considerable and
can be overcome by reducing the operation speed range.
Keywords: Thermodynamic, Combustion, Compression ratio, Optimum performance, Diesel engine

Background limited set of experimental data, are preferred due to

Thermodynamic models (zero-dimensional) and turbu-
lent models (multi-dimensional) are the two types of
models that have been used in internal combustion en-
gine simulation modeling. Nowadays, trends in combus-
tion engine simulations are towards the development of
comprehensive multi-dimensional models that accur-
ately describe the performance of engines at a very high
level of details. However, these models need a precise ex-
perimental input and substantial computational power,
which make the process significantly complicated and
time-consuming [1-6]. On the other hand, zero-
dimensional models, which are mainly based on energy
conservation (first law of thermodynamics) with a
* Correspondence: m_aboualsood@hotmail.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut 71516, Egypt
their simplicity, of being less time-consuming, and their
relatively accurate results [7-10].
Requirements to provide environmentally friendly
vehicles (i.e., low fuel consumption with less emission)
have resulted in using the most complicated and intel-
lectual means of internal combustion engine develop-
ment. Nowadays, new ideas, which could not be
discussed two decades ago, are being considered by
automotive manufacturers. In particular, many leading
automotive companies have approached practically the
very complicated design ideas with different aspects of
diesel/petrol engine design. These aspects have been
under extensive theoretical and experimental investiga-
tions. The most important aspect of design is aimed to
vary the engine compression ratio (rc) depending on
load, speed, or both. Several trials have been done in

© 2012 Abou Al-Sood et al.; licensee Spinger. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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that respect with extensive design, experimentation, and
measurements [11-19]. All attempts to change the rc are
achieved by one or more of the following concepts [11]:
(1) moving the cylinder head, (2) variation of combus-
tion chamber volume, (3) variation of piston deck
height, (4) modification of connecting rod geometry
(usually by means of some intermediate member), (5)
moving the crankpin within the crankshaft (effectively
varying the stroke), and (6) moving the crankshaft axis.
Benefits and challenges of variable-compression-ratio
(VCR) spark-ignition engines had been illustrated, exam-
ined, and critically reviewed by Roberts [11]. Also, the
implications for volume manufacture and the strategy
for VCR implementation in order to produce the max-
imum benefit had been discussed.
Ladommatos and Balian [12] studied the effects of an
increased clearance volume on the performance of a
direct-injection diesel engine. This study was conducted
to overcome problems with combustion at standard rc
for high-speed, direct-injection (DI) diesel engine. Modi-
fications were done in the injection system and operat-
ing conditions to improve the power output and fuel
consumption. Sobotowski et al. [13] modified a proto-
type DI diesel engine to incorporate BP Oil's VCR en-
gine concept. Their objective was achieved by altering
the phase relation between two pistons linked to separ-
ate crankshafts and operating in two cylinders arranged
in an opposed engine or interconnected through a trans-
fer port. According to their concept, a novel crankshaft
phasing mechanism was employed to achieve rc vari-
ation with a number of significant advantages over other
VCR engine designs. These advantages include (a) mech-
anical simplicity and compact design, (b) capability to
externally control rc during engine operation, (c) auto-
matic variation of valve timing, and (d) compatibility
with current production technology.
Rychter et al. [14] evaluated the concept of varying rc
to give different expansion and compression ratios by
means of a theoretical simulation of a turbocharged
diesel engine. They varied the ratio of connecting rod
length to crank throw to study the effect of rc on engine
performance at a fixed load. The principal benefits, at
3/4 load and rc of 20, were a reduction in fuel consump-
tion by about 2% and a reduction in ignition delay that
leads to an estimated 6-dB reduction in combustion
noise. Variable-stroke engine mechanism patented by
Freudenstein and Maki [15] was used by Yamin and
Dado [16] as it gives availability to change the stroke
length and the corresponding rc in the range of 6.82 to
10. Their results showed a significant improvement in
the engine's power and reduction in the fuel consump-
tion, in addition to an increase in carbon monoxide and
nitric oxides compared with the actual engine. Finally,
they concluded that the engine performance can be
Page 2 of 13
optimized for a full range of driving conditions, such as
acceleration, speed, and load. Such optimized perform-
ance was obtained by incorporating some means to sup-
press the increase in emission rate to be applicable in
the automotive field due to the strict anti-pollution laws.
The effect of varying compression ratio and other
parameters such as injection timing, engine load, and
fuel on the performance of diesel engine was recently
studied experimentally [17-20]. Raheman and Ghadge
[17] studied the performance of a Ricardo EG engine
using biofuel and its blend with high-speed diesel fuel at
varying compression ratio, injection timing, and engine
load. They concluded that the performance of the engine
reduced with the increase in the percentage of biofuel in
the blend above 20% compared to that of conventional
engine. This reduction in engine performance can be
overcome by increasing the compression ratio and injec-
tion timing. Jindal et al. [18] investigated the effect of
compression ratio and injection pressure on the per-
formance of DI diesel engine running on Jatropha me-
thyl ester. They demonstrated that an increase in
compression ratio associated with an increase in injec-
tion pressure improves the performance of the engine in
terms of brake-specific fuel consumption, brake thermal
efficiency, and emissions (i.e., hydrocarbon, NOx, and
smoke opacity). They concluded that for fuelling the en-
gine with bio-diesel, one should go for higher compres-
sion ratio associated with higher injection pressure.
Muralidharan et al. [19] estimated the performance,
emission, and combustion characteristics of a single-cy-
linder, four-stroke, VCR, multi-fuel engine fuelled with
waste cooking oil methyl ester and its blends with stand-
ard diesel. The performance parameters include brake
thermal efficiency, brake-specific fuel consumption,
brake power, indicated mean effective pressure, mechan-
ical efficiency, and exhaust gas temperature. They com-
pared and analyzed their results with standard diesel,
and a considerable improvement in the performance
parameters as well as exhaust emissions was observed
especially at full load. Gandure and Ketlogetswe [20]
carried out their work to compare the performance of
variable compression engine fuelled with native mar-
ula seed oil and petrodiesel fuels. The results indi-
cated that engine performance when powered with
marula oil as fuel was very close to that when pow-
ered with petrodiesel and at an 80% load, the com-
pression ratio of 16:1 yields optimum performance in
terms of engine torque and brake power for both pet-
rodiesel and marula oil fuels.
The purpose of this study is to develop a simple, rapid,
and accurate simulation model based on thermodynamic
analysis without the need for a great deal of computa-
tional power or knowledge of precise engine geometrical
data to predict the range of compression ratio
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13 Page 3 of 13
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corresponding to the optimum engine performance In the present work, the detailed sub-models are for-
(minimum brake-specific fuel consumption (bsfc) and mulated as follows:
maximum brake torque) without an increase in the max-
imum cylinder pressure and temperature of the conven- Engine geometry
tional engine. The developed model is based on mass The rate of change of the volume with respect to time is
and energy conservation laws, equation of state, heat given as
transfer between the working fluid and cylinder walls,  
rc  1 1 þ cosθ
fuel energy release rate, and engine friction losses. dot; V ¼ Vc sinθ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi dot; θ : ð1Þ
Single-zone combustion is assumed, and thermodynamic 2 λ2  sin2 θ
properties are calculated from chemical equilibrium
principles for six and/or eleven species. A stepwise solu- Combustion product model
tion is carried out for the varying compression ratio and For temperature <1,600 K, the equilibrium composition
the engine speed over its entire range (i.e., 1,500 to of gases produced by the combustion of a general hydro-
2,800 rpm). In calculations, the temperature and pres- carbon fuel with air (having a general fuel-air molecule
sure cannot exceed the maximum allowable temperature in the form CwHxOyNz) is calculated based on the as-
and pressure of the conventional engine, i.e., constant sumption that only gaseous phases are considered. The
compression ratio, which are 2,100 K and 10.7 MPa, general combustion equation of the fuel in air can be
respectively. written as

Methods Cw Hx Oy Nz ! n1 CO2 þ n2 H2 O þ n3 CO þ n4 H2
Mathematical model þ n5 O2 þ n6 N2 : ð2Þ
A thermodynamic analysis of a four-stroke, direct-
For temperature ≥1,600 K, 11 combustion products
injection diesel engine is conducted. It is based on a
are assumed. The chemical reaction can be written as
single-zone combustion modeling with a rapid premixed
burning phase followed by a slower mixing-controlled Cw Hx Oy Nz ! n1 CO2 þ n2 H2 O þ n3 CO þ n4 H2
burning phase. Although a single-zone model is an old þ n5 O2 þ n6 N2 þ n7 OH þ n8 H
one, it was selected in this study for the sake of its sim- þ n9 NO þ n10 N þ n11 O: ð3Þ
plicity and of being less time-consuming for the pro-
gram execution. Works with two- and multi-zone Obtaining the moles of the 11 combustion products,
models are in progress. The analysis includes detailed 11 equations are needed (i.e., four equations from the
sub-models representing different engine aspects inte- mass balance of C, H, O, and N in Equation 3, and seven
grated in the main engine simulation model. These sub- equations from the chemical equilibrium). These equa-
models are engine geometry, combustion products, tions have been solved by the procedure mentioned in
thermodynamic properties, engine friction and heat [21].
transfer, mass exchange, combustion rate, temperature-
pressure, and emission mechanisms. The analysis Thermodynamic properties of cylinder content model
presented in this article is based on the following During each thermal cycle, the cylinder contains, in gen-
assumptions: eral, air, fuel vapor, and combustion products with differ-
ent proportions depending on the engine conditions
1. The content of the cylinder is a homogeneous gas under consideration. The specific heat under constant
mixture of air (79% N2 and 21% O2 by volume), pressure, enthalpy, and entropy of the cylinder content
where fuel vapor, combustion products, and its are given by
thermodynamic properties are calculated using ideal
X
zz X
zz
gas law with temperature-dependent specific heats. cp ¼ Xi C ¼
p ; h i ;
Xi h ð4Þ
i
2. Pressure and temperature inside the cylinder are i¼1 i¼1
uniform and vary with the crank angle.
Xzz
3. The gas motion inside the cylinder (created by where Xi ¼ ni = ni , and zz (number of different gases)
pressure gradients due to piston motion) is i¼1
neglected. is equal to 6 and 11 for T < 1,600 K, and T ≥ 1,600 K,
4. A single-zone combustion process starts with a rapid respectively.
premixed burning phase, followed by a slower
mixing-controlled burning phase. Engine friction model
5. Temperatures of the cylinder head, cylinder walls, Empirical correlations of losses are in terms of compres-
and piston crown are assigned constant values. sion ratio, engine speed, bore, stroke, intake and exhaust
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13 Page 4 of 13
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manifold pressures, and valve geometry [22] are used in used with assumed specified values for piston crown, cy-
this work. These correlations were concluded to the fol- linder head, and cylinder wall temperatures.
lowing friction categories as follows:
1. Piston losses: Mass exchange model
  Air intake and exhaust exchange. The mass flow rates
ðfmepÞp ¼ 6:2nr þ 0:606 rc þ 1:254 rc 1:370:0238Sp
þ 9:3Sp1:03 through the valves are usually described by the equation
ð5Þ for compressible, one-dimensional, isentropic flow. The
real flow effects are included by means of an experimen-
2. Blowby losses:
tally determined discharge coefficient. In the present simu-
ðfmepÞb ¼ 11:86rc0:4  ð3:38 þ 0:103rc Þ þ 6:89½N=1; 0001:185 lation, the discharge coefficient is taken as reported by
 1=3
ð6Þ Campbell [29] and is equal to sin π ðθ  θvo Þ=Δθopen .
The gas flow rate is related to the upstream stagna-
3. Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses: tion pressure, stagnation temperature, and static pres-
ðfmepÞei ¼ Pim þ Pem =2:75 ð7Þ sure just downstream of the flow restriction. For the
flow into the cylinder through intake valve, the up-
4. Crankcase mechanical losses: stream stagnation pressure and temperature are the
intake manifold pressure and temperature (pim, Tim),
 
dN respectively, and the downstream static pressure is
ðfmepÞc ¼ 12:122 the cylinder pressure (p). For the flow out of the cy-
 000L
1;    
4N 1:75
niv Div linder through exhaust valve, the upstream stagnation
þ 0:07 30  pressure and temperature are the cylinder pressure
1; 000 d2 L
 1:5 and temperature (p, T), respectively, and the down-
N
þ 2:688 ð8Þ stream static pressure is the exhaust manifold pres-
1; 000
sure (pem) [29,32]. The mass flow rates entering and
5. Combustion chamber and valve pumping losses: leaving the cylinder are defined as follows [33]:

k1 k

 1:298 For subsonic inflow where ppin < kþ1 2

;
ðfmepÞcc ¼ 8:96ðN=1; 000Þ1:7  2:98 Vd =niv nc D2iv
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!
ð9Þ u  k2  k1
u 2k p p k
dot; min ¼ Ain pim t 1 :
The intake and exhaust manifold gage pressures ðk  1ÞRTim pim pim
(pim, pem) in Equation 7 are taken as reported by
ð12Þ
Eichelberg [23] as pim ¼ 0; pem ¼ 0:062ðN=1; 000Þ2 .
The overall engine frictional power losses are obtained
k1
k
p
For sonic and supersonic inflow where ≥ 2
;
by pin kþ1
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!
u
X u k   2 kþ1
5
t
k1
ðfmepÞoverall ¼ Vd ðN=120Þnc ðfmepÞi : ð10Þ dot; min ¼ Ain pim : ð13Þ
i¼1 RTim kþ1

k1
k
p
Engine heat transfer model For subsonic outflow where pem < 2
kþ1 ;
Eichelberg [23] derived a simple equation for calcula- sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ting the instantaneous heat flux out of the engine   k2  em k1 
2k pem k
dot; qw (in Watts per square meter) in terms of cylinder dot; mex ¼ Aex p 1  pem p Þ :
ðk  1ÞRT p
temperature, pressure, and piston mean velocity. Rako-
poulos and Hountalas [24] modified this equation ð14Þ
into the form
k1
k
pem
For sonic and supersonic outflow where p ≥ 2
kþ1 ;
dot; qw ¼ 1:99ðSpÞ1=3 ðpT Þ1=2 ðT  T wÞ: ð11Þ vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!ffi
u   kþ1
u k 2
dot; mex ¼ Aex pt
k1
: ð15Þ
Radiation heat transfer was neglected in some studies RT kþ1
(e.g., [25-28]), but it had been considered in others (e.g.,
[29-31]). In the present simulation, the Eichelberg model Mass of injected fuel. The mass of fuel injected into
[23] as modified by Rakopoulos and Hountalas [24] is the cylinder mf (relative to total injected mass mft) is
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13 Page 5 of 13
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written (according to Zelenik [34] and Gu and Ball [35]) Equation 18 as follows:
in terms of crank angle (θ) as follows:
     Temperature-pressure relationships
mf 1 π ðθ  θo Þ The changes of pressure and temperature with respect
¼ 1  cos : ð16Þ
mft 2 Δθinjection to time are defined as follows:
 
ρ dot; V dot; T @ρ dot; φ @ρ dot; m
Differentiation of the above equation with respect to dot; P ¼    þ ;
@ρ=@P V ρ @T ρ @φ m
time leads to the following equation:
      ð21Þ
dot; mf π π ðθ  θo Þ
¼ sin dot; θ: (   !)
mft 2Δθinjection Δθinjection dot; T ¼
B∘

dot; V h dot; m C ∘
þ 1 ∘  ∘ dot; φ þ
1 X
dot; mj hj þ dot; Qw ;
A∘ V B m B mB ∘

ð17Þ j

ð22Þ
Combustion rate model @h 

where A∘ ¼ @T þ ðð@ρ=@T Þ 1 @h ∘ 1ρð@h=@P Þ
@ρ=@PÞ ρ  @P ; B ¼ ð@ρ=@P Þ ;
Watson et al. [36] developed equations for fuel energy

release appropriate for diesel engine simulations. In their C ∘ ¼ @φ

development, the combustion process starts from a rapid
premixed burning phase (represented by function f1),
followed by a slower mixing-controlled burning phase
(represented by function f2), with both functions empir-
ically linked to the duration of ignition delay ( ~τ id ) and
the duration of combustion (Δθcomb). According to their
model, the burned mass of fuel at any angle (θ) related
to total injected mass (mft) is
mfb θ^ =mft ¼ βf1 þ ð1  βÞf2 ;
@h
þ ðð@ρ=@P
@ρ=@φÞ 1 @h
Þ ρ  @P :
Soot mechanism
Hiroyasu and Kadota [39] developed a simple soot
model to predict the production rate of soot mass (
dot; ms ) using a single-step competition between the
soot mass formation rate dot; msf and the soot mass oxi-
dation rate dot; mso according to dot; ms ¼ dot; msf 
dot; mso . Morel and Keribar [40] and Wahiduzzaman
ð18Þ et al. [41] suggested models for soot formation and their
oxidation in diesel engines. In their models, the time

k k  rates of soot formation and oxidation, respectively, are

where f1 ¼ 1  1  θ^ , θ^ ¼ θ  θig =Δθcomb , and given by
0:26
β ¼ 1  0:92φ0:37 τ id :  
3; 000
The ignition delay (~τ id ) is calculated in degrees of crank dot; msf ¼ 0:3 mfb exp  dot; θ; ð23Þ
Taf
angle by empirical correlations mentioned by Heywood
[32] and Mehta et al. [37]. These correlations are in terms pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!
0:4ms exp  10;000 pO2
of intake manifold temperature (Tim, in Kelvin) and pres- dot; mso ¼ T
dot; θ; ð24Þ
6ρs ds N
sure (pim, in bars), compression ratio (rc), fuel cetane num-
ber (CN), and mean piston velocity (Sp, in meters per where mfb is the mass of fuel burned, Taf is the adiabatic
second) as follows: flame temperature at an equivalence ratio of 1.1, ds (the
  soot particle diameter) = 0.022 × 10−6 m, ρs (soot density) =
 618; 840
~τ id ¼ 0:36 þ 0:622Sp exp 1,800 kg/m3 [42].
CN þ 25
   0:63 
1 1 21:2 NOx mechanism
   :
RTim rck1 17; 190 Pim rck  12:4 The extended Zeldovich mechanism for NOx formation
ð19Þ rate is formed as follows [29]:
The ignition delay period can be expressed in millise- !
d 1  ½NO2 =K12 ½O2 e ½N2 e
conds according to τ id ¼ ½~τ id =0:006N . Values of the em- ½NO ¼ 2k1f ½Oe ½N2 e  ;
dt 1 þ k1b ½NO= k2f ½O2 e þ k3f ½OH  e
pirical coefficients k1, k2, k3, and k4 are reported by
Heywood [32] and Rossini et al. [38] as follows: k1 ¼ ð25Þ
2 þ 1:25  108 ðτ id =N Þ2:4 , k2 ¼ 5000, k3 ¼ ð14:2=φ0:644 Þ,
and k4 ¼ 0:79k30:25 . The fuel burning rate with respect to where K12 ¼ ðk1f =k1b Þ=ðk2f =k2b Þ . The constants above

the crank angle (θ) can be obtained by differentiating are taken as follows: k1f ¼ 7:6  1013 exp  38;000
T , k2f ¼

dmfb 

k 1 ðk 2 1Þ ðk 1 1Þ ðk 4 1Þ

¼ mft βk 1 k 2 1  θ^ θ^ þ k 3 k 4 ð1  βÞθ^ exp k 3 θ^

k4
dθ
: ð20Þ
Δθcomb
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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6:4  109 T exp  3;150
T ,k3f
¼ 4:1  1013 , k1b ¼ 1:6  1013, Results and discussions
 Simulation results and its validation
and k2b ¼ 1:5  109 T exp  19;500
T .
Solution procedure
The governing equations (Equations 1 to 25) of the com-
prehensive model subjected to the assumptions previ-
ously mentioned in the mathematical model are solved
for different processes of the engine cycle. The fourth-
order Runge-Kutta method is used to simulate the com-
prehensive model equations at the prescribed initial con-
ditions. The engine cycle starts from the moment the
exhaust valve closes. The solution is carried out with
end results of each process taken as the starting condi-
tions for the following process and end values of the
completed thermal cycle taken as the starting values for
the subsequent cycle. The solution is iterated and con-
sidered satisfactory when the end values of the
temperature and pressure of the cycle are within
±0.001% from the starting values of the temperature and
pressure of the same cycle. Inputs to the code are the
engine specifications, operating conditions, and fuel data
listed in Table 1. The numerical output results are the
instantaneous pressure, temperature, volume, heat trans-
fer, work, mass exchange, fuel heat release, and engine
performance variables such as bsfc, indicated mean ef-
fective pressure, brake mean effective pressure, indicated
power, brake power, and volumetric, indicated, brake,
and mechanical efficiencies.
Table 1 Engine specifications and operating conditions
Specifications/operating conditions Inputs/values
Engine type HELWAAN M114
Cylinder bore
Stroke
Number of cylinders
Intake valve open angle
Intake valve close angle
Exhaust valve open angle
Exhaust valve close angle
Start of injection
Number of injector nozzles
Diameter of injector nozzles
Conventional compression ratio
Engine speed range 1,500 to 2,800 rpm
Overall equivalence ratio
Fuel type
Lower latent heat of fuel
BTDC before top dead center, ABDC after bottom dead center, BBDC before
bottom dead center, ATDC after top dead center.
Page 6 of 13
The numerical simulation results are performed for a con-
ventional DI diesel engine with constant compression ratio
(specifications and operating conditions are given in
Table 1). Samples of these results represent the engine
thermodynamic cycle, the temperature and pressure vari-
ation throughout the cycle, the rates of mass entering and
leaving the cylinder, and the in-cylinder NOx and soot his-
tory along the cycle which are displayed in Figures 1, 2,
and 3, respectively.
In order to validate the present developed model,
comparisons between the numerical results and the
available measurements are conducted. Two sets of ex-
perimental data reported by Han and Reitz [3] and
Wahiduzzaman et al. [41] are used to validate the devel-
oped model as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 shows the
comparison between the predicted and measured pres-
sures and heat release versus the crank angle. Based on
this figure, one can observe that there is a good concur-
rence between measured and predicted results for differ-
ent engines under different operating conditions. More
details about the simulation results and validation can
be found in a previous work of the authors [43].
Variation of the compression ratio
The numerical simulation results are used to determine
the range of rc corresponding to the optimum engine
performance for two cases: (1) minimum bsfc and (2)
maximum brake torque. This was computed using
optimization techniques under the restriction of max-
imum allowable pressure and temperature. The numer-
ical results of the optimization process, for engine
Crank Angle (Degree)
112 mm 200 267 334 401 468 535 602
10 2000
115 mm
4
9° BTDC 8 1600
43° ABDC P-V
Temperature
Temperature (K)
Pressure (MPa)
40° BBDC
6 1200
12° ATDC
22° BTDC
4 800
1
0.45 mm
Pressure
16.4 2 400
0.47
0 0
C10.8 H18.7 0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012
Volume (m 3)
42 MJ/kg
Figure 1 Pressure-volume diagram along engine cycle; cylinder
pressure and temperature versus crank angle at 2,100 rpm.
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0.035 0.07 Crank angle for pressure (degree)

Mass in
Mass out 200 275 350 425 500
400 16
0.03 0.06
Predicted HR
Measured HR [3]
0.025 0.05

Mass out (gm/degree)

Predicted Pressure
Mass in (gm/degree)

Measured pressure [41]

Heat release rate (J/degree)

300 12
0.02 0.04

Pressure (MPa)
0.015 0.03
200 8
0.01 0.02

0.005 0.01
100 4

0 0
0 180 360 540 720
Crank angle (degree)

Figure 2 Instantaneous mass flow rates through intake and 0 0

340 360 380 400 420
exhaust valves versus crank angle at 2,100 rpm. Crank angle for heat release (degree)

Figure 4 Predicted and measured pressures and heat release

specifications previously mentioned as shown in Table 1, versus crank angle.
are presented in Figures 5,6,7,8,9, Figures 10,11,12,13,14.
It is worth mentioning that for all figures, the solid lines 238.5 and 261 g/kW.h passing through a minimum value
represent the performance of optimum variable rc, while of 230 g/kW.h at an engine speed of about 1,900 rpm. In
dashed lines represent the performance of conventional addition, for the variable-compression-ratio engine, the
constant rc engine. bsfc is kept constant at its minimum value of 230 g/kW.
h by varying the compression ratio between 16.4 and
Case 1: minimum brake-specific fuel consumption 17.8. The shown variation trend in compression ratio
Figures 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show the results at minimum emphasizes that the variation in compression ratio
bsfc. Figure 5 shows the comparison between the oper- should be considered to decrease the bsfc to its mini-
ation under constant compression ratio (rc = 16.4) mum possible value. Since the increase in compression
and the hypothetical operation under varying compres- ratio is accompanied by an increase in both cylinder
sion ratio to achieve working with minimum bsfc (230 pressure and brake power, consequently, a decrease in
g/kW.h) as possible. The figure shows that the bsfc for bsfc is achieved. The percentage reduction in bsfc ranges
the constant-compression-ratio engine changes between

16 4
Soot
NOx

12 3
Mass out (gm/degree)
Mass in (gm/degree)

8 2

4 1

0 0
340 380 420 460 500
Crank angle (degree)

Figure 3 Soot and NOx inside the cylinder of the engine versus Figure 5 bsfc and compression ratio versus speed for constant-
crank angle at 2,100 rpm. and variable-compression-ratio engines.
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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Figure 6 Maximum pressure and temperature versus speed for
constant- and variable-compression-ratio engines.
between 3.7% at 1,500 rpm and 4.4% at 2,460 rpm pas-
sing through 0% at 1,900 and 2,800 rpm. Changing the
compression ratio for an operating engine is desirable
and could be attained. Its effect on maximum cycle pres-
sure and temperature must be studied as they represent
important parameters in the design of engine's different
parts.
Figure 6 shows the increase in maximum pressure and
temperature when operating under variable compression
ratio compared to the operation under constant com-
pression ratio. Compared to the case of a constant com-
pression ratio, the increase in maximum cycle pressure
is about 0.53 MPa at 1,500 rpm and 0.55 MPa at 2,460
rpm passing through 0 MPa at both 1,900 and 2,800
rpm with variable compression ratio. The noticeable in-
crease in maximum temperature is about 72 K at 1,500
Figure 7 Brake power and torque versus speed for constant-
and variable-compression-ratio engines.
Page 8 of 13
6 90
vol
5 89
Delay Period (degree), RGF (%)
Vol. Efficiency (%)
4 88
Delay Period
RGF
3 87
2 86
1 85
1500 1760 2020 2280 2540 2800
Engine Speed (rpm)
Figure 8 Delay period, RGF, and volumetric efficiency versus
speed for constant- and variable-rc engines for minimum bsfc.
rpm and 40 K at 2,460 rpm passing through 0 K at both
1,900 and 2,800 rpm. These increases still do not exceed
the engine design's maximum pressure and temperature
of the conventional engine. Changes in brake power and
torque with speed for the variable compression ratio at
constant minimum bsfc are shown in Figure 7. It shows
an increase in brake power by about 1.67 kW at 1,500
rpm and 1.6 kW at 2,460 rpm. Moreover, the brake
torque increases by 9 N.m at 1,500 rpm and 8 N.m at
2,460 rpm.
Figure 8 shows that varying the compression ratio
results in a decrease in the delay period, volumetric effi-
ciency, and residual gas fraction (RGF) over the engine
speed range (1,500 to 2,460 rpm). It is seen that this
Figure 9 Soot and NOx emission versus speed for constant- and
variable-rc engines for minimum bsfc.
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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Figure 10 Brake torque and power versus speed for constant-
and variable-compression-ratio engines.
decrease changes between 0.2° of crank angle at 1,500
rpm and 0.2° of crank angle at 2,460 rpm. The decrease
occurs due to the fact that the increase in compression
ratio results in an increase of the air pressure and
temperature at the end of the compression process
which are inversely proportional to ignition delay. The
decrease in the ignition delay is desirable as it causes ig-
nition to occur before greater amounts of fuel is injected
in the cylinder. Consequently, the rates of heat release
and pressure rise are then controlled primarily by the
rate of injection and air-fuel mixing, resulting in a
smoother engine operation. Long ignition delay allows
for more fuel to be injected before auto-ignition occurs,
which results in a very rapid pressure rise as the com-
bustion starts and reaches high-peak pressures. Under
Figure 11 Maximum cylinder pressure and temperature versus
speed for constant- and variable-compression-ratio engines.
Page 9 of 13
Figure 12 bsfc and thermal efficiency versus speed for
constant- and variable-rc engines.
extreme conditions, when auto-ignition of most of the
injected fuel occurs, an audible knocking sound is
noticed, often referred to as a ‘diesel knock.’ Also, if long
ignition delay occurs sufficiently late and reaches the ex-
pansion process, the burning process may be quenched.
This leads to incomplete combustion, reduced power
output, and poor fuel-power conversion efficiency. Also,
the figure shows that the volumetric efficiency and RGF
are reduced by about 4.3% and 0.3%, respectively, at a
speed of 1,500 rpm. These reductions continue to de-
crease until reaching 0% at 1,900 rpm. These reductions,
then, increase again until reaching about 4.3% and 0.1%
at 2,460 rpm. This variation was attributed to the in-
crease in compression ratio. It means that a decrease in
clearance volume leads to a decrease in charging-up the
6 90
vol
5 89
Delay Period (degree), RGF (%)
Vol. Efficiency (%)
4 88
Delay Period
RGF
3 87
2 86
1 85
1500 1760 2020 2280 2540 2800
Engine Speed (rpm)
Figure 13 Delay period, RGF, and volumetric efficiency versus
speed for constant- and variable-rc engines for maximum
torque.
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of fuel (rc = constant) at 1,500 rpm. Beyond 1,900 rpm,

Figure 14 Soot and Nox emission versus speed for constant-
and variable-compression-ratio engines.
cylinder. The general decrease in residual gas fraction is
desirable because it decreases the dilution of the charge
in the cylinder and increases the scavenging efficiency of
the engine. However, these reductions are small and can
be neglected.
The effect of the optimal variation of the compression
ratio corresponding to the minimum bsfc on soot and
NOx emissions is shown in Figure 9. For all reported
speed range, the soot emission from the engine with
variable compression is less than that of the conven-
tional engine. The decrease in soot emission is found to
be about 21% at 1,500 rpm and decreases until it reaches
0% at 1,900 rpm. Then, it increases again to 9% at 2,460
rpm and returns to 0% at 2,800 rpm. On the other hand,
the formed NOx inside the variable-compression-ratio
engine is much higher compared to that inside the
constant-compression-ratio engine. The maximum in-
crease reaches about 11.2 g/kg of fuel instead of 6.4 g/kg
the NOx emission from the engine with variable com-
pression is also greater than that of conventional engine
and is about 0.97 g/kg of fuel at 2,460 rpm. The increase
of NOx is a drawback to the advantages mentioned when
using variable-compression-ratio engines to achieve
minimum bsfc (maximum efficiency). This drawback
can be overcome by reducing the engine speed range
from 1,500 to 2,800 rpm to 1,665 to 2,800 rpm as illu-
strated on the figure.
To conclude based on Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9, varying
the compression ratio, within the entire range of engine
speed of 1,500 to 2,800 rpm, to attain a minimum bsfc
results in significant variations in the predicted perform-
ance variables compared to those predicted at constant
compression ratio (rc = 16.4). These variations can be
summarized as follows: (1) at an engine speed of 2,460
and 2,800 rpm, there is no variation in all investigated
performance variables; (2) for the other values of engine
speed, the maximum pressure, maximum temperature,
brake torque, brake power, and unfavorable NOx are in-
creasing. On the other hand, the delay period, volumet-
ric efficiency, RGF, and soot formation are decreasing.
Table 2 summarizes the predicted results of performance
variables at different values of engine speed.
Case 2: maximum brake torque
The predicted performance variables corresponding to
maximum brake torque compared to those predicted at
a conventional constant compression ratio (rc = 16.4) are
displayed in Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. Figure 10
shows that the brake torque, in the case of a constant
compression ratio, changes between 281 and 252 N.m
passing through a maximum of 295 N.m at about 1,900
rpm. For the variable compression ratio, the brake
torque is kept constant at its maximum value of 295 N.
m over a speed ranging from 1,500 to 2,460 rpm by

Table 2 Results of varying engine rc compared to constant rc (rc = 16.3) to attain the minimum bsfc
Engine performance N = 1,500 rpm N = 1,900 rpm N = 2,460 rpm
variables
Increase (%) Decrease (%) Increase (%) Decrease (%) Increase (%) Decrease (%)
bsfc - 3.7 0 0 - 4.4
Maximum pressure 6 - 0 0 5.5 -
Maximum temperature 4.3 - 0 0 1.9 -
Brake torque 3.3 - 0 0 2.8 -
Brake power 3.8 - 0 0 2.2 -
Delay period - 6.9 0 0 - 4.5
Volumetric efficiency - 0.3 0 0 - 0.1
RGF - 4.3 0 0 - 4.3
Soot - 21 0 0 - 8.5
NOx 75 - 0 0 76 -
bsfc brake-specific fuel consumption, RGF residual gas fraction.
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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Table 3 Results of varying engine rc compared to constant rc (rc = 16.4) to attain maximum brake torque
Engine performance N = 1,500 rpm
variables
Increase (%) Decrease (%)
bsfc - 4.6%
Maximum pressure 10.3
Maximum temperature 3.6
Brake torque 5.4
Thermal efficiency 4.4
Delay period - 15.3
Volumetric efficiency - 0.48
RGF - 6.5
Soot - 9.7
NOx 21.7
bsfc brake-specific fuel consumption, RGF residual gas fraction.
varying the compression ratio between 16.4 and 19.3.
This means that the brake torque increases by 5.4% at
1,500 rpm and 4.6% at 2,460 rpm. The shown variation
trend in compression ratio urges that actual variation in
compression ratio should be considered to increase the
brake torque to its constant maximum value.
Figure 11 shows the increase in pmax and Tmax
when operating under variable compression ratio
compared to the operation under constant compres-
sion ratio. The increase in pmax is about 0.9 MPa at
1,500 rpm and 0.6 MPa at 2,460 rpm passing through
0 MPa both at about 1,900 and 2,800 rpm. The no-
ticeable increase in Tmax is about 60 K at 1,500 rpm
and 40 K at 2,460 rpm passing through 0 K both at
1,900 and 2,800 rpm. These increases in pmax and
Tmax are tolerable, as they are still below the allow-
able pressure and temperature of the conventional
engine. Similar observations for the changes of brake
efficiency and bsfc versus engine speed for operation
under constant and variable compression ratios are
shown in Figure 12. If the compression ratio is con-
stant, the brake thermal efficiency varies between 36%
and 32.9% passing through a maximum value of
37.3% at an engine speed of 1,900 rpm. In case of
varying compression ratio (between 16.4 and 19.3 for
maximum torque), the efficiency changes between
37.6% at 1,500 rpm and 36.5% at 2,460 rpm. In
addition to gains in brake torque and efficiency, the
figure shows a decrease in the bsfc over an engine
speed ranging from 4.6% at 1,500 rpm to 2.7% at
2,460 rpm passing through 0% both at 1,900 and
2,800 rpm.
Figure 13 shows a significant decrease in delay pe-
riod, volumetric efficiency, and RGF over an engine
speed ranging from 1,500 to 2,460 rpm with values
between 15.3% (0.45° of crank angle) at 1,500 rpm
and 6.8% (0.3° of crank angle) at 2,460 rpm. Also, the
Page 11 of 13
N = 1,900 rpm N = 2,460 rpm
Increase (%) Decrease (%) Increase (%) Decrease (%)
0 0 - 2.7%
- 0 0 6% -
- 0 0 2 -
- 0 0 4.6 -
- 0 0 2.8 -
0 0 - 6.8
0 0 - 0.25
0 0 - 5
0 0 - 12
- 0 0 90.7 -
figure shows that the volumetric efficiency is reduced
by about 0.48% at a speed of 1,500 rpm and 0.25% at
2,460 rpm passing through 0% both at 1,900 and
2,800 rpm. Also, this figure shows that variation of
the compression ratio for optimum brake torque
results in a general decrease in RGF by about 6.5% at
1,500 rpm and 5% at 2,460 rpm passing through 0%
both at 1,900 and 2,800 rpm.
The effect of the optimal variation of compression
ratio for maximum brake torque on soot and NOx emis-
sion is shown in Figure 14. The soot emission from the
engine with variable compression ratio is less than that
of the conventional engine by about 9.7% at 1,500 rpm,
0% both at 1,900 and 2,800 rpm, and 12% at 2,460 rpm.
The formed NOx inside the variable-compression-ratio
engine is very high compared to that inside the
constant-compression-ratio engine by about 21.7% (2.65
g/kg of fuel) at 1,500 rpm, 90.7% (0.461 g/kg of fuel) at
2,460 rpm, and 0% at both 1,800 and 2,800 rpm. This in-
crease is due to the increase of cylinder temperature
with increasing compression ratio. The increase in NOx
at low speed, i.e., 1,500 rpm, can be avoided by avoiding
the engine to run in the speed range of 1,500 to 1,620
rpm as illustrated in Figure 14.
The conclusion based on Figures 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14
is that varying the compression ratio of the diesel en-
gine, within the entire range of engine speed of 1,500 to
2,800 rpm, to achieve a maximum engine torque leads
to variations in the predicted performance variables
compared to those predicted at constant compression
ratio (rc = 16.4). These variations can be summarized as
follows: (1) at an engine speed of 1,500 and 2,460 rpm,
there is no variation in all studied variables; (2) for the
other values of engine speed, the maximum pressure,
maximum temperature, brake torque, thermal efficiency,
and unfavorable NOx are increasing. On the contrary,
the delay period, volumetric efficiency, residual gas
Abou Al-Sood et al. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering 2012, 3:13
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fraction, and soot formation are decreasing. Table 3
summarizes the predicted results of performance vari-
ables at different values of engine speed.
Conclusions
The present rapid thermodynamic simulation for the
direct-injection diesel engine is based on a single-zone
combustion modeling with a rapid premixed burning
phase followed by a slower mixing-controlled burning
phase. Comparison with other experimental results
(under constant compression ratio) verifies very well the
simulation predictions of cycle performance. The main
conclusions of this study indicate that varying the com-
pression ratio to achieve minimum bsfc or maximum
brake torque for moderate diesel engine under the re-
striction that the maximum cylinder pressure and
temperature do not exceed those of the conventional en-
gine results in saving fuel consumption, higher brake ef-
ficiency and power, and reduction in soot emission from
the engine. Also, an increase in NOx is noticed at low
speed. This drawback is considerable and can be over-
come by reducing the operation speed range from 1,500
to 2,800 rpm to 1,665 to 2,800 rpm in the case of mini-
mum bsfc and from 1,500 to 1,800 rpm to 1,620 to
2,800 rpm in the case of maximum brake torque.
Abbreviations
CN: fuel cetane number; cp, cv: constant pressure and volume specific heats;
Div: intake valve head diameter; D: cylinder bore; H, h: enthalpy and specific
enthalpy; K: specific heat ratio; M: mass; N: crank speed; N: number of moles;
nc: number of cylinders per engine; niv, nr: number of intake valves and rings
per cylinder; p: pressure; Q, q: heat transfer and heat flux; rc: compression
ratio; R: gas constant; Sp: mean piston velocity; T: cylinder temperature; V, Vc,
Vd: swept, clearance, and maximum displacement volumes; X: mole fraction;
Θ: crank position angle; Λ: connecting rod length to crank radius ratio; θevo,
θivo: exhaust and intake valve opening angles; Δθeopen: opening duration
angle of exhaust valve; Δθiopen: opening duration angle of intake valve;
ρ: density; ϕ: equivalence ratio; τ, τ: ignition delay period and ignition delay
angle; B: backward; comb: combustion; e: exit, equilibrium; em: exhaust
manifold; ex: exhaust; f: fuel, forward; fb: fuel burning; ft: total fuel;
i: indicated, inlet, injection start; ig: ignition; im: intake manifold; in: intake;
o: ambient condition; p: piston; s: stoichiometry, soot; sf: soot formation;
so: soot oxidation; w: wall, atoms of carbon in fuel-air molecule; x: hydrogen
atoms in fuel-air molecule; y: oxygen atoms in fuel-air molecule; z: nitrogen
atoms in fuel-air molecule.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
MM conceived the concept and procedures of the present work, developed
the model, and carried out the computations and analysis. MA checked the
equations and analysis, and reviewed the revised manuscript. YM reviewed
the graphs and results. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Authors’ information
MM earned his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University
of Manitoba, Canada, in 2007. He is currently an assistant professor in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Assiut University, Egypt. He
has been interested in heat and mass transfer relating to droplets and spray
modeling, turbulence, combustion, and modeling and simulation of internal
combustion engines. MA received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical
Engineering from Mississippi State University, USA, in 1994. He is currently a
Page 12 of 13
professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Assiut
University, Egypt. His current research interests focus on sprays and liquid
atomization, fuel cells, solar hydrogen generation, and two-phase flows. YM
received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Kansas State
University, USA, in 1984. Now, he is an emeritus professor in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering at the Assiut University, Egypt. His research
interests focus on combustion and management and optimization of
thermal systems.
Acknowledgment
This work has been fully supported by Assiut University and the Mechanical
Engineering Department.
Received: 13 March 2012 Accepted: 19 June 2012
Published: 7 August 2012
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