1 STRENGTHENING MECHANISM OF WIDELY USED ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION

An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid
solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that
may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal history. Alloys usually have different properties
from those of the component elements. No alloys can be useful without any hardened method. In this article
some strengthening mechanism of widely used alloys would be discussed.

Strengthening of Iron-carbon alloys.

Widely used alloy type all over the world. Basically iron carbon alloys are divided into two types as steel
and cast irons. Like other metals, iron can be strengthened by several basic mechanisms, the most important
of which are:

 Work hardening

 Solid solution strengthening by interstitial atoms

 Solid solution strengthening by substitutional atoms

 Refinement of grain size

 Dispersion strengthening, including lamellar and random dispersed structures.

Work hardening is an important strengthening process in steel, particularly in obtaining high strength levels
in rod and wire, both in plain carbon and alloy steels. For example, the tensile strength of a 0.05% C steel
subjected to 95% reduction in area by wire drawing, is raised by no less than 550 MPa while higher carbon
steels are strengthened by up to twice this amount. Indeed, without the addition of special alloying elements,
plain carbon steels can be raised to strength levels above 1500 MPa simply by the phenomenon of work
hardening.

The formation of interstitial atmospheres at dislocations requires diffusion of the solute. As both carbon and
nitrogen diffuse much more rapidly in iron than substitutional solutes, it is not surprising that strain ageing
can take place readily in the range from 20°C to 150°C. Consequently the atmosphere condenses to form
rows of interstitial atoms along the cores of the dislocations. These arise because the temperature is high
enough to allow interstitial atoms to diffuse during deformation, and to form atmospheres around
dislocations generated throughout the stress-strain curve. Steels tested under these conditions also show low
ductility`s, due partly to the high dislocation density and partly to the nucleation of carbide particles on the
dislocations where the carbon concentration is high.

Austenite can take into solid solution up to 10% carbon, which can be retained in solid solution by rapid
quenching. However, in these circumstances the phase transformation takes place, not to ferrite but to a
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tetragonal structure referred to as martensite. This phase forms as a result of diffusion less shear
transformation leading to characteristic laths or plates.

If the quench is sufficiently rapid, the martensite is essentially a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in a
tetragonal iron matrix, and as the carbon concentration can be greatly in excess of the equilibrium
concentration in ferrite, the strength is raised very substantially. High carbon martensites are normally very
hard but brittle, the yield strength reaching as much as 1500 MPa; much of this increase can be directly
attributed to increased interstitial solid solution hardening, but there is also a contribution from the high
dislocation density, which is characteristic of martensitic transformations in iron-carbon alloys.

Many metallic elements form solid solutions in γ- and α-iron. These are invariably substitutional solid
solutions, but for a constant atomic concentration of alloying elements there are large variations in
strength.The strengthening achieved by substitutional solute atoms is, in general, greater the larger the
difference in atomic size of the solute from that of iron, applying the Hume-Rothery size effect.

The refinement of the grain size of ferrite provides one of the most important strengthening routes in the heal
treatment of steels. The grain size effect on the yield stress can therefore be explained by assuming that a
dislocation source operates within a crystal causing dislocations to move and eventually to pile up at the
grain boundary. The pile-up causes a stress to be generated in the adjacent grain, which, when it reaches a
critical value, operates a new source in that grain.

In all steels there is normally more than one phase present, and indeed it is often the case that several phases
can be recognized in the microstructure. The matrix, which is usually ferrite (bcc structure) or austenite (fcc
structure) strengthened by grain size refinement and by solid solution additions, is further strengthened,
often to a considerable degree, by controlling the dispersions of the other phases in the microstructure

Hardening methods of aluminum alloys.

Alluminium alloys are very useful in practice due to its light weight and high corrosion resistant
properties. Typical alloying elements in alluminium alloys are copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, and
magnesium. Typical examples are Duralumin (Al-Cu), Magnox (Mg-Al), silumin (Al-Si). Such types of
Alloys normally used for industries like Marine, aerospace and automotive. According to the
applications these alloys normally divide into two categories as Cast alloys and Wrought Alloys.

Hardening type of Al alloys are normally decide according to the percentage and the element of the
alloy. Widely used hardening methods are precipitation hardening, solution heat treatment and
work hardening. To identify the hardening type and the hardness the alloys are designated as temper
designation. In most industry used alloys used more than one type of hardening methods. As examples,

T8 -Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged

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T9 -Solution heat treated artificially aged and cold worked

T10 -Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and artificially aged.

Strengthening of Cu alloys.
Different types of hardening techniques can be identify with related to cu alloys as heat treating,
quenched hardening and precipitation hardening. Copper alloys that are hardened through heat
treatment are divided into two general types: those that are softened by high-temperature quenching and
hardened by lower-temperature treatments, and those that are hardened by quenching from high
temperatures through martensitic-type reactions.

Most copper alloys of the precipitation hardening type find use in electrical and heat-conduction
applications. The heat treatment must therefore be designed to develop the necessary mechanical
strength and electrical conductivity. The resulting hardness and strength depend on both the
effectiveness of the solution quench and the control of the precipitation (ageing) treatment. Cold
working prior to precipitation ageing tends to improve the heat-treated hardness. C18200 (Cu-Cr) and
C15000 (Cu-Zr), C18000 (Cu-Ni-Si-Cr) are typical alloys harden by precipitation hardening.

Quench hardening and tempering is used primarily for aluminum bronze and nickel aluminum bronze
alloys, and occasionally for some cast manganese bronze alloys with zinc equivalents of 37 to 41%.
Aluminum bronzes with 9 to 11.5% Al, and nickel-aluminum bronzes with 8.5 to 11.5% Al, respond in
a practical way to quench hardening by a martensitic type reaction

Strengthening of nickel alloys.

Nickel in elemental form or alloyed with other metals and materials has made significant contributions
to our present-day society and promises to continue to supply materials for an even more demanding
future. Nickel is a versatile element and will alloy with most metals. Complete solid solubility exists
between nickel and copper. Wide solubility ranges between iron, chromium, and nickel make possible
many alloy combinations. Most nickel alloys are in general can be harden by different techniques.

Nickel alloys mainly can be divided into various types according to its function and element like Iron-
Nickel-Chromium Alloys, Controlled-expansion alloys (Fe-Ni-Cr and Fe-Ni-Co series), Soft Magnetic
Alloys, etc. nickel alloys are also can be hardened by various methods.

Nickel alloys usually are hardened in sealed boxes placed inside a furnace, although small horizontal or
vertical furnaces without boxes may be used also. The box or furnace should hold the parts loosely
packed, yet afford a minimum of excess space. Electric furnaces provide the optimum temperature
uniformity of ± 6°C and the freedom from contamination required for this work. Gas-heated furnaces,
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particularly those of the radiant-tube type, can be made to give satisfactory results. It is difficult to
obtain good results from oil heating, even with the muffle furnaces. All lubricants should be removed
from the work before hardening.

Because of the long time of aging and the difficulty of excluding air from the box or furnace, truly
bright hardening cannot be accomplished commercially. For semibright hardening, dry hydrogen or
cracked and dried ammonia should be used. When bright or semibright hardening is not required, other
atmospheres may be used, such as nitrogen, cracked natural gas free of sulfur, cracked city gas, cracked
hydrocarbons, or a generated gas. The use of sulfur-free gases is necessary to avoid embrittlement.

In general nickel alloys are soft when quenched from temperatures ranging from 790 to 1220 oC,
however, they may be hardened by holding at 480 to 870 oC or above and then furnace or air-cooling.
Quenching is not a prerequisite to aging; the alloys can be hardened from the hot worked and cold
worked conditions, as well as from the soft condition

Titanium alloys
Titanium alloys are metallic materials which contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements.
Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures), light weight,
extraordinary corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high
cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft,
medical devices, connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium sports equipment and
consumer electronics.

Titanium alloys are basically dividing into four categories as alpha, near alpha, alpha beta, beta. Alpha
alloys normally consist with natural element like tin, alluminium and these alloys can’t be heat treated.
Alpha beta alloys can be heat treated and beta alloys are strengthening by solution hardening and age
hardening.Titanium alloys which are used for high temperature application is strengthen by dispersion
hardening technique.
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