ASSIGNMENT 2

Assignment # 2
COURSE CODE: 6503

Name: ANEESA ARSHED

Tutor:Miss. Shehla Naseer
Roll No: CB574041

AIOU 1
  the expected effect, “exam score,” is the dependent variable (aka the response or

outcome variable).

In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of study.” Our hypothesis is that the more

hours a student studies, the better they will do on the exam.

Causal relationships often involve several independent variables that affect the dependent

variable. However, to keep things simple, we’ll work with just one independent variable,

namely “hours of study.”

To visualize our expected cause-and-effect relationship, we will use the basic design

components of boxes and arrows. Each variable appears in a box. To indicate a causal

relationship, each arrow should start from the independent variable (the cause) and point to

the dependent variable (the effect).

Next, we should identify other variables that might influence the relationship between our

independent and dependent variables. Some common variables to include are moderators,

mediators, and control variables.

Moderating variables

Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a moderating variable (aka a moderator). A

moderator alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable.

The moderator thus changes the effect component of the cause-and-effect relationship. This

moderation is also referred to as the interaction effect.

In our example, we expect that the number of hours a student studies is related to their exam

score: the more you prepare, the higher your score will be.
Now we add the moderator “IQ.” A student’s IQ level changes the effect that the variable

“hours of study” has on the exam score: the higher your IQ, the fewer hours of study you

must put in to do well on the exam.

In other words, the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the number of study hours has

on the exam score.

Let’s take a look at how this might work. The graph shows how the number of hours spent

studying affects exam score. The more hours you study, the better your results. A student

who studies for 20 hours will get a perfect score.

But the graph looks different when we add an “IQ” moderator of 120. A student with this IQ

will already achieve a perfect score after just 15 hours of study.

Below, the value of the “IQ” moderator has been increased to 150. A student with this IQ will

only need to invest five hours of studying in order to get a perfect score.

The higher the IQ, the fewer hours a student needs to study in order to achieve a score of

100%.

In short, a moderating variable is something that changes the cause-and-effect relationship

between two variables as its value increases or decreases.

Mediating variables

Now we’ll expand the framework by adding a mediating variable. In a cause-and-effect

relationship, a mediating variable is a variable that links the independent and dependent

variables, allowing the relationship between them to be better explained.

Here’s how the conceptual framework might look if a mediator variable were involved:
The mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed” comes between the

independent and dependent variables. The hours of study impacts the number of practice

problems, which in turn impacts the exam score.

In this case, the mediator helps explain why studying more hours leads to a higher exam

score. The more hours a student studies, the more practice problems they will complete; the

more practice problems completed, the higher the student’s exam score will be.

By adding the mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed,” we help

explain the cause-and-effect relationship between the two main variables.

Keep in mind that mediating variables can be difficult to interpret, and care must be taken

when conclusions are drawn from them.

Moderator vs mediator

It’s important not to confuse a moderators and mediators. To remember the difference, you

can think of them in relation to the independent variable.

A mediating variable is affected by the independent variable, and it affects the dependent

variable. Therefore, it links the two variables and helps explain the relationship between

them.

A moderating variable is not affected by the independent variable, even though affects the

dependent variable. For example, no matter how many hours you study (the independent

variable), your IQ will not get higher.

A control variable is a variable that is held constant to prevent it from influencing the

outcome of a study.

When testing a cause-and-effect relationship, it is important to consider which variables

might influence the relationship between your independent and dependent variables and

control these so that your results are as accurate as possible.

Control variables

To test a cause-and-effect relationship, we also need to consider other variables that we’re not

interested in measuring the effects of, but that could potentially impact students’ exam scores.

These are control variables—variables that are held constant so that they don’t interfere with

the results.

For example, it is likely that if a student feels ill, they will get a lower score on the exam.

Therefore, we’ll add “health” as a control variable.

That means we should keep the variable “health” constant in our study—we’ll only include

participants who are in good health on the day of the exam.

Foreseeing The Problem Of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design is a rewarding process which enables teachers to have professional

conversations about the intended and taught the curriculum. In addition to horizontal

alignment, curriculum design provides educators with the opportunity to discuss what is

essential at other grade levels and courses. My experiences with curriculum design and

observing the work of teacher teams in other school systems have led me to identify the
following barriers. With proper planning, budget allocations, scheduling, communication, and

support from district administrators, each of these barriers can be removed.

The Absence of a Curriculum Framework

Curriculum design is complicated. Most teachers believe that they can write curriculum,

because they write lesson plans, design formative assessments, and have spent their entire

career planning curriculum and instruction. According to Fenwick English (2000),

“Curriculum is any document that exists in a school that defines the work of teachers by

identifying the content to be taught and the methods to be used” (p.2). The lines become

blurred when a school district asks teacher leaders from twelve different elementary schools

to write curriculum. Each teacher approaches the project from a different lens.

Barrier-Breaking:

There are multiple frameworks that support curriculum designers. Wiggins and McTighe

introduced educators to Understanding by Design (1998). Heidi Hayes Jacobs has provided

templates and online tools to support curriculum mapping. H. Lynn Erickson wrote Concept-

Based Curriculum and Instruction and outlined how to design a thinking curriculum.

“Teachers in thinking classrooms understand how to use concepts to integrate student

thinking at a deeper level of understanding – a level where knowledge can be transferred to

other situations and times” (Erickson, 2007, p. 22). There are countless frameworks to choose

from. The key to removing this barrier for educators is to select a framework.

Change

Change occurs in every facet of life. However, change can greatly impact curriculum design.

When a superintendent resigns it can change the course of curriculum work. The new

superintendent may select a different framework or abandon the existing curriculum

documents. Standards have become a focus across the nation. When policymakers change

standards, curriculum designers must align the curriculum with new standards and this often
requires starting over. As school districts focus on new skills to emphasize or magnet

programs highlight STEM or leadership themes, school staff will need to revise the

curriculum to meet the program goals.

Barrier-Breaking:

School leaders are wise when they design an archive or a website that houses the district’s

curriculum documents. Curriculum design requires constant change and moving parts. If a

new principal is hired in the middle of the school year, he or she should be able to identify the

district’s curriculum in a timely manner. While we cannot stop the forces of change, we can

focus on organization, communication, timelines for curriculum revision, and storing

curriculum units. Consistency in how we support teaching and learning allows all educators

to have a clear understanding of the written curriculum. If the framework or template changes

with each standards revision, then it will be an additional ingredient to throw into the change

stew.

Communication Tools

A major barrier to curriculum design and implementation is a lack of communication. A

school district may identify twelve – twenty teacher leaders to serve on a district curriculum

committee. The committee may meet for twelve months or up to two years. At the end of the

period, a curriculum document is distributed to all of the teachers in the school district. While

months of conversations and deliberation went into the document, the experts are the

committee members. Districts need to stop handing documents (hard copy with shrink wrap

or electronic) to teachers and expecting the document to transform teaching and learning. The

teachers who implement the curriculum need to be able to ask questions, post suggestions,

and explain the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. Curriculum deliberation should

not be finished when the committee adopts the final edits.

Barrier-Breaking:
Online tools make it easy for curriculum leaders to remove this common barrier. Google

Docs, Google Forms, LiveBinders, Padlet, Today’s Meet, Google Hangout, Web sites, and

Voxer are among the tools that educators can use to communicate. Online programs are also

available for purchase. The written curriculum is critically important. However, educators

need to have an opportunity to discuss the implemented curriculum, even if they were not

part of the original design team. Wiggins and McTighe (2007) wrote, “Schooling at its best

reflects a purposeful arrangement of parts and details, organized with deliberate intention, for

achieving the kinds of learning we seek” (p. 9). If the curriculum design is not reaching its

desired intentions, classroom teachers need a mechanism to share observations and make

recommendations. Continuous improvement is not possible if teachers are only able to

communicate at face-to-face meetings or during the curriculum writing process.

Focus on the Product

When educators participate in curriculum development they often focus on completing the

curriculum map. Curriculum design should be viewed as a process, rather than a product. If

K-12 curriculum developers take the approach that curriculum will never be finished, then

they will constantly strive to make the curriculum rigorous, relevant and differentiated.

Continuous improvement should be valued more than finishing a curriculum document.

Some principals and district administrators rush the process because there is an urgency to

have an aligned curriculum. While the product should be aligned to the standards, teacher-

friendly, and focused on the district’s priorities, the product should not de-emphasize the

process.

Barrier-Breaking:

“Curriculum development is the essential function of school leadership. Whether the role is

carried out by a principal, an assistant principal for curriculum, a team leader, a department

head, or by leading classroom teachers, the curriculum defines all other roles in a school”
(Wiles, 2009, p.2). The process should be made transparent to teachers, administrators, and

stakeholders. Most school districts have board policies outlining how the curriculum will be

designed and adopted. The policies are written in vague terms. School leaders should utilize

websites and online tools to share the curriculum design process for each curriculum

document. Finally, school leaders need to be careful about the message they send to

curriculum designers. If the message is to complete this document in twelve months, then the

focus will be on meeting the product deadline, rather than the design process.

Funding

Curriculum design comes with a price tag. Expenses include fees for substitute teachers,

stipends for summer work, meeting spaces, printed documents, consultant fees, and

implementation/professional development. A document for K-5 English Language Arts can

cost thousands of dollars, depending on the size of the school district. Funding is a barrier but

is necessary to support teaching and learning.

Barrier-Breaking:

School districts need to place curriculum design as a top priority in the annual budget.

Aligning curriculum to the standards and determining what is essential at each grade level is

important work. Most school districts follow a curriculum design and implementation

timeline. In other words, they will design curriculum for science in 2016 and begin design

work for math in 2017. Curriculum writing and revision is ongoing, but the budget can be

allocated to specific content areas every five years. “One of the tasks of curriculum

leadership is to use the right methods to bring the written, the taught, the supported, and the

tested curriculums into closer alignment, so that the learned curriculum is maximized”

(Glatthorn, 1987, p. 4).

Hidden Curriculum
The ‘hidden curriculum’ is the unintended curriculum. “It defines what students learn from

the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school” (Glatthorn & Jailall,

2009, p. 110). Most teachers and administrators don’t recognize the hidden curriculum,

because it is ‘the way we do business.’ There are messages in every school that interfere with

the written curriculum. The way that students are treated when they enter school is part of the

hidden curriculum. The rules or lack of rules throughout the school sends a message to

students. The ability of parents to voice their concerns and recommendations is part of the

hidden curriculum.

Reference

https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/conceptual-framework/

https://inservice.ascd.org/8-barriers-to-curriculum-design/

Q.2 Discuss the formulation of curricular objectives and the importance of

situational analysis?

formulation of curricular objectives

In the field of education, curriculum is an imperative concept. Curriculum is designed

and framed by the administrators and the school personnel for the purpose of enhancement of

skills and knowledge amongst the individuals and in fulfilling the needs of the community.

Through an enriched curriculum, individuals not only improve academic knowledge but are

able to provide solutions to societal problems and sustain their living conditions. The

learning, growth and development of the students takes place on the basis of proper

curriculum. The background of the learners is the main area that needs to be taken into

account when formulating objectives in curriculum development. The main purpose of this
research paper is to understand the formulation of objectives in curriculum development. The

main areas that have been highlighted are, understanding the meaning of curriculum,

classification of curriculum, types of curriculum, preparing curriculum objectives,

relationship of objectives to learning experiences and approaches to curriculum.

In the field of education, curriculum is an imperative concept. Curriculum is designed

and framed by the administrators and the school personnel for the purpose of enhancement of

skills and knowledge amongst the individuals and in fulfilling the needs of the community.

Through an enriched curriculum, individuals not only improve academic knowledge but are

able to provide solutions to societal problems and sustain their living conditions. The

learning, growth and development of the students takes place on the basis of proper

curriculum. The background of the learners is the main area that needs to be taken into

account when formulating objectives in curriculum development. The main purpose of this

research paper is to understand the formulation of objectives in curriculum development. The

main areas that have been highlighted are, understanding the meaning of curriculum,

classification of curriculum, types of curriculum, preparing curriculum objectives,

relationship of objectives to learning experiences and approaches to curriculum.

In the field of education, curriculum is an imperative concept. Curriculum is designed

and framed by the administrators and the school personnel for the purpose of enhancement of

skills and knowledge amongst the individuals and in fulfilling the needs of the community.

Through an enriched curriculum, individuals not only improve academic knowledge but are

able to provide solutions to societal problems and sustain their living conditions. The

learning, growth and development of the students takes place on the basis of proper

curriculum. The background of the learners is the main area that needs to be taken into

account when formulating objectives in curriculum development. The main purpose of this

research paper is to understand the formulation of objectives in curriculum development. The

main areas that have been highlighted are, understanding the meaning of curriculum,

classification of curriculum, types of curriculum, preparing curriculum objectives,

relationship of objectives to learning experiences and approaches to curriculum.

In the field of education, curriculum is an imperative concept. Curriculum is designed and

framed by the administrators and the school personnel for the purpose of enhancement of

skills and knowledge amongst the individuals and in fulfilling the needs of the community.

Through an enriched curriculum, individuals not only improve academic knowledge but are

able to provide solutions to societal problems and sustain their living conditions. The

learning, growth and development of the students takes place on the basis of proper

curriculum. The background of the learners is the main area that needs to be taken into

account when formulating objectives in curriculum development. The main purpose of this

research paper is to understand the formulation of objectives in curriculum development. The

main areas that have been highlighted are, understanding the meaning of curriculum,

classification of curriculum, types of curriculum, preparing curriculum objectives,

relationship of objectives to learning experiences and approaches to curriculum.

The curriculum theory since 1900 has been significantly concerned with the explanation and

interpretation of objectives. In 1925, the statements of objectives began to be selected on the

basis of the needs and requirements of the students more than on the analysis of daily life

activities. Therefore, the objectives were formulated for the present needs of the learners

more than the future lives of the adults. Between 1940 and 1950, the concept of student-

teacher preparation and supportive selection of goals by students and teachers, community

leaders and parents came within the trend. Since 1950, attempts have been made to state

objectives in behavioural terms in such a way as to provide for the succeeding evaluation of

the curriculum (Chapter 3, n.d.).The designing and formulation of objectives in curriculum

development is a multifaceted and a methodical process. There has been development of

different models of curriculum design to make this multifaceted activity understandable and

manageable. The individuals who are primarily within the teaching profession, are required to

understand how the designing and formulation of the curriculum have taken place.

Curriculum design, development and assessment are fundamental to teaching and learning

within the classroom settings. In India, teachers and professors are well qualified and in

,accordance to their skills

abilities and qualifications, they get engaged into the teaching profession. However, it is

important for all teachers and instructors to possess adequate knowledge about the theory,

design and assessment of the curriculum. This module provides teachers with the information

about the basic components, aspects, features and organizations involved in the design and

assessment of the curriculum and the instructional systems in schools and higher educational

institutions (Chaudhary, & Kalia, 2015).Understanding the Meaning of Curriculum

Curriculum is referred to as a planned and an unplanned concept, content, skills, work habits,

means of assessment, evaluation techniques, approaches and instructional strategies taught

within the classroom and the variety of school activities that take place inside and outside of

the classroom setting that have an impact on the present and future academic, social,

emotional and physical growth and development of the students. It is referred to as a

comprehensive plan for an educational training program or a course to make provision of new

and improved human resources to fulfil the needs and requirements of the individuals

themselves and the community (Pillai, n.d.).When understanding curriculum in simple terms,

it is referred to what is taught in schools, set of subjects, content, program of studies, set of

materials, set of courses, course of study, and set of performance objectives. The processes

and the strategies that are implemented in schools include extra classes, counselling and

guidance services, and interpersonal relationships; these are considered as an integral part of

curriculum. On the basis of the curriculum, the instructional methods are organized which
facilitate learning amongst the students. It is planned and organized by the school personnel.

It is stated to be the series of experiences undergone by the learners in schools and is an

aggregate of the courses of study within the school system (Pillai, n.d.).Classification of

Curriculum The classification of curriculum have been stated as follows: (Chapter 3,

n.d.).Subject Matter Curriculum – In the formulation of the curriculum at all levels, the

subject matter is considered to be of utmost significance. It comprises of the lessons and

chapter plans that are necessary for the students to understand in accordance to their levels.

For instance, a nursery school student’s curriculum would comprise of alphabets, numbers,

scribbling, drawing, and so forth. When subject matter is designed and formulated, there are

number of areas that need to be taken into consideration. These are the age groups of the

students, levels of education, facts and skills to be learned, knowledge and information to be

adequately available to the learners and understanding of the concepts. Main emphasis is put

on the facts and skills of the subject matter (Chapter 3, n.d.).Exercises – When lesson plans

are formulated, it is important to have exercises and questions at the end of it. The main

purpose of exercises is to enable the individuals acquire a thorough understanding of the

lesson plans. Exercises helps the students to prepare for the final exams and other class and

home assignments. Within the exercises, at the end of the lesson plans in textbooks, there are

two types of questions, first are objective type questions and the second are long answer

questions. In subjects, such as Hindi, English, Social Science, Science, etc. students are

expected to work on exercises, after the teacher has provided them adequate understanding of

the lessons. The objective type questions are easier to answer, their answers are normally

available within the lessons. On the other hand, students are required to enhance their writing

skills, to provide long answers. Exercises and questions are beneficial and contribute in

improving the understanding of the concepts as well as the writing skills of the students.

Broad-Field Curriculum – It is stated to be the modification of the correlated curriculum. In

this case, the subjects are grouped into broad fields, such as language, arts, social science,

science, mathematics and so forth. In social science, the subjects include, history, geography,

civics, economics and so forth. In science, there are three subjects, physics, chemistry and

biology. In languages, there is English, Hindi, Sanskrit, Spanish, French, Japanese and so

forth. Arts include, Sociology, Political Science, History, Geography, Economics and so

forth. These subjects may be grouped into a broad field, but their concepts are different. The

individuals need to formulate appropriate instructional methods to make the students

understand the concepts in an appropriate manner. The teachers need to acquire knowledge

about the subject areas, so that they can adequately instruct the students (Chapter 3, n.d.).

Importance Of Situational Analysis?

“Situational analysis” helps develop a basis of understanding of the environment in which a

plan is delivered. It provides a common reference point for the planning process and

prioritises actions.

The analysis can provide an appreciation of the risks and benefits to the project and the

organisations involved from the way in which the communication process is implemented. It

takes a snapshot view of an organisation or situation and where things stand at a certain point

in time. It is sometimes accomplished by means of a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities and Threats), which examines all aspects in relation to the success or results of

the project in question.

Clearly, if the communication activities are poorly designed and implemented due to a poor

understanding of the situation on the ground, the project could be fatally impacted due to a

lack of public trust and confidence. This can help identify where the potential weaknesses in

the plan are, enabling responses to be developed if necessary before irreparable damage is

done. The analysis will also identify where opportunities may exist to develop strategic
alliances with groups of supportive stakeholders and indicate where extra efforts can be made

to develop these.

The analysis can also help identify capabilities within an organisation in terms to fulfil the

requirements of the communication plan before it is developed to implement the strategy. It

also serves to highlight areas in the strategy where improvements may need to be made, to

take account of the current or developing situation. By keeping the analysis updated, it may

also identify where something may not be working as expected within the implementation

plan.

Identify Vision/Mission/Goals

In strategy development, it is necessary to determine and understand the primary objective

and goals of the strategy. This may be as simple as informing as many stakeholders as

possible, or it may include specific goals such as reaching certain stakeholder groups,

undertaking a specific number of meetings, or even gaining support to move the project

forward. Whilst it is possible to have multiple aims for a communication activity, it is

important to set goals that can be practically achieved.

To ensure the proper level of public participation, planning the strategy should begin early

(during the project’s initiation phase) so that communication and participation can be

integrated with the project’s decision-making process. A well-defined goal, one that is not too

vague or broad, is key. If the goal is too vague, then the message will not be salient to

stakeholders within the decision-making process. If the goal is too broad, then the message

will lose all impact and in either case your success will not be measurable.

For example, at the beginning of a process to develop the use of nuclear energy in a member

state, the main aim is likely simple communication of the science behind the technology, with

information provided on both the potential benefits and disadvantages and an explanation of
why the policy has been adopted. Where facilities already exist, the aim may be to

communicate information regarding operational experience, or details of new developments

or events. If the project involves development of waste management or disposal facilities, the

aim likely includes details of comparable facilities in operation elsewhere, or of the scientific

consensus underlying the proposal.

The key to developing sensible objectives is that they are SMART:

 Specific: The objective is clear about what you are going to do and exactly how are

you going to do it. Questions to ask include: “What am I going to do? Why is it

important? Who is going to do it?”

 Measurable: You should be able to measure the objective (Example: X percent people

contacted, number of presentations completed).

 Achievable: The objective is achievable given local conditions, time period, resources

allocated, etc.

 Realistic: The objectives can be achieved using the time and the resources available.

 Time-bound: The objective is clear concerning how much time it will take to achieve.

Objectives are usually written in an active tense and use strong verbs like “plan,” “write,”

“conduct,” and “produce,” rather than “learn,” “understand,” and “feel.” This will encourage

development of positive approaches and feasible objectives.

Finally, developing a communication strategy that is acceptable to all parties can have several

benefits, including:

 Help find solutions with a better long-term outcome for the project and stakeholders

 Reduce objections to projects

 Foster local pride and a sense of ownership among stakeholders

 Enhance the understanding of nuclear issues by the public and help to deliver more

sustainable outcomes.
Reference

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323694981_Formulation_of_Objectives_in_C

urriculum_Development

https://www.iaea.org/resources/nuclear-communicators-

toolbox/methods/planning/situational-

analysis#:~:text=%E2%80%9CSituational%20analysis%E2%80%9D%20helps%20de

velop%20a,planning%20process%20and%20prioritises%20actions.

Q. 3 Differentiate between inquiry method and problem solving method of teaching.

Explain with examples whether these methods are subject specific or not?

Differentiate between inquiry method and problem solving method of teaching

Inquiry can be more or less open, but problem solving only has the 'open middle'. While the

the teacher poses the problem and knows the answer, the solving process can be carried out in

different ways. Skills required by students relate to extracting relevant information from the

problem, identifying similar problems that they have solved before, selecting methods,

checking progress and verifying the solution. Inquiry has the potential for an open beginning,

middle and end. The teacher will have an idea of different pathways that could arise, but they

will not be exhaustive. Moreover, students' initial questions and findings might be novel. Key

processes include questioning, noticing, conjecturing and proving.

The distinction is reinforced in the National Curriculum in England. Reasoning through

inquiry and problem solving make up two of the three separate aims of the curriculum:
Unsurprisingly, the GCSE assessment objectives (AO), which are based on the National

Curriculum, feature the same separation. AO2 covers reasoning, interpreting and

communicating (which might be broadly classed as elements of inquiry) and AO3 lists

problem solving steps (below).

The distinction came up again in a discussion I was having with a new head of a maths

department. She wrote to Inquiry Maths about how to develop mathematical reasoning: "I

was thinking an inquiry approach would lead to encouraging the students to question what

they do and why they do it, then lead to helping them with prompts for solving a problem. Do

students not need to be on the path of fluency of inquiry before they can embark on the

problem solving approach?" The question implies that mathematical inquiry is a precursor to

problem solving.

During the discussion, one teacher said “it all depends on how you define a problem.” If you

define a problem in terms of the questions that appear in public examinations, then, as Mike
Ollerton contends, problems are “pseudo-problems which undermine mathematical thinking

and all that is creative in maths." They have one closed answer that students are required to

find. Yet, as another participant in the discussion remarked, a problem set in a classroom does

not necessarily imply the answer is known. In problem-based learning, for example, problems

are open-ended, even if the starting point (the problem) is closed from the students'

perspective. Geoff Wake, Associate Professor in Mathematics Education at the University of

Nottingham, posted the following comment: "It's useful to think about the difference between

solving a problem and problem solving." I took this to mean that ‘solving a problem’ is a

restricted process with a closed beginning and end, but ‘problem solving’ is a creative

process of applying generic skills, such as Polya’s heuristics, to an open-ended problem.

The discussion echoes a distinction between two different types of problems that Polya

himself identifies in How to Solve It. On the one hand, a problem to find aims to "to find a

certain object” and, in order to achieve the aim, the solver must know the problem’s principal

parts, the unknown, the data and the condition. On the other hand, a problem to prove aims to

show conclusively that a certain clearly stated assertion is true or false. Its principal parts are

the hypothesis and the conclusion of the theorem to be proved or disproved. We note that,

while the problem to find could be “theoretical or practical, abstract or concrete, serious

problems or mere puzzles,” the problem to prove lies exclusively in the domain of

mathematics.

It is a short step to linking a problem to find with the problem solving strand of the National

Curriculum (including 'non-mathematical' contexts) and the problem to prove to the

mathematical reasoning strand. However, the problem to prove is not synonymous with

inquiry. In promoting students’ questions, exploration and conjectures, inquiry involves far

more than a deductive proof of a theorem. While in Inquiry Maths lessons the teacher might
help students formalise their ideas into a problem to prove, the starting point of inquiry (the

prompt) cannot be likened to either of Polya’s problem types.

Paradoxically, inquiry could involve what Polya describes as routine problems. These focus

on the mechanical performance of operations and "can be solved either by substituting special

data into a formerly solved general problem, or by following step by step, without any trace

of originality, some well-worn conspicuous example." When students select a regulatory

card to practise a procedure, the teacher might suggest answering routine problems, although

restricting students exclusively to this type of problem is, according to Polya, “inexcusable"

and, we might add, antithetical to the principles of inquiry.

After this discussion, we must amend our characterisation of the relationship between inquiry

and problem solving. We maintain the distinction – and even the separation – between

classrooms in which problems to find (with their ‘open middles’) predominate and

classrooms that emphasise inquiry processes linking exploration and deduction. However,

problem solving can develop into inquiry when, for example, students change the conditions

in the problem and study the relationship between the new solution and the old one.

Nevertheless, I cannot conceive of a situation when or a reason why an open inquiry would

be restricted to a problem-solving process. While inquiry skills enable students to attempt to

solve problems, the converse is not true. Heuristics employed in problems to find would not,

on their own, enable students to generate mathematical inquiry.

Reference

https://sites.google.com/site/inquirymaths/posts/inquiryandproblemsolving

Q.4 How can educational curricula and processes improve in the light of evaluation

of the programmes?
1. Introduction

Process evaluation is believed as Guarantee of Quality product. Evaluation of the process of

curriculum development plays a vital role in channelizing and keeping the direction of young

generation on the desired way for the achievement of national objectives and keeping the

system update respect to changing scenario of time. Curriculum development process also

undergoes transformation due to newer developments in education and its evaluation keeps it

valid, reliable and keeps it in the right direction. Recommendations through evaluation for

any process have a message of eternity for it. Therefore the needs to organize the curriculum

development process in such a way which should prepare young men and women for pursue

of the higher education as well as to make them able to adjust with their practical life

meaningfully and productively are necessary. Because the goals of education can be attained

only through valid reliable curriculum and proper evaluation of the process for updating and

fulfilling required social needs.

2. Literature Review

There are numerous uses of the word “curriculum”. The Concise Oxford dictionary defines it

as “Course of Study” and notes that it derives from the Latin word for a chariot race-course.

The curriculum as a race with series of “hurdles” to be overcome might still be a view held

by a number of you today.

3. Curriculum evaluation

Curriculum evaluation refers to the collection of information on which judgment might be

made about the worth and the effectiveness of a particular programme. It includes, of course,

actually making those judgments so that decision might be made about the future of

programme, whether to retain the programme as it stand, modify it or throw it out altogether.

Stocked approaches curriculum evaluation through a conceptual analysis of the term

“Evaluation”, in his analysis, he identifies four central features of evaluation given under: 1.
Evaluation is appraisal in which we make judgment. 2. Such judgments are made in the light

of criteria. 3. Criteria issue from, and are appropriate in respect of particular contents. 4. Such

Criteria embody human resources, and evaluation model, therefore, inform decisions. The

important methods and techniques employed in curriculum evaluation include discussion,

experiments, interviews (group and personal) opinion of various agencies stakeholders,

observation – procedures, questionnaires, practical performance and official record. Guba and

Stufflebeam (1970, p.109) identify four types of decision which are involved in curriculum

evaluation certain features of their work are useful as an organizing framework for examining

curriculum evaluation. These types include the decision about:

1. Planning intention, e.g., which objectives to select.

2. Planning procedures, e.g., which personnel, methods and material employ.

3. Implementing procedure, e.g., whether to continue, modify or abandon a procedural plan.

4. Outcomes, e.g., which intentions are realized, to extent and by whom. Evaluation

conceived in this manner is an integral part of curriculum development, beginning with the

concern about objective and ending with assessment of their attainment.

Curriculum development is a continuous process and necessary changes are part and parcel of

the process, In order to make more responsive to the changing demands and to ensure the

relevancy. It is beyond doubt reality that the effective curriculum development process can

enhance the learning of the participants. It will be only possible if evaluation with respect to

the formulation, implementation, launched in a proper way. If programmed evaluation is

needed to judge and perceive in order to improve planning and implementation of current and

future activities, this research will be helpful to meet most of the queries regarding

curriculum development process.

The study was focused to evaluate the curriculum development process at secondary level.

Some indicators have shown results that these are not practical in the country during the
process of curriculum development as shown in item numbers 34, 35, 60, 63 of the

questionnaire which focus that Religious scholars do not contribute to create harmony

through recommendations, Geographers do not contribute in a proper way through

recommendations before initiating the process of curriculum development, Memorandums of

understanding are not signed for mutual cooperation with leading countries for guidance,

Study tours of different countries are not arranged for the subject specialists to study the

process of curriculum development of other countries respectively. The same results have

been concluded from the study by Shahid (2005) on evaluation of process for curriculum

development. The results of adaptation strategies for special learners needs are not worked

out, Inclusion of career related material is not pre-assessed, match with the results drawn by

Hamid (2002) inclusive curriculum for secondary students. Furthermore the results of this

study were same as these studies, Gatefield R.A (1990) in which it was recommended that

activities should be norm related, Gald Berg R.L (1976) has suggested that need assessment

workshops should be arranged, Global changes should be taken into consideration for

updating the curriculum, UNESCO reports in the context of Pakistan should be taken into

consideration for the improvement of the curriculum, Farooq RA (1985) has purposed

potential client’s needs should be given due weightage in curriculum development through

study and research, public opinions should be invited through media for the improvement of

curriculum, the suggested curriculum should be tested through pilot testing before

implementing in the schools.

Reference

http://ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_14_October_2011/34.pdf
Q.5 Discuss the dynamics of curriculum change in Pakistan and further suggest

measure for the smooth institutionalization of the revised curriculum?

Dynamics of Curriculum change in Pakistan

Education is the wholistic development of an individual. Intellectual, moral and emotional

knowledge are crucial to achieve the end wherein a pupil becomes a socially responsible,

compassionate and functional member of a society. Education is more than what any school

can provide to a child, and the learning does not, cannot and should not stop once a child

steps out school boundaries.

In most parts of the world, parents are encouraged to become every bit a part of a child’s

educational journey and become key stakeholders in turning children into the finest

specimens of humanity. But unfortunately in Pakistan, a peculiar and worrying trend is

emerging; keeping curriculum a secret from the parents/families.

School teachers are handed out curriculum guidelines as set by various international

examination boards, however, parents are increasingly not being allowed to review the

syllabus under the pretext that sharing the curriculum feeds into the parental competition,

causes unnecessary stress to the students as they are enrolled in extra tuition to get ahead and

reduces the effectiveness of the teachers at school.

Not only are all these excuses merely trying to treat the symptoms, they also take away the

ability of providing a more all-round learning experience as children cannot be engaged at

home for reinforcement of any concepts that are under discussion at the school. The

curriculum, resources, reference books, activities are now seen as the competitive advantage

one school might have over another, leading to a very unhealthy trend and a race that neither

serves the interests of students nor parents.

Besides the increasing safeguarding and concealment of these ‘strategic’ resources, the

curriculum guidelines laid out are itself confusing and have unrealistic expectations of school
managements. Someone who has never met the teachers or a class of students, can hardly

gauge the calibre of either; but still gets to decide how long each topic should take and how

soon a class – of 2nd graders for example – should master the art of multiplying. At the same

time, the guidelines conclude that the concept of division is beyond the cognitive capacity of

a 7 year old.

The curriculum followed by most schools do not take into account the varying capabilities

and learning curves of individual children. There is no regard for differing interests and

inclinations. Students remain spectators that have no control over the flow of the game.

Though the “One Size Fits All” approach serves administrative objectives of running a

school, it in no way caters to individualized needs, requirements and progress of students.

Our schools still go with the “just listen, don’t question” approach. Children are coerced into

an acceptable behavioural model; a model that requires them to suppress their natural sense

of wonder and curiosity and remain attentive like a subservient solider on a front.

The guidelines also restrain teachers as such that they have to follow predetermined and non-

flexible paths to teaching. A didactic approach is usually employed, where instructors are

only keen on cramming as much information into the students’ mind as possible in limited

time to keep track with the guidelines. Resultantly, there is little room for the children to

interact, to discuss, to inquire and to explore. Our schools still go with the “just listen, don’t

question” approach. Children are coerced into an acceptable behavioural model; a model that

requires them to suppress their natural sense of wonder and curiosity and remain attentive

like a subservient solider on a front. While the approach can be a good aid for non-

experienced beginners, the tool should not become the leader in the classroom.

A student should be able to move on from one concept as soon as they grasp it, and master it,

without having to spend needless hours of labor and strenuous uninterested listening exercise

that are the lectures. They should also be able to pick and choose, which topics they wish to
do first as per their interest, personal preference and academic expertise. The teacher’s role

should be that of a guide that lets students drive their own learning and lead their own

journey of discovery. This practice can be the key to producing students who are initiators

and life-long learners.

Contrary to what Pakistani schools are beginning to do, Harvard Family Engagement

Program for parents and schools says a child’s success is largely governed by how parents

engage them in after-school activities. Parents and other family members are equally

responsible to teach children how to learn and become life-long learners on their own. As the

Japanese saying goes, it takes a village to raise a child. Without involving the parents and

families in the deliverance of the curriculum, the art of teaching cannot transform into that of

a pedagogue, as each teacher only has limited time and cannot possibly do justice with each

child’s myriad of questions.

The solution to this problem of our stagnant and didactic curriculum approach is two-

pronged. First, the power to create, curate and adapt the curriculum needs to be shifted to the

people who are closest to students and have a deep understanding of their learning styles,

capabilities and cognitive boundaries. These include teachers, principals, and families

[whoever is in a position to contribute owing to their own expertise and passion], and last but

not the least, students themselves.

The other part of the solution is ensuring that the curriculum itself is flexible and can be

personalised to the needs of each student. Individually. The one-size-fits all approach to

education is now losing ground. We need to give way to students and allow them to author

their own learning, at their own pace and according to their own interests. Apart from the

core skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, the children need to be empowered with the

ability to learn how they want to, and where they want to and when they want to.
We need an dynamic organic curriculum that grows and adapts as per the teacher and the

student’s idiosyncratic requirements. One way to diversify the curriculum and successfully

meet the diversified needs of the teachers and the students, is to incorporate technology in the

process. Once computerised, the process of delivery, assessments, evaluations can help

student take control of their own learning, learn at their own pace and make use of flexible

timings. The teacher can monitor the progress on their own computers and only intervene in

areas where students appear to be approaching a stone wall. This kind of attention to detail

can actually save time for both the teachers and students by focusing their time and energy

where needed most.

Hopefully, the schools in Pakistan can step up, take the initiative and incorporate modern

techniques into their existing practices. The need of the time is to re-imagine and re-invent

the 200 years old obsolete curriculum, the monological methods and the one-size-fit-all

mind-set.

Suggest Measure For The Smooth Institutionalization Of The Revised Curriculum?

Institutionalization, process of developing or transforming rules and procedures that

influence a set of human interactions.

Institutionalization is a process intended to regulate societal behaviour (i.e., supra-individual

behaviour) within organizations or entire societies. At least three actions in the process can be

distinguished:

(1) rulemaking or installment,

(2) rule adaptation, or developing best practices, and

(3) rule change, or replacing old rules with new ones.

By the early 20th century, German sociologist Max Weber was already aware of processes of

institutionalization and their subtle variations. He explicitly differentiated between rule

configurations that were goal-oriented (Zweckrationalität) and those that were idea-

consolidating (Wertrationalität). For example, the division of powers in government is

institutionalized both as an organizational framework that results from and influences the

competitions of political actors and as an attempt to safeguard a certain conception of liberty.

Institutionalization is thus a human activity that installs, adapts, and changes rules and

procedures in both social and political spheres. It affects the interactive behaviour of

individuals and organizations as well as of political entities (e.g., states). This distinction

between individuals, collective actors, and polities is important, because the ways in which

rules and procedures are developed and subsequently become operational are different for

each sphere. For example, the development and establishment of liberal democracy is

actually an ongoing process of institutionalization. On the one hand, it reflects a shared value

within a society as expressed in its appreciation of individual political and civil

rights (Wertrationalität), but, on the other hand, the relationship between state and society is

organized by means of basic laws to define its mode of governance to make it work

democratically (Zweckrationalität).

With regard to social interactions, rules evolve more often than not in a nonbinding

fashion, albeit depending on informal hierarchies and whether they are born out of necessity.

Eventually, many practical rules are developed into institutionalized behaviour that remains

more or less stable over time: practices become shared rules that in turn are formalized in

supra-individual terms (e.g., the Ten Commandments in the Bible and Jean-Jacques

Rousseau’s idea of the social contract).

Reference

https://academiamag.com/education-pakistan-dynamic-organic-curriculum/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/institutionalization