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Connections in Structural Steel Joints

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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)
Volume 9, Issue 3, March 2018, pp. 323–331, Article ID: IJCIET_09_03_034
Available online at http://http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=9&IType=3
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

CONNECTIONS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL

JOINTS
P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango and S. Sivaganesan
Assistant Professor, Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies,
Vels University, Tamilnadu, India

ABSTRACT
Historically, most major structural failures have been due to some form of
connection failure. Steel connections have a direct influence on the cost of the framing
system. It is a common practice to weld shop attachments and to bolt field
attachments. Some of the types of connections are based on: General connections,
Geometry and load distribution & Splicing. Under General it’s classified as bolted &
welded also according to Load distribution and geometry its moment & shear
connections.
Shear connections are called simple connections – Since they are assumed not to
transfer bending moment, thus allowing end rotation of the member. Seat or hanger
connections are the only type of shear connections that connect to the flange of the
supported beam. Moment connections are typically designed to also carry the shear
component of the load. They provide continuity between the supported and supporting
members. Relative rotation between the supporting and supported members is
negligible. The flanges of the supported member are attached to either a connection
element or directly to the supporting member. Flange plates may also be required for
stability of the column during erection. This plate helps align the upper and lower
columns. The upper and lower columns may be of different sizes. The flanges and
webs of the two columns are field- welded to each other. This type of weld is called a
groove weld.
In case of large seismic events the design of steel structures must be able to
accurately approximate the response of the structure beyond the elastic range. By the
means of ductility, similar to the case of structures, connections are divided into
ductility classes.
In this paper, a review of other literatures is done on the basis of connections and
its importance according to structural and seismic point of view. One of the most
important aspects that one needs to take into account when designing a steel structure
is the dissipative mechanism of the structure as well as the structural properties of the
connection. A manual design can only be done for connections in steel structures for
better understanding.
Key words: Seismic event, Ductility, Shear & Moment connections

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 P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango and S. Sivaganesan

Cite this Article: P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango

and S. Sivaganesan, Connections in Structural Steel Joints. International Journal of
Civil Engineering and Technology, 9(3), 2018, pp. 323-331.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=9&IType=3

1. INTRODUCTION
The greatest economy for low and medium rise braced multi-story frames will be achieved by
the use of „simple construction. Structural steel category of the steel used as a construction
material for making structural steel shapes is behavior of a structure with rational principles of
mechanics (statics, solid mechanics, dynamics, etc.) and structural analysis to produce a safe
and economical structure to serve its intended purposes. Structural steel is one of the most
important building materials in modern area. It is used solely or in compaction with other
material such as concrete, timber, composites, etc., for a variety of purposes.A braced frame
has sufficient structural components to transmit horizontal forces directly to the foundations.
These components provide stability to the frame. In a braced frame, the beams are designed as
simply supported. The columns carry axial loads and (generally) minimal moments.

Figure 1 Elevated and plan view of web to flange beam-column connection and web to web beam-
column connection

Single Angle web cleats:Single angle web cleats are normally only used for small
connections or where access desirable from an erector‟s point of view because of the tendency
of the beam to twist during erection. Care should be taken when using this type of connection
in areas where axial tension is high. The bolts connecting the cleat to the column must also be
checked for the moment produced by the product of the end shear force and the distance
between the bolts and the center line of the beam.
Flexible end plates:Typical flexible end-plate connections about the major and minor axis
of a column. These connections consist of a single plate fillet welded to the end of the beam
and site bolted to either a supporting column or beam for fabrication and erection tolerances.
The end-plate is often detailed and avoids the need for temporary bracing. This type of
connection derives its flexibility from the use of relatively thin end-plates combined with
large bolt cross-centers.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Some of the literatures are collected and analyzed to find out the importance of different types
of connections and bracings with respect to each steel structural member and the seismic
activity are given below:

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 Connections in Structural Steel Joints

Nagao et al (1995) have discussed about the performance based seismic design on beam-
column connection in steel structures. Also this was done to reduce the cost of steel
fabrications. Poor welding procedures were observed in the collapsed building. So, an
inspection process is very essential.
Shin et al (2014) had discussed about the deformation characteristic of H-shape beams
with newly T-stub connection for the effect of beam column joints in elastic behavior of the
beam this research applies the model of exponential function based on equations of
equilibrium and compatibility equation and the location of bolts.When diameter of bolts is
larger and length of span is shorter, capacities of plastic deformation increase. When thickness
of T-flanges and T-web is thicker, capacities of plastic deformation increase.
Soltani et al (2011) had discussed about the elementary bolted steel T-stub connections,
proportioned according to Eurocode3 (EC3) were studied by means of a 3-dimensional finite
element model using the ANSYS software package.The elasto-plastic response, up to the
alternate state was analyzed and aspects relative to stiffness, strength, bolt loads, prying forces
and interaction between flanges were examined. Comparisons of experimental values,
computed results and EC3 predictions indicated that the design procedure still needs to be
improved, owing to the complex phenomena embodied.
Uang et al (2000) had investigated the cyclic response of the steel RBS moment
connections under various loading histories. This paper focused on the plastic rotation, energy
dissipation, and failure mode of RBS moment connections.No weld fractures were observed
they each reached a plastic rotation of 0.03 radian.Buckling amplitudes for the near fault
specimen were lower than those of the standard specimen at comparable drift levels.
Wald et al (2008) described base plate in bending and anchor plate in tension, which are
the major components of a base plate connections.The design was done according to the Euro
code 3 with a description of how the behavior is influenced by contact between the base plate
and the concrete surface. This has been verified by tests and a finite element simulation.
Kaling et al (2015) had studied on semi rigid connections of cold formed steel section
with different connection configuration. This was focused to find out the structural
performance of various beam-columns with bolted moment connections on cold formed light
gauge steel sections by analytical, FEM analysis and experimental tests.The inclusion of web
angles to beam in the connection didn‟t affect the load carrying capacity and connection
initial stiffness.
Imran et al (2014) had considered parameters to study were to compare the seismic and
wind performances of buildings are base shear, roof displacement. The models were analyzed
by equivalent static analysis as per IS 1893:2002.These models were analyzed using ETABS
software. Due to bracings at peripheral of structure, the base shear increased up to 40% for
zone III and roof displacement value decreased up to 45%. X- Type bracings were effective
for highly affected earthquake zones and for different wind speeds.

3. FAILURE MODES IN STEEL MEMBERS

Steel moment- resisting frames have become a popular seismic load- resisting system because
steel is a well-known ductile material with a high strength- to- mass ratio. Damage is expected
to consist of yielding and local buckling but not brittle fracture of connection. Formation of
plastic hinges at beam-column joints and column bases is a feature of inelastic behavior for
steel moment resisting frame these hinges form through flexural yielding of beams and shear
yielding of penal zones. That is been showed in several experimental works which the

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 P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango and S. Sivaganesan

connection where applied to cyclic loading, and the failure modes were varied , but mainly
exhibit a ductile behavior depending on several mechanisms characterized by bolt slip,
yielding of steel, elongation of bolt holes, etc.
Beam Behavior: it is expected that beams will undergo large in elastic rotations at targeted
plastic hinges locations, at weakened portions of the beams, with reduced beam section
designs, or within the beam span if large gravity moments are present. Failure modes can
include excessive local buckling and lateral torsional buckling. Beam- to- Column
Connections: because of the variety in the type of connection configurations, failure mode
take different forms like Fracture in or around welds, fracture in highly strained fracture
material, fracture at weld access holes, net section fractures at bolt holes, shearing and tensile
failure of bolts, bolt bearing and block shear failures.
Joint Panel Zone Behavior: failure modes associated with the direct transfer of forces from
the beam flange to the column can include column flange bending, web crippling, and web
buckling.
Column Behavior: The intention is to keep inelastic deformations out of most columns to
minimize detrimental effects of high axial loads on bending behavior and potential formation
of single- story mechanisms shown in figure 2. Therefore, excessive local buckling and lateral
torsional buckling are potential failure modes in addition to basic flexural buckling of column.
Column Splices: failure modes at column splices are similar to those for beam- to- column
connections. Failure modes are similar to those for beam- to- column connections. Failure of
column splices will not only reduces or eliminates bending and tension resistance, it will also
reduce or eliminate of the column to transfer shear forces.
Column Bases: failure modes depend on the connection between the column and the
foundation. They include anchorage stretching or pull out, fracture in base plates or in
column-to- base plate connections, and or excessive local and lateral torsional buckling if
inelastic deformations are concentrated in the region above the base connection.
Structural P-Delta Effects: amplification of internal forces and lateral displacements,
known as the P-delta effect, occur when a structure is simultaneously subjected to gravity
loads and lateral side sway. This effect reduces frame lateral tangent stiffness, might cause a
negative effective lateral tangent stiffness once a mechanism has formed, and can lead to
collapse.

Figure 1 Formation of a single Story frame mechanism, also called a "Weak Story mechanism"

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 Connections in Structural Steel Joints

Side sway Collapse: frame collapse can occur when the effective story shear due to
inertial forces and P-delta effects exceeds the story shear resistance.
A Braced Frame is a structural system which is designed primarily to resist wind and
earthquake forces. Members in a braced frame are designed to work in tension and
compression, similar to a truss. Braced frames are almost always composed of steel members.
Advantages of bracing system: Braced frames are applicable to all kind of structures like
bridges, aircrafts, cranes, Buildings and electrical transmission towers, are easy to fabricate
and construct, no lots of knowledge or skills are needed and If the bolted connections are
used, there is no deformation problem at the connections.

4. COMPARATIVE STUDY
The selection of a bracing configuration is dependent on many factors. These include the
height to width proportions of the bay and the size and location of required open areas in the
framing elevation. These constraints may supersede structural optimization as design criteria.
The introduction of the parameter, e/L, leads to a generalization of the concept of framing
system.
Bolted Double Angle cleats: Typical bolted double angle cleat connections about both the
major and minor axis of a column. Any simple equilibrium analysis is suitable for the design
of this type of connection. The one recommended in this publication assumes that the line of
action of shear transfer between the beam and the column is at the face of the column. Using
this model the bolt group connecting the cleats to the beam web must be designed for the
shear force and the moment produced by the product of the end shear and the eccentricity of
the bolt group from the face of the column. The bolts connecting the cleats to the face of the
column should be designed for the applied shear only. In practice the cleats to the column are
rarely critical and the design is almost always governed by the bolts bearing on to the web of
the beam. The rotational capacity of this connection is governed largely by the deformation
capacity of the angles and the slip between the connected parts. Most of the rotation of the
connections comes from the deformation of the angles while fastener deformation is very
small.
Fin plates: A more recent development, which follows both Australian and American
practice, has been the introduction of the fin plate connection. This type of connection is
primarily used to transfer beam end reactions and is economical to fabricate and simple to
erect. There is clearance between the ends of the supported beam and the supporting beam or
column, and minor axes of a column. These connections comprise a single plate with either
pre-punched or pre-drilled holes that is shop welded to the supporting column flange or web.
Bracing systems are generally three types namely Moment resisting frames
(MRFs),frames are rectilinear assemblages of beams and columns, with the beams rigidly
connected to the columns, Concentric braced system (CBFs),effective and economic lateral
load resisting systems to withstand earthquake loading in seismic regions around the world,
Eccentric braced frame (EBFs), reduce overall material requirements and result in a frame
which is still under moderate loads yet ductile at extreme overloads, an essential feature in
seismic design.
The seismic response of steel structures is mainly influenced by the behavior of
connections. Lots of studies by different authors were done but couldn‟t come up with any
sure conclusions on what type of bracings to be used.Some of the comparative studies of
various authors are discussed below:

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 P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango and S. Sivaganesan

Jagadeesh et al (2016) assessed the seismic response of steel structure with concentric
bracing system. Two configurations were utilized; vertical irregular model (VIRM) and
vertical irregular model with mega bracing (VIRM_MB). The steel frame models were of five
bays with fifteen stories for with and without bracing system. The study was accompanied
with the usage of ETABS. The comparison was done by comparing a number of parameters;
story drift, story displacements and base shear. The performed inelastic analysis stated that
mega bracing was more efficient to resist earthquakes due to the reduction in story drifts,
story displacement of the irregular vertical structure was 77.64% and the maximum base shear
was 23.42% than VIRM without bracing frame.
Anitha et al (2015) had studied about the seismic effect of different types of steel bracings
and a comparison of knee braced steel frame with other types of bracings had been done. The
modeling under non-linear time history analysis and non-linear static analysis was performed
using finite element software, ANSYS 14.5. Dynamic loading of 10kN was given for non-
linear static analysis and El-Centro earthquake data for time history analysis was assigned.
The knee bracing can be used for suitable seismic retrofitting method. In non-linear static
analysis, double knee bracings showed good performance during seismic activity as the
ultimate loading was very high and had more lateral stiffness. In time history analysis, the
maximum displacement observed was 90.5% more than without bracing and 50% more than
eccentric bracing system.
Dhiman et al (2015) had evaluated the response of braced and unbraced structure
subjected to seismic loads. Different types of bracings were used such as cross braced,
chevron braced, K-braced and diagonal braced for dead and live loads, seismic load in X and
Z direction respectively. The displacement of the structure decreased after the application of
bracing system and maximum reduction in lateral displacement occurred after applying cross
bracing system.It also reduced bending moments and shear forces in columns.
Ghomi et al (2008) had discussed on the new idea and application of EGS theory for
improvement of behavior of X-Bracing systems. This theory can increase the lateral stiffness
of buildings and decrease lateral displacements.The P-Δ effects were reduced and the stability
was improved. The ductility and the stiffness of the system as well as its energy absorption
capacity increased significantly.
A general comparison on EBFS and Knee bracings is studied:
In EBFs, some of the bracing members are arranged so that their ends do not meet
concentrically on a main member, but are separated to meet eccentrically.

Figure 3 Eccentric Link Elements

The eccentric link element between the ends of the braces is designed as a weak but
ductile link which yields before any of the other frame members. It therefore provides a

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 Connections in Structural Steel Joints

dependable source of ductility and, by using capacity design principles, it can prevent the
shear in the structure from reaching the level at which buckling occurs in any of the members.
The link element is relatively short and so the elastic response of the frame is similar to that of
the equivalent CBF. The arrangement thus combines the advantageous stiffness of CBFs in its
elastic response, while providing much greater ductility and avoiding problems of buckling
and irreversible yielding which affect CBFs in their post-yield phase.
The yielding element here is the „knee brace‟ shown in fig. 4, which remains elastic and
stiff during moderate earthquakes, but yields to provide ductility and protection from buckling
in extreme events.Unlike the link in the EBF, the 5 knee brace does not form part of the main
structural frame, and could be removed and replaced if it is damaged in an earthquake.

Figure 4 Knee Braced Frame

The general principlethat the diagonal elements of bracings should be placed in such a
way that the load–deflection characteristics of the structure are the same for both positive and
negative phases of the loading cycle.
In more rigid systems, the role of anchor bolts is crucial.A study on base plates with
different conditions proved the importance of anchor bolts and its arrangement as shown in
fig. 5. According to the experimental studies,
In circumstances where the anchor bolts are connected to the system through an added top
plate, such plates are the most vulnerable elements in the system. Besides, such configuration
has an adverse effect on the rigidity as well as the strength of the system. Apparently,
increasing the thickness of such plates increases the rigidity and the strength. With moderate
sized added top plates cannot be considered as rigid.

Figure 5 Base Plates at Different Locations

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 P.R. Kalyana Chakravarthy, R. Janani, S. Durgalakshmi, T. Ilango and S. Sivaganesan

In the design of a fin plate connection it is important to identify the appropriate line of
action for the shear. There are two possibilities: either the shear acts at the face of the column
or it acts along the centre of the bolt group connecting the fin plate to the beam web. For this
reason both critical sections should be checked for a minimum moment taken as the product
of the vertical shear and the distance between the face of the column (or beam web) and the
centre of the bolt group. Both critical sections are then checked for the resulting moment
combined with the vertical shear. Due to the uncertainty of the moment applied to the fin
plate, the fin plate welds are sized to be full strength.
Fin plate connections derive their in-plane rotational capacity from the bolt deformation in
shear, from the distortion of the bolt holes in bearing and from the out-of-plane bending of the
fin plate. Note that fin plates with long projections have a tendency to twist and fail by lateral
torsional buckling. An additional check to consider this behavior is included in the design
procedures for fin plate connections.
Commonly encountered simple connections include:
Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections using Partial depth end plates,Full depth end
plates&Fin plates.
Column splices (bolted cover plates or end plates)
Column bases
Bracing connections (Gusset plates)

5. CONCLUSIONS
Due to the unexpectedly high economic losses following the earthquakes, it‟s urged to limit
the damages to the structures in future earthquakes which has led to a need of developing a
Performance Based Design (PBD). In the current seismic design applied, codes allow design
of buildings that encourage plastic deformation in predefined areas only called dissipative
zones. Application of bolted connection between dissipativezones and rest of the structure to
replace the damages of dissipative elements on eccentrically braced frames can lower the
lateral displacements. A supplement brace at the end of the RBS can necessarily reduce the
transverse movement of beam flanges and column twist which can lead to cyclic degradation.
Common conclusions arrived are:
 Braced steel frame have more base shear than unbraced frames.
 Cross bracing undergo more base shear than diagonal bracing.
 Bracings reduce the lateral displacement of floors.
 Cross bracing undergo lesser lateral displacement than diagonal bracing.
 Cross braced stories will have more peak story shear than unbraced and diagonal braced
frames.
 Axial forces in columns increases from unbraced to braced system.
 Shear forces in columns decrease from unbraced to braced system. Diagonal braced columns
undergo more shear force than cross braced.
 Bending moment in column decreases from unbraced to braced system. Diagonal braced
column undergo more bending moment than cross braced frame.
 Under the same bracing system and loading, system with larger height or more number of
stories will have more base shear than the smaller one.

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 Connections in Structural Steel Joints

Plates are comparatively strong and stiff when they transfer the force by in-plane actions,
but are comparatively weak and flexible when they transfer the forces by out-of-plane
bending.
Thus the angle cleat and seat are flexible and allow the relative rotation of the connection
members, while the flange plates and web stiffeners are stiff and restrict the relative rotation.
The simplicity of welded connections and their comparative rigidity has often resulted in the
omission of stiffening plates when they are not required for strength purposes.
Thus the rigid connection can be greatly simplified by butt welding the beam directly onto
the column flange and by omitting the column web stiffeners. However, this omission will
make the connection more flexible since local distortions of the column flange and web will
no longer prevent.
The plate and angle should provide adequate flexibility for group of bolts to work
together. i.e. potential for minor bolt hole deformation is required. For this reason, the
maximum thickness of the material is limited to a certain level. High strength material should
not be used to provide adequate flexibility.

REFERENCES
[1] Uang et al (2000), “Effects of Loading History on Cyclic Performance of Steel
RBSMoment Connections”.
[2] Kaling et al (2015), “Study on Partially Restrained Connections of Cold Form Steel
Structures”.
[3] Imran et al (2014), “Stability Analysis of Rigid Steel Frames With and Without Bracing
Systems under the Effect of Seismic and Wind Loads”.
[4] Ghomi et al (2008), “Concept improvement of behavior of X-Bracing systems by using
Easy-Going Steel”.
[5] Dhiman et al (2015), “Behavior of Multistory Steel Structure with Different Types of
Bracing Systems (A Software Approach)”.
[6] Jagadeesh et al (2016), “Seismic Response of Steel Structure with Mega Bracing System”.
[7] Anitha et al (2015), “Study on Seismic Behavior of Knee Braced Steel Frames”.
[8] Shin et al (2014), “Analysis of the Behavior of Beam-to-Column Connection with the
Newly Reformed T-stub Connections by Exponential Function”.
[9] Nagao et al (1995), “Seismic Design on Beam-Column Connections”.
[10] Soltani et al (2014) “Bolted Steel T-Stub Connections”.
[11] Ratnesh et al (2014), “Seismic Analysis of Braced Frames”.
[12] F.S.K. Bijlaard et al (2004), Delft University of Technology, Netherlands, “Connection
inSteel Structures V Behavior, Strength & Design”.
[13] EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures.
[14] EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings.
[15] EN 1993-1-3:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-3: General rules -
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting.
[16] EN 1993-1-5:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-5: General rules -
Plated structural elements.
[17] EN 1993-1-11:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-11: Design of
structures with tension components.
[18] EN 1993-1-12:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-12: General - High
strength steels.
[19] EN 1993-1-8:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-8: Design of joints.

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