Electro-Hydraulics: Prepared by Approved by

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
As the name of the subject “Electro-Hydraulics”, the control part of hydraulic system is
handed over to Electrical and Electronic controls. It was done to achieve a very high
degree of sophistication and automation. The system is based on open loop and close
loop control which basically known as the Proportional and Servo Control.
This study material focuses on the different control system, proportional and servo
valves, their construction and very specific application, This study material will help to
know how can we do best with our hydraulic system. Our trainees and employees will be
certainly benefited by this study material.
_________________________ _________________________
Prepared by Approved by
S.P.Sharma K N Choubey
Sr. Manager - Mechanical Group Head - Mechanical
Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 1 of 51

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Sl. No. Topics Page #
01. Introduction to Electro-Hydraulics 03
02. Solenoids and Torque Motor 17
03. Proportional Direction Control valve 23
04. Pressure Compensator 35
05. Proportional Pressure Relief valve 37
06. Proportional Flow Control Valve 41
07. Servo Valve 43

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
1.
An introduction to Electro-Hydraulics
Before knowing Electro-Hydraulics, let us have a small recap on Hydraulics.
Hydraulics is the way of transmitting motion and power normally from prime mover to
machine through incompressible fluid, known as hydraulic fluid. It is capable of
transmitting power only when the fluid has pressure and flow, i.e. it must have pressure
energy. Its output is in change of output force or torque, along with the change in linear
or angular speed.
Any hydraulic system mainly consists of following units. They are :
Input or pumping unit : A positive displacement pump is the main component in this
unit. It sucks oil from reservoir and sends it to actuator under pressure to move the work.
During its operation, mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Output or working unit : A cylinder or hydraulic motor is normally used to move the
work along with the load. It receives pressurized oil from the pump, converts it from
pressure energy to mechanical energy during its operation. The output may be linear or
rotary motion as per requirement.
Control Unit : The function of this unit is normally to control the movement of energy
from input unit to output unit. It controls pressure, flow and direction of movement of
output unit. Different types of valves are used to control the function. These valves are
normally pressure control valve, flow control valve and direction control valve.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Initially, the control unit of any hydraulic system was not so accurate, because the work
satisfaction demand was too low. Direction and flow control valves were generally
adjusted and actuated manually. The work accuracy was fully dependent on the human
skill. Now-a-days, it has become important part of any automated system. It has become
popular and essential because of its reliability, accuracy, sensitivity, and precision
control. Therefore, it is used now in jets, ships, robots, CNC machines, automobiles, war
field equipments, farming equipments, etc. To achieve the function accurately, the whole
control part is transferred from human control to electrical and electronics control and the
system is known as ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS.
What is CONTROL?
Control is a device for controlling a form of energy to move from one point to other point
of the system. Examples of control systems include : the human body, heating system,
telephone networks, computers, CNC machines, etc. Control systems are generally
represented by the block diagram. A control system receives some reference or
command input, converts them into desired output. It has been shown by the following
diagram :
The concept of proportionality is very important in any of control system. A control

system can be considered proportional if a change in input to the system causes an
equal percentage change in the system output. The following figure shows the same :

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
The output of any control system can be changed by external disturbances. A system
that can monitor output and corrects for variations from the desired output, is called a
closed loop control system. A system that does not have this feature to correct for
variations, is known as an open loop control system.
An example of an open loop control system is the automobile speed control system. This
system consists of an accelerator pedal, linkage, carburetor, engine drive train and
wheels, the command input is the pedal setting and output is automobile speed.
Under certain conditions, the open loop system can be considered a proportional system.
The requirements are that each component in the system be proportional and the road
conditions stay constant. This would mean that the pedal setting 10% would always
result in a speed increase of 10%. Also, a certain pedal setting would always correspond
to the same speed.
However, this speed will not be proportional if there are external disturbances because of
the speed will change. For instance, a certain pedal setting may yield 55 kmph on a flat
road but only 25 kmph on a hill or if there is an opposite wind. An open loop system may
be satisfactory for some conditions stay fairly constant and if precise speed control is not
required. If this is not the case, a closed loop control system must be used to maintain
precise speed control, regardless of the wind or terrain.
A closed loop control system consists of the same components as the open loop control
system with the addition of a sensing element and a control element. The sensing
element is called the FEEDBACK. It monitors the actual output and then feeds this
signal back to a control element called the COMPARATOR.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
The comparator compares the feedback signal to the command input signal. If they are
the same the comparator holds the system output constant. If there is a net difference,
the comparator output changes its signal to increase or decrease the output of the
system. The difference between the command input and feedback signal is called the
ERROR SIGNAL. It causes the system to change its output until the feedback equals the
input.
In the above example of automobile, a feedback system might be composes of a

speedometer and the driver’s eyes. The actual speed is sensed by the speedometer and
in turn relayed to human brain via eyes. The brain acts as a comparator to compare the
actual speedometer reading against the desired speed. If they differ in any way, the brain
sends an error signal to the foot to change the pedal setting either increase or decrease
speed.
The type of feedback is often called NEGATIVE FEEDBACK, because the comparator
subtracts the output from the input signal to generate either a positive or negative error
signal. If the output matches the input, there is no change in pedal setting.
A further refinement of a control system is to classify the system as either MANUAL or

AUTOMATIC.
Our previous example is considered a manual system, because it uses human means for
feedback. A system is considered to be manual if it involves human means for any
system element except for the generation of a command input.
To make the automobile speed control automatic, a cruise control could be added to
feedback and correct the error signal. This system is now a closed loop automatic control
system and is commonly called a servo mechanism or servo system.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
PROPORTIONAL HYDRAULICS : Proportional hydraulics are generally used in open

loop control system. The valve has no feedback, therefore, it is controlled by the operator
or process controller. It has a fixed setting. In most cases, the output required of a
proportional hydraulics are pressure, speed and direction.
SERVO HYDRAULICS : Servo hydraulics are used in closed loop system. Servo valve
has a feedback built into the system, which monitors the machines or processes and
feeds a signal back to the valve to control the output. The type of output required of a
servo hydraulics and position, velocity, direction and pressure.
To understand how these systems work, first consider a conventional hydraulic system.
In conventional hydraulics, direction of oil flow is controlled by solenoid operated valves.
Speed control is accomplished by manually adjusted flow control valves. This does not
mean that a certain velocity, position, or force output can not be attained, but simply that
the system has no means for connecting the output by direct sensing of actual output
variable in the event that an output disturbance causes the output to stray from the
desired value.
The above system has the switching type solenoids. When these energized, spool of the
valve move fully in their extreme extending condition, thereby opening the valve fully to
allow whole amount of oil to pass through valve and hydraulic motor rotates with
maximum speed. There is no intermediate position of the spool inside the valve.
To control speed, separate valve called flow control valve is used. It restricts the flow of
oil from the pump and are manually adjusted for various settings. This is an open loop
control, where external disturbances, such as load changes, or internal effects, such as
slip, will cause a change in output speed even though the output does not change.
Furthermore, the system can not sense this deviation and will be unable to correct the
speed.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
An improvement to this system would be to add pressure compensated flow control valve
making the system less sensitive to load variations. Also, pressure and temperature
compensated flow control valve is available for applications where oil temperature will
vary. This is an indirect means for controlling actuator speed since it directly controls the
flow to the actuator. It assumes that there is a constant relationship between actuator
speed and flow.
Commercially available flow control valve of this design will normally yield a maximum
flow variation of less than 5%. This does not guarantee that the output speed will vary no
more than 5%, because the slip in the motor becomes greater as load increases causing
the motor to loose speed.
However, for the majority of applications, this type of speed control is quite satisfactory. If
more precise control is required, a proportional or servo mechanism is used.
A proportional direction control valve is working as a conventional direction control valve,

except that it works also as a flow control valve. It consists of proportional solenoids
which movements are proportional to the command input. The value of command input
depends upon the output required. The input signal is the electrical signal, where as the
output is the flow rate of the oil passing through the valve.
When solenoid of a proportional direction control valve is energized with a particular

signal through an electronic card, the spool of the valve moves in either of the direction
as per the polarity of the input signal. The spool moves proportional to its input signal
and achieves a position. It makes an proportional opening through which proportional
flow of oil passes and goes to the actuator to rotate it proportionally. The armature of the
solenoid is connected with the core of a positional transducer, which moves along the
armature. LVDT monitors the position of the spool and creates a feedback signal which
goes to control. Control compares input and feedback signal and sends an error signal to
the solenoid to move the spool in either direction to correct the position, i.e. the size of
the opening.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
The application of a proportional valve seizes where there is some internal leakage
through the system. To correct speed or position of an actuator, servo valve is used.
Servo valve has a frictionless torque motor which receives command input from the
electronic card. The spool of the valve moves proportional to the command input and
therefore allows a proportionate flow through the valve. Like proportional valve, it also
has an internal feedback system, mechanical or electrical, which monitors the position of
the spool. Along with internal sensing device, external sensing devices are connected to
the actuator which sense the speed and the position of the actuator and creates a
feedback signal. The feedback goes to the control, where it is compared by input signal.
If any error signal is generated, it comes to the torque motor to change the position of the
spool and finally the speed and position of the actuator. The system with proportional
and servo valve is known as ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC system.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS :
• Conventional hydraulics works on open loop control system, whereas Electro-

hydraulics on closed loop control system.
• Conventional hydraulics has purely manual control or operated by switching type

solenoid, whereas electro-hydraulics has electrical and electronic control along
with proportional solenoid or torque motor.
• Instead of using AC or DC type switching type solenoid in conventional hydraulics,

only DC type solenoid is used in electro-hydraulics.
• Electro-hydraulic can control position, speed, pressure and direction of a actuator

through one valve only, where as conventional valve not.
• Internal clearances between moving parts are comparatively too less in electro-
hydraulic valves than conventional valve.
• Because of more internal clearances in conventional valve, it has less sensitivity

from foreign particles in compared to electro-hydraulic valve.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
• Maintenance of conventional valve is much easier.
• The operating frequency of an electro-hydraulic valve is much higher than

conventional valve.
• Static and dynamic responses of conventional valve is very poor.
• Conventional valve is less costlier than electro-hydraulic valve, because of its

precision.
• Electro-hydraulic valve works better in high pressure drop condition.
• Ramp time of a conventional valve can not be adjusted as beautifully as in electro-

hydraulic valve.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROPOTIONAL AND SERVO HYDRAULICS :
• Servo Hydraulic is a closed loop control system, where proportional hydraulics is

an open loop control system.
• Proportional valve controls direction and speed of an actuator, servo valve

controls direction, speed, position and pressure of an actuator.
• Proportional valve spool has wide overlap (10% - 20%) in its centre position.
Servo valve has zero or negative overlap in its centre position.
• Spool of a proportional valve slides directly inside a valve body. Spool of servo
valve slides inside a bush fitted in valve body.
• Spool movement is much longer in case of proportional valve.
• Servo valve spool moves with too little clearance in comparison to proportional
valve.
• Servo valve is much more dirt sensitive than proportional valve.
• Proportional valve uses proportional solenoids, whereas servo valve uses torque
motor.
• Servo valve has excellent static and dynamic performaces.
• Servo valve operating frequency is much higher than a proportional valve.
• Servo valve is costlier.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
• Proportional valve requires input signal normally from 100 mA to 1000 mA. Servo
valve requires 4 mA to 20 mA.
• Pressure drop across servo valve is much higher than proportional valve.
• Servo valve has high force multiplying factor.
SOME DEFINITIONS :
Command Input or Input Signal : It is an electrical signal, generally given by the

operator through some external device to the controller in terms of some voltage. Its
value is generally kept very low.
Feedback Signal : It is also an electrical signal given back to controller by some sensing
device, like position transducer, etc. Controller compares this signal with input signal and
corrects the error generated by the operation. It is also in terms of voltage.
Output signal or Error Signal : This is signal coming out finally from the controller to
drive the spool. It is the difference between input signal and feed back signal. The
system stabilizes only when the error signal value becomes zero.
Hysteresis : When input signal is increased and then decreased, the output signal to
solenoid does not follow the same path because of the hysteresis property of the
magnetic element. The difference in valve signals required to produce same valve output
is called the hysteresis. It is expressed in percentage of rated signal.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Resolution or sensitivity : When input signal is increased, the valve output does not
change instantaneously. It changes only when input signal has some appreciable value.
The increment of input signal required to produce a change on valve output from an
increasing output to an extended output is called the resolution or sensitivity. It is also
expressed as the percentage of rated signal.
Threshold or Reversal range : When input signal is decreased from the increasing
value, the output again does not change instantaneously. The output changes only when
the input signal has some appreciable value like resolution. The decrement of input
signal required to produce a change on valve output from an increasing output to
decreasing output is known as the threshold or reversal range. It is also expressed as
the percentage of the rated signal.
Repeatability : when input signal is increased upto the same value several times, the
output signal may not be the same. The range within which the output signals obtained at
repeated setting of the same input signal is called repeatability. It is also expressed as
the percentage of the rated signal.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Surge : Effect of high accelerating or retarding force increases system pressure

drastically, which in turn gives vibration, noise and failure of some hydraulic components.
Ramp Function Generator : it is also a part of electronic card, which is used to avoid
the effect of surges by reducing retarding or accelerating force.
Spool dead band or Overlaps : This represents the condition of valve spool in centre
position of valve. The land width of spool varies in different overlaps, known as positive
overlap, negative overlap and zero overlap. Following are the condition of overlaps :
For positive overlap : Land width > valve port

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
For negative overlap : Land width < valve port
For zero overlap : Land width = valve port
Step Function Generator : This is the part of electronic card, which gives some
additional input signal to drive the spool in centre position of valve to avoid the effect of
positive dead band or overlap. It is working in both direction of movement of spool and
while starting and stopping. It does not work in intermediate position of spool.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Dither : A low amplitude and high frequency AC signal superimposed on output DC

signal for putting valve spool in dynamic condition, is called dither. This also a part of
electronic card.
Flow forces : This is the force exerted on valve spool lands because of flow of oil. It is
because of pressure difference created at equal area of spool land face. This force
actually acts to bring the spool in centre position to stop the flow against the spool
actuating force.
Null position : The spool position in centre position of valve, where the valve gives zero
or equal flow from both opening, is called null position of valve.
If the spool is in null position, the orifices created by the lands and the body are equal
causing reduced pressure at valve ports or control ports, therefore, the actuator has no
movement.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
SOLENOIDS AND TORQUE MOTOR
Switching type solenoid : These solenoids are used along with conventional direction
control valves. These may be AC/DC type. These are also known as ON/OFF type.
When energized, it takes the extreme position, therefore, provides maximum oil flow
through the valve, it does not give any intermediate position of the armature movement.
The T shape armature is housed in a magnetic core, which magnetizes by the

application of electrical current to the coil. Normally, the armature remains in offset
condition with the help of an offset spring and creating a large air gap between the core
and the armature. When current is passed through the coil, it magnetizes the core, which
attracts the armature and there remains no air gap. When core is magnetized, the offset
spring pushes the armature back to its initial positions. As the spool of the valve remains
connected with the armature, the spool follows the movement of the armature. The graph
shows the force/stroke curve along with the spring force of a switching type solenoid.
A switching type solenoid can not be used as a proportional type. When proportional
signal is given, it will keep the air gap because of that the coil will be bound to take more
current and the coil will burn out. Also, the stroke/force curve does not coincides the
stroke/force curve of the offset spring, therefore, the armature will start to oscillate
between the two extreme position.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Proportional Solenoids : It represents the linking element between electronics and

hydraulics. These are a form of DC linear solenoids, which produces force to travel the
spool of the valve as output command proportional to input signal.
The armature of proportional solenoid is mounted on the shaft and is free to move on the
frictionless bearing. The armature is housed in radial core, where the radial clearance
between the core and the armature is in micron. When input current is given, the
armature moves and takes a position proportional to current. To avoid the heat
generated in the coil, it is made wet pin type. Hydraulic oil is circulated throughout the
coil area and cools down the temperature.
Proportional solenoids are of two types :
(i) Force controlled solenoid, and

(ii) Stroke controlled solenoid.
Solenoids with particularly defined force / current relationship over a short stroke
are called force controlled solenoids. These are the modified DC solenoids providing
linear adjustable forces, by simply altering the current signal to te solenoid and
optimizing linearity of the solenoid.
When a switching type solenoid is energized, the plunger travels its full stroke creating a
constant output force. A forced controlled solenoid operates on the principle that solenoid
force output is linear to the current supply. The linearity of the force output to the current
works effectively over a stroke of approximately 1.5 mm.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Using a current feedback loop in the electronic amplifier, the solenoid current and with it
the solenoid force, is held constant, even with the changes of resistances in the solenoid.
Installation dimensions of a forced controlled solenoid are small, particularly because of

the short stroke. These are used in pilot operated direction control valve, pressure relief
valve. The solenoid force is converted into hydraulic pressure.
Solenoids with comparatively linear force/current relationship over a reasonable

long stroke length, are called stroke controlled solenoids. The primary reason to
develop these solenoids was to improve valve performance. This was made possible
through the positional transducers, which provide electrical feedback allowing the stroke
of the solenoid to be measured more accurately.
When a stroke controlled solenoid receives an input signal causing it to respond, a

certain percentage of error is generated because of the feedback signal is zero. It tends
to move the armature of the solenoid along with the spool. Positional transducer fitted
with the end of the spool measures what the actual spool position is, and feeds back a
signal to the amplifier. The input signal and feedback signal are then compared
electronically in the amplifier and from these two values, an error signal is generated
back to the solenoid to compensate for any error generated. This results in the flow
forces on the spool, maintaining a very accurate spool position.
Using stroke controlled solenoid, the spool of a directional control valve may be directly
operated and maintained in any desired position. The solenoid stroke lies between 3 to 5
mm. in conjunction with the electrical feedback, the hysteresis and repeatability errors of
the solenoid are kept very low. In addition, the flow forces on the spool are also counter
balanced. It is generally used with directly operated direction control valve.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
In pilot operated direction control valve, a large controlled area is affected by the
controlled hydraulic pressure. The control forces are considerably higher and percentage
effect of interfacing forces is not so high. For this reason, pilot operated proportional
direction control valves are without electrical feedback.
TORQUE MOTOR: An electro-hydraulic servo valve is actuated through the torque

motor. It receives input signal from the controller and controls the operation. Though,
many actuator devices have been used in the part, the permanent magnet torque motor
is by far most commonly used by today'
s servo valve manufacturers.
A torque motor basically consists of an armature, two coils, pole coils, pole pieces ant
two permanent magnets. The coil-wrapped armature is mounted on a flexure tube and
positioned so that the ends of the armature are located in the air
gaps between the pole pieces. Permanent magnets are mounted to the pole pieces
polarizing them, one north and one south.
When current flows to the coils, the armature pivots. The armature stops pivoting when
its torque is offset by the restraining torque of the flexure tube. A flapper or jet pipe is
connected with the armature at right angled position. In deviated condition of the
armature, the flapper or jet pipe creates pressure difference that causes to move the
spool of the valve in either direction.
Torque motors are classified as dry or wet type. Similar to solenoid operated direction
control valves, wet means that the coil is immersed in the oil and dry indicates that the
coil is sealed off from the oil.
Even through, a wet torque motor has the advantage of cooler operation, most servo
valves use dry torque motors, because the magnets tend to attract ferromagnetic
particles in the fluid and eventually cause failure. In applications, the torque motor'
s two

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
coils can be connected in several different configurations. These includes parallel, series
differential and single. Among those, series and parallel connections of the two coils are
mostly used.
Series has an advantage that half of the current is drawn by the coils than the current
drawn in case of parallel connection. Therefore, the size of the power amplifier becomes
smaller and the cost becomes less. However, a parallel connected servo valve gives
better safety, because the valve will continue to operate even I one coil runs out.
Operation with one coil may be more sluggish, some applications like, flight control would
suffer fatally if the total control were lost.
The differential connection was used mainly before bi-polar drive electronics were
developed. This is now little used configuration. Single coils are used when it is desired
to minimize the cost of the valve and slower response is acceptable.
Rated current varies according to the valve design, coil resistance and coil configuration.
Rated current is the amount of input current to the valve required to position the main
spool to the full opening position producing maximum flow. The rated current of a parallel
circuit is the four times of the rated current of a series circuit. Its resistance is also 1/4th.
Typical rated current values can range from 5 to 100 mA.
Torque motors can be obtained with a variety of coil resistances ranging from 1000 ohms
to 20 ohms. The trend to day is towards high resistance coils in order to reduce the
current draw. This reduces the cost of the electronics. Another characteristic of the
torque motor is coil inductance. Inductance causes a lag in the response the torque
motor output to a change in electrical input. It is expressed in units of henries. Typical
values ranges from 0.5 to 3 Henries. This characteristic is used by the designers to
predict system performance and is not significant for trouble shooting of the existing
system.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
The polarity of the valve refers to the current polarity applied to the torque motor coils,
most servo valves use the flowing standard: Positive (+) to A and negative (–) to B
produces oil flow out of port B. Also positive (+) to C and negative (–) to D produced oil
flow out of port B. valve polarity is also called VALVE PHASING.
Torque motors are highly reliable devices. The main failure item is the coil burn out,
which renders the torque motor inoperable if in series and sluggish in parallel.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
PROPORTIONAL DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE
A conventional direction control valve controls the direction of movement of any actuator.
When solenoid of direction control valve is energized, it moves the spool in either
direction fully to give maximum flow of oil through the opening, thus gives maximum
actuator speed. The speed of actuator is controlled by using flow control valve by
adjusting the flow manually. Different speeds can be obtained by adjusting flow control
valve many times or by inserting many flow control valve in parallel along with solenoid
operated shut off valve. This type of setting is never accurate, because the system has
no means to check the error and to rectify the variation.
While starting and stopping, a huge amount of pressure surge comes on the system
because of system inertia. There is no effective means to avoid the effect of surges in
conventional system. The system becomes smooth when the value of acceleration and
retardation is reduced to its optimum value.
Proportional direction control valve can be used to work like a conventional direction
control valve to control the direction of movement of an actuator. It can control
simultaneously actuator speed working as flow control valve. It looks like a conventional
direction control valve, but the spool configuration is designed specifically to provide
precision metering in both inlet and outlet sections of the valve. While metering the flow,
pressure drop across the valve at both sections remain relatively equal. This allows good
controllability of cylinders or hydraulic motor movement. Many times, acceleration,
deceleration and counter balancing can be achieved with just one proportional valve,
when interfaced with required electronics.
Proportional valve is different from a convention direction control valve in following

manners :
Proportional solenoids are used instead of switching type solenoids,
Spool configuration are different as metering notches are cut in input and output
sections, and Spool has wide positive overlaps (!0 to 20%).
There are two types of proportional directional control valve :
(a) Directly operated proportional directional valve

(b) Pilot operated proportional directional valve

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Directly operated proportional directional valve : Proportional directional valve that

incorporates positional feedback can be directly operated type and can have high degree
of accuracy. In this valve, a stroke controlled solenoid converts an electrical signal into a
proportional movement of spool.
As shown in figure, a directly operated proportional direction control valve has stroke
control solenoids with its spool (4) held in centre position by two centering springs (5).
When solenoid (2A) receives an input signal, the spool moves to right opening ports P to
B and A to T. When solenoid (2B) receives input signal, spool moves to left opening
ports P to A and B to T. The linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) (3) being
mechanically linked to solenoid A is capable of movement +/- 3 mm for either direction
of spool. Thus, when either solenoid receives a particular input signal, the spool moves a
corresponding distance. This causes the core of LVDT to move out of equilibrium which
induces a signal and feeds it back to the amplifier relaying it to the actual spool position.
The input signal and feedback signal is then compared electronically in the amplifier.
From these two values a corrected signal is generated and fed to the solenoid giving a
definite position of spool. If the feedback is lost, the spool will return to its centre
position. This safety feature is built in to the amplifier. As LVDT monitors the position of
the spool correctly, the hysteresis error is between 5 to 6% and repetition error is 2 – 3%
depending on the size of the valve. The main spool is controlled groove cut into it, giving
a progressive flow action.
While selecting a valve, the flow / rated current curve for a direction control valve should
be observed.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
While selecting the size, the pressure drop across the valve must be considered. The
flow of oil passing at same input signal will be different at different pressure drop. It is
also true that the speed provided by the valve is not same at different load condition. As
the load changes, it changes pressure drop and changes the speed.
Acceleration and deceleration value of the piston can be adjusted through electronic
cards. The system used is known as ramp function generator.
The proportional valves have the power limits which should not be exceeded. A valve
equipped with LVDT has less effect than a valve without LVDT. In the valve, the solenoid
force is counter acted by the flow forces and this is the reason that even at a large
pressure drop the flow rate should not be increased beyond the power limit. If it happens,
the spool closes itself due to the flow forces. Therefore, the spool or valve size should be
selected in connection with the flow and system pressure. While selecting the valve the
control range is taken into consideration. Controlled range is the ratio of minimum to
maximum flow. For the proportional directional control valve without positional
transducer, the control range is 1:20 and with positional transducer it is approximately
1:100.A directly operated proportional direction control valves are the most accurate
among all proportional direction valves, but they are of small sizes. This valve can handle
maximum a nominal flow oof 60 lpm at 10 bar pressure drp. The stroke controlled
solenoid can not be used for higher flow as there is a problem of higher flow forces which
counter acts the solenoids. As the flow forces are very high, it requires a larger stroke
controlled solenoid which is normally not possible.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
Proportional Valve Spool : Due to modern precision machining methods, the radial
clearance between the spool and the inside bore diameter of the valve housing is
approximately 3 to 4 microns. Although, all valve spools have internal leakage, but the
close tolerances keep internal leakage as small as possible. This also allows for spool
overlap to be kept minimum.
The spool configuration for a proportional direction control valve is simple in construction
and easy to apply. It is designed to provide metering in both directions. The metering
notches are provided by machining triangular grooves on the spool lands, which are
called as control grooves. Each land has control grooves cut symmetrical around it,
providing equal flow areas.
When spool is moved in either direction, the specially designed grooves never move fully
free from the annuli, thereby always retaining a metering function. As in the condition of a
conventional direction control valve, the spool first moves through a dead band and then
completely opens, proportional spools are positively overlapped precisely 11% ,
compensation has been made in the amplifier to reduce this to a minimum. The term
used to reduce the effect of dead band is known as step function generator.
There are basically two types of centres used in the proportional hydraulics. They are the
closed centre and float centre. They are generally represented by capital letter E and W
respectively. In centre position of the valve, all ports remain closed in E type valve,
where as port P remains closed and A and b remain connected with T in W type valve.
The W type valve does not provide full flow in the centre position, but only 3% of the
maximum flow can pass through the centre. These centres are again divided as E, E1,
E2, E3 and W, W1, W2, W3. These are dissimilar from each other in following ways :
E and W type centre valve is used with the cylinder having 1:1 area ratio or hydraulic
motor, where flow of oil from both the ports are the same and therefore, the pressure
drop too.
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For E and W type centres :
P to A = Q (max) and B to T = Q (max)

P to B = Q (max) and A to T = Q (max)
When these centres are used with differential cylinders, where unequal pressure drops
are generated at their both opening which effects the controllability of the valve. E1 and
W1 type centres are used with the differential cylinder. Port A of the valve is connected
with cap end area and port B with rod end area.

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For E1 and W1 type centres :
P to A = Q (max) and B to T = Q/2

P to B = Q/2 and A to T = Q (max)
E2 and W2 centres are used with double acting cylinders with port A connected to rod
end side and Port B connected to cap end side.
P to A = Q/2 and B to T = Q (max)

P to B = Q (max) and A to T = Q/2
E3 and W3 centres are known as regenerative centres. These are used with port A
connected to cap end side and port B to rod end side.
P to A = Q (max) and B to T = blocked

P to B = Q/2 and A to T = Q (max)
An another type of centre is also available with proportional direction control valve,
having P connected to A and B under restriction and T closed. This allows about 3%
metered oil of the full flow rating of the spool. It is normally used in motor applications
providing the necessary make-up oil in centre position, which may be needed due to
motor leakage or any suction that is created if the motor is brought to a sudden stop.
Other than the modified centre position, the spool construction and operation is the same
as the closed centre spool.

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Pilot operated direction control valve : For the system working with higher flow rate
and pressure, pilot operated direction control valves are used. A pilot operated direction
control valve can be used with a normal flow rate of 520 lpm at 10 bat pressure drop.
A pilot operated direction control valve consists of a pilot valve (3) with the proportional
solenoids (1) and (2), main valve (7) with the main spool (8) and the centering and
control spring (9). Forced controlled solenoids are used in this valve.
The input signal coming from the electronic control is converted in the proportional
solenoid (1) or (2) into a proportional force. Corresponding to this force, a pressure is
obtained at the outlet (A & B) of the pilot valve (3). This pilot pressure acts on the surface
of the main spool (8) and shifts it against the spring (9) to such an extent until a state of
equilibrium is obtained between the spring force and the force generated by the
pressure. The stroke of the spool and therefore the opening to the flow depends upon
the pressure head acting on the surface of spool. The hydraulic pressure produced by
the force controlled solenoid can be produced using either a pressure reducing or a
pressure relief principle.
The valve described here is equipped with a pressure reducing valve as the pilot valve.
The advantage lies that pilot does not flow continuously through the valve.

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The pressure control valve basically consists of two proportional solenoids (1) and (2),
housing (3), a control spool (4) and two pressure measuring spool (5) and (6). the
proportional solenoid converts an electric signal into a proportional force, i.e. an increase
in the control current results in a corresponding higher solenoid force. The set solenoid
force remains constant over the entire control stroke.
When the solenoid is not energized, the control spool (3) is held in mid position by the
springs. The port A and B are connected to T and therefore not under pressure. When
solenoid (1) is energized, the force of the solenoid acts via the pressure measuring spool
(5) on the control spool (4) and shifts it to right. As a result, oil flows from P to A and B to
T. the pressure builds up in port A acts on pressure measuring spool (6) via the radial
hole in the control spool (4). The resulting force generated by the pressure opposes the
solenoid force and shifts the control spool (4) in the close direction when a balance is
reached between both forces. During this procedure, the measuring spool (6) rests on
the plunger of the solenoid (2).
The link from P to A is interrupted, the pressure is held constant in the working port A. a
reduction in the solenoid force results in the excess pressure force at the solenoid control
(4) so that is shifted to the left. Pilot oil can flow via the connected ports A to T so that the
pressure can drop correspondingly. Equilibrium of forces once again means that the
pressure is maintained constant, however now at lower level. In the neutral position,
solenoids are reenergized and ports A and B are opened to tank. Oil can flow
unrestricted to the tank and pressure is relieved at A or B. At the same time, the link P to
A and b to T is interrupted.
The design of the control spool corresponds to that of directly operated proportional
direction control valve.
When solenoid (2) is energized, a pressure builds up in the chamber (12) corresponding
to the signal. The pressure once again shifts the main spool against the spring (9) via the
tie rod (13) which is rigidly linked to the spool. The spring is preloaded between the thrust
pads and fitted without play between cover and housing.
The use of one spring for both spool directions ensures an identical valve reaction in
each direction to any given signal, and thus, equal deflection in each direction. In
addition, the thrust pad mounting system allows a particularly low hysteresis to be
achieved.

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The spring once again forces the control spool into the centre position when the pressure
is relieved in the pressure chamber. The vale can be internally or externally piloted from
port X. to ensure full opening of the main spool under all operating conditions, a
minimum pilot pressure of 30 bar is required at the pilot valve inlet. If the valve is
internally piloted and system pressure operates above 100 bar, the sandwich type
pressure reducing valve must be mounted between the main valve and pilot section. This
serves to protect the pilot section since its maximum operating pressure at port P is
limited to 100 bar.
With the help of amplifier, a time control signal determines how fast or how slow the
spool is going to reach its set points directly corresponding to acceleration and
deceleration.
Typical operating curves for proportional Directional Valve :
To provide full control of proportional DC valves, both the inlet and outlet must be
continuously metered. In order to achieve good resolution, the maximum possible
spool stroke should be utilized. Various nominal flow ratings are available for each
particular valve size, and this is made possible by increasing or decreasing the size or
the control grooves. Along with each nominal flow rating, an operating curve has been
developed, making sure that the intended use of the spool allows for maximum
controllability.

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Shown in the operating curve, it is at flow rate to input current percentage relationship for
a 50 LPM nominal spool. As an example, let use consider the following. When a 50 LPM
flow rate is required, and the valve must be operate from closed condition to a fully open
condition, looking at the curve for 100% control current and a flow rate of 50 LPM, the
total pressure drop across the valve is 10 bar.
This would mean a pressure drop of 5 bar from P to A and 5 bar from B to T. if however
only a 25 LPM flow rate were required and the same 50 LPM nominal spool were used,
looking back at the curve at 70% control current does not effectively utilize the full spool
stroke. The valve would virtually pass 25 LPM unmetered providing a little or no
controllability at the end of the curve. A smaller spool will be needed to give full control.
The curve clearly demonstrates that the purpose of using proportional DC valves is to
provide control for which there must be metering, meaning there must be pressure drop
across the valve. The example just given does not consider load condition.
When predicting the maximum cycle rate and load condition of a particular circuit, it is
some times necessary to consider the physical limiting factors of the valves being used.
Although the natural frequency of the system (and therefore the maximum acceleration
rate), more often than not becomes the limiting factor, it is important to familiarize
yourself with the response characteristics of the valve. This is particularly true when
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process controllers or computers are used to control the time relationship between
component functions. Being able to predict dependable valve response characteristics,
computerised control be relatively anticipate the required starting point of a function. The
computer or controller is the able to start the valve, prior to the occurrence of required
function. In this way dead band is eliminated and cycle rates can be improved.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE:
In order to explain the frequency response characteristic of the valve, we must

discuss the term used to describe the measurement of performance.
FREQUENCY: The number of times any action occurs in a given measure of time. Most
frequency is assigned in units of Hz, we are speaking of the no. of cycle/sec.
AMPLITUDE RESPONSE: It is the ratio of output change to the input change. Amplitude
response is measure in decibals.
PHASE LAG: The time required for the output to recreate the command of the input and
it is measured in degree.

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Figure shows a typical frequency response curve for a proportional valve. In this graph,
the top descending curve shows that relationship between amplitude response and
frequency. Curve 1 shows a +/- 25% change assuming the 50% input.
Curve 2 shows the 50% signal which varies to a high of 100% and low of 0% cyclically.
For this particular valve at an amplitude of 3 bd (50% output) the frequency response is
10Hz. It is important to know that the industrial standard for representing valves has
been kept at this value. This curves clearly indicate that as the signal becomes faster,
the amplitude of the spool motion becomes lesser.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 4-WAY PROPORTIONAL VALVE:
1. The construction is similar to a 4/3 way directional valve, spring centre to neutral.
2. Maximum resistance to dirt.
3. The direction and flow control are unified in one device. No additional directional valve
or throttles are required in order to provide programmable control of both rapid
traverse and creep speed movements. Speed changeover is smooth and stepless.
4. Pressure drop across the control lands is relatively low because of long spool stroke,
as in the case of pilot operated directional valve.
5. The serviced unit is continuously tensioned between two control lands in the inlet and
return lines.
6. Easy control of the acceleration and deceleration operation is achieved in conjunction

with the electronic controls. Acceleration and deceleration times are pre-determined
in the electronic control, and are not dependent on hydraulic influences (oil viscosity).
7. Solenoid power is that of normal DC solenoids.

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PRESSURE COMPENSATORS: All proportional valves which have been described up

until now only represent throttle valves, in which the volumetric flow also changes as the
pressure ratio changes. The volumetric flow decreases s the load pressure at the driven
unit increase. Conversely, the volumetric flow increases as the load pressure decreases.
Throttle valves are therefore useful as control device only when the loads do not vary
widely.
Figure shows a typical characteristic throttle curve. The change in volumetric flow is
clearly shown dependent on the drop in the valve pressure which is directly depend on
the load pressure in the case of constant pump and tank pressure.
∆ PV = PS - PL – PT
where, ∆PV = Valve pressure drop

PS = System pressure (constant)
PL = Load pressure (Variable)
PT = Tank pressure (Constant)
It is therefore necessary to compensate the load influence described above by means of

adjusted devices.

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LOAD COMPENSATION WITH 2-WAY METER-IN Pr. COMPENSATOR: The use of a

2-way meter-in compensator, ensures the pressure drop in meter-in throttle edge of the
proportional valve maintained constant. In this way, load pressure fluctuations and
changes in pump pressure are compensated. This also means that the flow can not be
increased by increasing the pump pressure. The valve must therefore be selected with
regard to its nominal flow rate in accordance with the differential control pressure.
The control orifice A1 and the measuring orifice A2 are arranged in the 2-way meter in
pressure compensator one after the other. Referred to the balanced piston of the spool, it
will be shown that the pressure drop ∆P = p1 - P2 at the measuring orifice remains
constant as the consumer pressure varies. Without taking the flow force into
consideration, the following is the applicable for the balanced position.
P1. AK = P2.AK + FF
resulting in pressure drop,
P = P1 - P2 = FF/AK = Constant.
Since a light spring is installed and the control is short, the change in the spring force is
only slight and therefore the pressure drop almost constant. The control spool can only
change the opening of control orifice A1 when the spring force has been overcome. The
flow control function is therefore effective only when the outer pressure difference PP - P2
is greater than FF/ KK
If the resistance to flow increases as the flow increases, then the outer pressure
difference must also increase in order to achieve the flow control function.
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PROPORTIONAL PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
Pressure relief valve is used in any hydraulic system to limit the maximum pressure of
the system. It prevents damage in the system because of the overpressure.
The pressure relief valve can be adjusted at different pressure by turning the knob
manually. It is difficult to get different setting pressures in one operation of the system
until and unless anyone again sets the knob. It can be done by using a number of
pressure relief valves but total installation becomes very complicated. Also, additional
arrangement is made to unload the pump in idle condition of the pump, because the
system will consume unnecessary too much power in that condition.
A proportional pressure relief valve can be used as a conventional pressure relief valve.
The setting of pressure is through the electronic cards.
There are the two types of proportional pressure relief valve :
a) Direct operated pressure relief valve

b) Pilot operated pressure relief valve
Direct operated pressure relief valves are poppet type valves, which are electronically
adjustable with an LVDT or positional feed back.
The pressure setting of the valve is directly proportional to the input signal. When the
proportional solenoid receives an input signal, the stroke of the solenoid pushes directly
a pressure pad. This is turn pushes on a compression spring with a sprig pushing on the
poppet. The actual position of the pad is then determined by the LVDT feeding a signal
back to the amplifier. The feed back signal and the input signal are then compared

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electronically sending a corrected signal back to the solenoid. A definite position of the
pressure pad is then maintained, the very accurate spring tension is also maintained
which accounts for very accurate pressure setting. Because of using the LVDT, the
hysteresis is upto 1% and repetition accuracy is upto 0.5% which are negligible. When
pressure exceeds the setting or the spring, the poppet opens allowing oil to flow from the
pressure port through the spring chamber to the tank. As with the pilot operated
proportional pressure relief valve, the pressure setting can be gradually increased or
decreased with the help of amplifier.
Since the pressure can be set accurately, the valve is used extensively in injection
mounding applications, where injection pressure accuracy is critical. It also can be used
as a pilot control for logic element and pressure relief valves. Maximum flow capabilities
are limited by the various pressure ranges, seat diameter decreases with increase
pressure capability.
If power is lost, the solenoid force is reduced to zero and the valve’s pressure setting is
dependent only unloading characteristics of the valve.
As this is an unbalanced type pressure relief valve, it has the same problem of adjusting
the pressure at variable flow rate. Also, because of high pressure override zone, it gives
the changes in the speed as the load changes. Therefore, it is used where the flow rate
passing through the valve is small or for venting the pilot operated pressure relief valve.
The following curve shows the setting pressure/percentage input signal for a valve of
nominal flow of maximum 25 LPM.
Curve 1 = Flow 02 L/min


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Pilot operated proportional pressure relief valve: Like a conventional pilot operated
pressure relief valve, a proportional pressure relief valve is also a balanced type valve. It
has less pressure override, therefore, it is used extensively for higher flow rate system.
But the major difference between the two is that the spring adjustment assembly in the
pilot head is replaced by a force controlled solenoid. The maximum force of these
solenoids lies between 12 to 14 pounds. This force is sufficient to enable an adjustable
force to hold a small direct operated relief valve poppet in a seated position.
When input signal is given to the solenoid, the solenoid provides the direct force on the
pilot poppet. Pilot pressure is fed internally from passage (10) working through orifices (7
& 8) on the nose of a pilot poppet and on the top of the main poppet. As long as the
pressure does not exceed the force of the proportional solenoid the main poppet remains
in a closed position, due to the main poppet being of equal areas and incorporating a
light spring. The pressure works equally above and below the main poppet with the light
spring allowing for a slightly greater downward closing force.
When system pressure exceeds the setting of the proportional solenoid, the pilot poppet
opens establishing a pilot flow from passage (10) through port Y to tank. This allows a
decay in pressure above the main poppet felt by the orifice (9). At the same time, the
main poppet opens allowing oil to pass from port A to port B. The main poppet is a small
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low mass poppet which allows for minimal stroke during opening meaning the above
valve reacts quickly. The sleeve is manufactured with three radial holes drilled
symmetrically around it to allow for a divergent flow characteristic when the sleeve
opens. The result is a much quieter valve.
Unlike the conventional pilot operated pressure relief valve, (where the maximum
pressure rating of the valve is established by the force of the spring in the pilot head), the
maximum pressure rating for a proportional pressure relief valve is established by the set
area of the pilot poppet. Considering the solenoid provides an adjustable force upto 14
lbs, a larger set results is a lower maximum adjustable pressure rating of the valve. The
resultant pressure force therefore has to work over the larger area on the nose of the
pilot poppet, thus requiring less pressure to push it to open. Likewise a smaller seat
results in a higher pressure rating of the valve since the resultant pressure force must
now act over a smaller area on the nose of the pilot poppet. It takes a greater amount of
pressure to push the pilot poppet open.
The sensitivity of the proportional solenoid requires that the pilot head be externally
drained directly back to tank from port Y. if the pilot head is internally drained, back
pressure can develop causing erratic operation of the valve. With the help of the
electronic amplifier the pressure setting of the valve can be either gradually increased or
decreased accordingly. Also, the solenoid force can be quickly or frequently adjusted
during the machine operation. Adjusting time or the time it takes to go from one valve
setting to the next, with respect to the signal received from the amplifier is in a range of
50 to 150 ms depending on the size of the valve.
If power is lost to the valve, solenoid force immediately falls off, allowing oil to pass from
port A to port B. to protect the system from high unexpected solenoid forces, (such as
those caused by electronic failure or high current peaks), a maximum pressure relief
valve can be built into the pilot head of the valve. This can be accomplished by using a
standard spring and poppet assembly which can be mechanically adjusted slightly above
the maximum desired system pressure. It should also be mentioned, that many times a
relief is needed for very small flow rates. By removing the pilot head and using it as an
electronic adjustable direct operated relief valve, the pilot head alone can handle flows
up to about one half a gallon per minute.

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PROPORTIONAL FLOW CONTROL VALVE
The use of a proportional flow control valve is very limited, as the function of flow control
is done by a proportional direction control valve. Even through, in some specific places
proportional flow control valve is used for its pressure an temperature compensation
characteristics.
Similar to conventional pressure compensated flow control valve, a proportional flow

control valve maintains a constant flow output by keeping the pressure drop constant
across the main control orifice. However, flow control valve is different from the
conventional type as the control spool has been modified and is working in conjunction
with the stroke controlled solenoid.
The most important components are the

housing (1), the proportional solenoid with
positional transducer (LVDT) (2), the
measuring orifice (3), the pressure
compensator (4) and the installed non-
return valve (5). The oil flow setting is
determined by an electrical signal set at a
potentiometer. In conjunction with the
electronic control, this set signal value
results in a corresponding current and
therefore a proportional stroke of the
proportional solenoid. Correspondingly, the
measuring orifice (3) is shifted downwards,
thereby releasing an opening to flow. the
position of the opening orifice is feed back
by the inductive positional transducer. Any
deviations from the signal value are
corrected by the closed loop control. The
pressure compensator maintains the
pressure drop at the measuring orifice at a
constant valve. The oil flow is therefore
independent of load. Good design of the
measuring orifice ensures a low
temperature drift. The measuring orifice is
closed when the signal value zero.

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The measuring orifice closes in case of power failure or cable breakage at the electrical
positional transducer. Time dependent closing and opening of the orifice is made
possible with the help of the electronic amplifier. For reverse free flow a check valve
assembly is built into the valve to give a free flow path from B to A.

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SERVO VALVE
Servo valves are used in closed loop system. Servo valve has a feedback built into the
system, which monitors the machines or processes and feeds a signal back to the valve
to control the output. The type of output required of a servo hydraulics and position,
velocity, direction and pressure.
TYPES OF SERVO VALVES:
Single-stage servo valve : in one type of single stage servo valve, the torque motor
armature is directly connected to the spool so that movement of the armature results in
an identical movement of the spool. In this case, the armature position is the same as
spool position. Therefore current is proportional to the flow rate.
The single stage servo valve is limited to low flow application, usually less than one or
two GPM, because the torque motor has limited power to shift the spool and limited the
maximum effective stroke or displacement of the spool.
Two-stage servo valve: It is capable of handling larger flow rate than single stage valve,
those generally require for most application. It also has the ability to respond more
quickly, which is important in modern high performance servo systems.
Two stage servo valve design falls into major categories according the type of first or
primary stage used:
1. Flapper–Nozzle,
2. Jet–Pipe.

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Flapper–Nozzle servo valve: This valve has a Flapper blade which is attached to the
armature and is positioned between two nozzles. Pressurized oil from and each end of
the main spool through fixed orifices. These orifices cause the pressures Pa and Pb at
the nozzles and main spool ends to be at a pressure lower than Ps. Oil continuously
flows to the reservoir through the nozzles.
These nozzles, in conjunction with the flapper act as variable orifices.
When the flapper is positional in the centre between the nozzles, the pressures Pa and
Pb are equal and the main spool is held stationary by this pressure balance.
When the torque motor is energized, the flapper moves to one side as shown in figure.
This action restricts flow more from one nozzle than the other. This results in a difference
between Pa and Pb (One increases and other decreases shifting the main spool.
Notice that without some additional device, the main spool would continue to move until it
reached its end-of-travel resulting in full flow .In order to control the position of the main
spool, feed back is used between the two stages. Therefore, a two-stage servo valve is
itself a closed loop control system.
There are several feed back methods currently in use. Most designs involves some type
of spool position sensing feed back. A form of spool position sensing used by many
flapper-nozzle valve is force or torque feed back. This method uses a leaf type spring
and attached to the flapper.

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When the torque motor is energized, the flapper tilts towards one nozzle causing the
main spool to shift. As the spool moves it bends the leaf spring. The bending of the
spring causes a resisting force that increases as the spool moves further off centre. The
main spool will continue to move until the resisting force of the leaf spring overcomes the
torque motor force recentering the flapper. This causes the two variable orifices to be
equal. This in turn yields a pressure balance at Pb and Pa therefore, stops the main
spool movement. When the flapper is recentred, the force causes by the feed back
spring is equal to the torque motor force. Note that the flow rate is proportional to main
spool position. This position is equal to the torque motor force which is proportional to
input current.
The principle of operation of the servo valve can be summerised by the follwing
relationships:
1. Electrical current is proportional to armature torque.

2. Armature torque is equal to feed back spring torque (but opposite or resisting).
3. Feed back spring torque is proportional to spool position.
4. Spool position is proportional to valve flow rate
Therefore, electrical current is proportional to valve flow rate.

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Jet-pipe servo valve: The jet pipe servo valve uses fluidic technology to control its
main stage spool. A single projector or nozzle is attached to the torque motor armature
so that it pivots with the armature. Hydraulic fluid at main system pressure (Ps) flows
through this jet and is directed at two receiver nozzles. Each receiver is connected
directly to one end of the main stage spool.
Similar to flapper nozzle type servo valves, the main spool would move to the full stroke
position if feed back were not used. The type of feed back used on the jet pipe servo
valve is the same as the flapper nozzle; spool position sensing using a force feed back
spring.
Again, the spring is attached with both the jet pipe/armature assembly and main stage
spool. As shown in figure, when the armature is actuated by input current of a given
polarity, it pivots the jet causing the main stage spool to move. When the main spool
moves, it flexes the feed back spring. The spool continues to move until the spring force
is great enough to overcome the torque motor force and recentre the jet.
The main spool is then stooped at some position which is proportional to input current.

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NULL PERFORMANCE :
The characteristic of servo valve performance at null is important. They are especially
important for position control systems, because they affects positional accuracy. Before
proceeding further, let us have some idea about the flowing terms:
Control flow (q1): The flow passing between the control ports A to B to the load. the
units of flow are in cubic inch per second (CIS) or GPM for second (CCS) or LPM. This is
called the LOAD FLOW.
Control port pressure (Pa and Pb) : The pressures at control ports A and B. Internal
leakage (Qil) : Internal leakage is the flow that bypasses between the pressure and
return ports (usually measured with the control ports blocked) expressed in CIS/CCS or
GPM/LPM/ Leakage occurs due to clearance between the spool and the body. Also,
there is a constant flow from the pilot stage jet pipe/flapper nozzle.
Qil = Qs – Q1
Load pressure drop (P1): The difference in pressure between the control port pressure
A nad B (due to an actuator load or orifice restriction) expressed in PSI. P1 = Pa – Pb
Gain (G): The ratio of the relationship between and output variable and an input variable
of a device.
G = Output/ Input
Flow gain : The ratio of control flow to input current expressed in CIS/ma or GPM/ma in
English unit. In SI unit, it is CCS/ma or LPM/ma.
Flow gain = output flow rate/ Input current

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Servo valve null is defined as the condition where the valve supplies zero control flow at
zero load pressure drop. Physically, this situation occurs when the valve' s main spool
lands are positioned exactly on centre with the ports. Due to clearances between the
spool lands and the body. Pressurized oil from the supply line leaks through the control
ports and on past to the return line. This causes a reduced pressure (lower than Ps) at
the port A and B.
It the spool is centered or null, the orifices created by the lands and the body are equal
causing the reduced pressured at the control ports A and B to be equal. Therefore, with
the pressure in the each side of the load of load valve equal, control flow is zero. In
summary, at null, the following conditions exist:
Control flow (Q1) = 0

Control port pressure Pa = Pb
Flow across each valve orifice is the same
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4
The causes of null shift include dirt leakage/spool wear, and system characteristics such
s supply pressure, return pressure and fluid temperature. For example, if the oil pressure
or temperature increase, the valve null will shift. This will cause a position error. For this
reason., it is important to maintained temperature and supply pressure constant.
Manufacturers usually state in their literature certain limits of null shift due to system
characteristics. These limits are stated as a percentage of full rated current.
PRESSURE GAIN AND VALVE THRESHOLD:
PRESSURE GAIN : When a servo valves is being used to hold actuator position, the
spool will be located near null. If zero load exists on the actuator, the spool will be
located exactly on null creating equal reduced pressure PA and P B at the control ports.
Therefore, there is a zero load pressure drop (PA – PB = PL = 0).
If there is a load on actuator, the spool will be positioned slightly off null creating a
difference in control port pressure and, therefore, a load pressure drop. This load
pressure drop is equal and opposite to the load on the actuator. It is required to hold the
actuator position constant.
The pressure gain of a servo valve is defined as the amount of differential load pressure
PL generated per unit of movement of the spool (inches/centimeter) or input current (mA)
from the null condition.
At null, the load pressure drop is zero because the reduced pressures are equal. as the

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
spool is moved off null, PL increases in a steep straight (Ps). It is then flattens out to Ps
for all further movement away from null. Pressure gain is normally measured as the
slope of this line in PSI (KPa)/ma or PSI/inch of spool movement from null to where the
load pressure PL is equal to 40% of Ps. Most servo vales will reach this point and even
as high as 100% Ps with a small input current typically 1 or 2% of full rated current.
The pressure gain of a servo valve has a great effect on accuracy of position servo
systems. The reason for this is because input current to the valve is proportional to the
error signal. Therefore, a small error will generate only small current signal.
For high accuracy, the servo valve must be capable of generating a high differential load
pressure with only a small input current in order to overcome frictional effects and loads.
Pressure gain = (4 x Ps) PSI/ImA
Where, Ps = Supply pressure
I = Input current where the load is 40% of supply pressure.
THRESHOLD : Another characteristic of servo valves that is closely associated with

positional accuracy is threshold. Threshold is defined as the smallest amount of input
current required to cause a change in the main spool position. Due to spool friction, flow
forces, etc. the main spool is not indefinitely positionable. The accuracy of a position
system is limited by the smallest input current that will change spool positional.
Valves threshold tends to be fairly constant throughout the range of the input current. At
null, closed-centre valves of critical center types with a slight overlap have a dead band
that shows as a valve threshold, because there is no flow change through spool position
varies with input current. Dead bard reduces positional accuracy in the same manner as
threshold.

ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS
FLOW vs. LOAD :
The most hydraulic electric servo valves control flow rate using a spool and valve body a
restricting orifice. This means the flow rate for a given input current increases by the
square root of a decrease in pressure drop or load across the valve control ports. This
relationship is termed the flow vs. load or loaded flow characteristics and is shown in the
figure.
QL = K x I x (PS – PI)0.5
Where, QL = Servo valve control flow
PS = Supply pressure
PL = Load pressure
K = Constant
I = Valve current
The 100% rated current curve is a useful tool during the design phase. It allows a
designer to rapidly determine the valve size required for an application. Normally, a
designer will be given a set of design criteria that includes a specified maximum velocity
at some specified load. to determine valve size, either the flow-load curve or the formula
below is used to find the minimum, on load flow size rating required for the valve.
The flow load vs. flow characteristics are also important to the system'
s trouble shooting.
For instance, these curves show how pressure changes in the system affect the flow
available from the valve.
QNLR = QL x [PS/ (PS – PL)0.5
Where, QNLR = No-load rated flow at supply pressure
QL = Loaded flow

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ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS

Prepared by : S. P. Sharma Page 1 of 51

Sl. No. Topics Page #

01. Introduction to Electro-Hydraulics 03

02. Solenoids and Torque Motor 17

03. Proportional Direction Control valve 23

04. Pressure Compensator 35

05. Proportional Pressure Relief valve 37

06. Proportional Flow Control Valve 41

07. Servo Valve 43

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Before knowing Electro-Hydraulics, let us have a small recap on Hydraulics.

Any hydraulic system mainly consists of following units. They are :

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The concept of proportionality is very important in any of control system. A control

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In the above example of automobile, a feedback system might be composes of a

A further refinement of a control system is to classify the system as either MANUAL or

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PROPORTIONAL HYDRAULICS : Proportional hydraulics are generally used in open

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A proportional direction control valve is working as a conventional direction control valve,

When solenoid of a proportional direction control valve is energized with a particular

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND ELECTRO-HYDRAULICS :

• Conventional hydraulics works on open loop control system, whereas Electro-

• Conventional hydraulics has purely manual control or operated by switching type

• Instead of using AC or DC type switching type solenoid in conventional hydraulics,

• Electro-hydraulic can control position, speed, pressure and direction of a actuator

• Because of more internal clearances in conventional valve, it has less sensitivity

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• Maintenance of conventional valve is much easier.

• The operating frequency of an electro-hydraulic valve is much higher than

• Static and dynamic responses of conventional valve is very poor.

• Conventional valve is less costlier than electro-hydraulic valve, because of its

• Electro-hydraulic valve works better in high pressure drop condition.

• Ramp time of a conventional valve can not be adjusted as beautifully as in electro-

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROPOTIONAL AND SERVO HYDRAULICS :

• Servo Hydraulic is a closed loop control system, where proportional hydraulics is

• Proportional valve controls direction and speed of an actuator, servo valve

• Spool movement is much longer in case of proportional valve.

• Servo valve is much more dirt sensitive than proportional valve.

• Servo valve has excellent static and dynamic performaces.

• Servo valve operating frequency is much higher than a proportional valve.

• Servo valve is costlier.

• Servo valve has high force multiplying factor.

Command Input or Input Signal : It is an electrical signal, generally given by the

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Surge : Effect of high accelerating or retarding force increases system pressure

For positive overlap : Land width > valve port

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For negative overlap : Land width < valve port

For zero overlap : Land width = valve port

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Dither : A low amplitude and high frequency AC signal superimposed on output DC

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SOLENOIDS AND TORQUE MOTOR

The T shape armature is housed in a magnetic core, which magnetizes by the

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Proportional Solenoids : It represents the linking element between electronics and