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University of Baghdad
College of Engineering
Aeronautical Department

Aircraft Propulsion Systems

Dr. Anmar H. Ali
University of Baghdad
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2.2.5 Propeller
The basic operating principle of a propeller entails taking the axial flow of air
into the propeller and accelerating that flow to a somewhat higher velocity by adding
power derived from the turbine. Propellers are usually designed so that the blades
can be turned or twisted at the hub to adjust the leading-edge angle of the blades.
Blade settings at particular conditions are called "schedules." Propellers have
large aspect ratios; that is, the tip diameter is much larger than the hub diameter.
Propellers could not withstand the stresses if they were attached directly to the
compressor shaft. Thus, gearboxes are used to reduce the rotational speed of the
propeller - usually by a factor of 10 to 20.

For a turboprop engine, the propeller generates a major portion of the thrust,
power delivered to the propeller, Pp, will be related to the propeller thrust Fp by;

the propeller work coefficient (Cwp);

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Thus, if the propeller work coefficient, core mass flow rate, and aircraft speed are
known, the thrust can be found.
The thrust coefficient, which is defined by

where Ap is the circular frontal area swept by the rotating propeller. The power
coefficient defined by;

or
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2.2.6 Shaft
The power is derived from a turbine and delivered to drive all of the
compressive devices (namely, a compressor and possibly a fan or propeller).

Ideally, all of the derived power will be delivered to the compressive devices.
Also, ideally, the mass flow rate remains constant through the engine core (i.e., the
fuel flow rate is negligible), and thus the mass flow rate through the turbine is the
same as in the compressor. Therefore, with the compressor, fan, propeller, and
turbine power taken into consideration, an energy balance on the shaft for the most
general ideal case yields;

where m; is the bypassed air,

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2.2.7 Combustor
The design is complex and empirical. The combustor or burner is often the
only method by which energy is added to the engine (the only other location is the
afterburner). The h-s and p-v diagrams for an ideal combustor are shown in Figure.
The process 3 to 4 is isobaric (constant pressure) for an ideal process. Obviously, the
static and total temperatures increase significantly in the combustor. As a result, the
static and total specific volumes increase for process 3 to 4, and the fluid density
decreases significantly across the combustor.
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where Q is the heat energy rate added to the flow by combustion, P is the power
derived from the flow, and Δh is the rate change in total enthalpy of the flow. The
entering air and exiting gas from the burner are both assumed to have specific heat
cp, which will be evaluated based on pure air. All gases leaving the burner are at Tt4.
The air entering is at Tt3. Applying energy equation across positions 3 and 4 and
realizing no work is produced by the burner, we find that;

or

ΔH is the heating value of the fuel, and mf is the flow rate of the fuel injected into
the burner. The fuel has specific heat cpf.

where

, ,
For many engines f quantity is very small, Thus, for the ideal analysis it will be
assumed to be negligible.

2.2.8 Afterburner
The present schematic of an afterburner. the design is much simpler than that
for a primary combustor.
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Basically, fuel is injected and burned upstream of the nozzle. The process 5.5
to 6 is isobaric for an ideal afterburner and not isentropic. Also, the process 5.5 to 6
is ideally at constant stagnation pressure. The static temperature and total
temperatures increase markedly in the afterburner. As a result, the static and total
specific volumes increase for process 5.5 to 6, and the fluid density decreases
significantly across the afterburner. Following a procedure similar to that used for
the combustor, one finds for stations 5.5 to 6 that;

mfab is the flow rate of the fuel injected into the afterburner, and m5.5 is the mass flow
rate of the gas entering the afterburner. Note that m5.5 will simply be m for an ideal
turbojet or exhausted turbofan and will be (m + α m) for an ideal mixed turbofan.

where the afterburner fuel ratio and temperature ratio are defined by,
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,
for the ideal analysis, for small fab ,

, where
2.2.9 Primary Nozzle
The purpose of the primary nozzle (stations 6 to 8) is to convert the moderate
temperature and moderate pressure gas to a high-velocity gas that will produce
thrust.

The h-s and p-v diagrams are depicted for an ideal nozzle.

Basically, the flow is accelerated from 6 to 8. As a result, the static

temperature and pressure decrease through the nozzle. The specific volume
markedly increases (density decreases) through the nozzle, which gives rise to the
increase in fluid velocity. The acceleration process is ideally isentropic and adiabatic
as is the stagnation process. Thus, once again the conditions 6 and 8 and the
stagnation conditions all occur on the same isentropic process line, and the total
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pressure and temperature are constant through the nozzle. One can first consider the
total temperature at the exit:

For the ideal case the nozzle is adiabatic; thus,

The exit total pressure can be considered as follows:

For the ideal case, the nozzle is also isentropic; thus,

for an ideal engine case the nozzle exit pressure "matches," or is equal to, the ambient
pressure. That is,

Therefore, if the inlet total pressure and ambient pressure are known, the exit Mach
number can be found. One can find the exit temperature, Finally, the exit velocity
can be found from the speed of sound;
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Or, using the energy equation;

2.2.10 Fan Nozzle

Figure is a schematic of a fan nozzle. The fundamental fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics of an adiabatic and ideal fan nozzle (stations 7 to 9) are exactly the
same as those for an adiabatic and ideal primary nozzle. That is, the flow is
accelerated from 7 to 9. The static temperature and pressure decrease through the
fan nozzle. The specific volume significantly increases through the nozzle, so to
increase the fluid velocity. Thus, once again, the conditions 7 and 9 and the
stagnation conditions all occur on the same isentropic process line, and the
stagnation pressure and temperature are constant through the nozzle.
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2.2.11 Bypass Duct

A bypass duct is used to direct the bypassed air in turbofan engines. For the
ideal cases, all of the bypassed air is assumed to be either all exhausted or all
bypassed through the bypass duct before being mixed back into the primary flow.
This latter bypass process is from stations 7 to 7.5. For an ideal bypass duct, the
process is adiabatic, and thus the stagnation temperature is constant through the duct:

the total pressure is constant:

Thus, the static pressures must match:

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An alternative condition can be used as follows:

This is a simpler condition and will be used herein because it facilitates the
cycle analysis considerably.
2.2.12 Bypass Mixer
For a fully mixed turbofan, a mixer is used to fold the ducted (and bypassed)
air stream (stream 7.5) and the core gas flow stream (out of the turbine, stream 5)
together. The average properties after the mixer are stream 5.5. A schematic is
presented in Figure;

The mixer can be a series of blades to "fold" the cool bypassed air into the
warmer gas from the turbine to induce a uniform flow. Ideally, the process is
isentropic; thus, the stagnation pressure remains constant across the mixer.
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Next, for adiabatic flow, the summation of total enthalpy remains constant
across the mixer. Also, ideally, the flow exiting the mixer is uniform in static and
total temperatures. If one considers the mixing streams at station 5.5, the energy
equation yields;

where m is the core mass flow rate and ms is the secondary airflow rate through the
duct.

Thus, once the properties of the incoming streams are known, the exit conditions can
be found.