Technical Seminar Report

On
Study on abrsive jet machining
Submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of
BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

Submitted by
B.Yashwanth (18695A0329)

Under the guidance of

DR. VISHAL JAGOTA
(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MADANAPALLEINSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
(UGC - AUTONOMOUS) An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution, Accredited by NBA
ANGALLU, MADANAPALLE

May 2021
 A STUDY ON AJM

DECLARATION
by the B.Tech. Student

I hereby declare that the Technical Seminar Report entitled Study on abrsive jet machining
which is being submitted to the Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science,
Madanapalle for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical
Engineering is a bonafide report of the presentation prepared by me. The material contained
in this Technical Seminar Report has not been submitted to any University or Institution for
the award of any degree.

Roll Number, B.Yashwanth

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Place: MITS, Madanapalle

Date: 02-06-2021

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ABSTRACT

Abrasive jet machining is one of the unconventional machining

processes which, using various operations such as deburring, polishing,

cutting etc., can be carried out effectively and efficiently, to close tolerances.

In this paper, a comprehensive review of work done in this field is given and

complex analytical findings that have been made are highlighted. The

considerable scope for research and the implementing of it for commercial

purposes are also pointed out. Abrasive jet machining is an effective

machining process for processing a variety of Hard and Brittle Material. And

has various distinct advantages over the other non-traditional cutting

technologies, such as, high machining.

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CONTENTS

Sl.
Particulars Page No.
No

1. Introduction 01

2. Literatures Survey 02 to 03

Advantages and Limitation of Non Traditional

3. 04 to 08
Machining

4. Importance of Non Traditional Machining 09

5. Definition and Working Principle of AJM 10 to 14

6. Process Parameters 15 to 16

7. Applications, Advantages / Limitations 17 to 18

8. Machining characteristics 19 to 21

9. Advances in AJM 22

10. Troubleshooting of AJM 23

11. Conclusion 24

12. Bibliography & References 25

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INTRODUCTION

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is the removal of material from a work

piece by the application of a high speed stream of abrasive particles carried in

gas medium from a nozzle. The AJM process differs from conventional sand

blasting in that the abrasive is much finer and the process parameters and

cutting action are carefully controlled.

The process is used chiefly to cut intricate shapes in hard and brittle

materials which are sensitive to heat and have a tendency to chip easily. The

process is also used for deburring and cleaning operations. AJM is inherently

free from chatter and vibration problems. The cutting action is cool because

the carrier gas serves as a coolant.

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LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature study of Abrasive Jet Machine reveals that the Machining process
was started a few decades ago. Till date there has been a through and detailed
experiment and theoretical study on the process. Most of the studies argue over the
hydrodynamic characteristics of abrasive jets, hence ascertaining the influence of all
operational variables on the process effectiveness including abrasive type, size and
concentration, impact speed and angle of impingement. Other papers found new
problems concerning carrier gas typologies, nozzle shape, size and wear, jet velocity and
pressure, stand‐off‐distance (SOD), or nozzle‐tip‐distance (NTD). These papers express
the overall process performance in terms of material removal rate, geometrical
tolerances and surface finishing of work pieces, as well as in terms of nozzle wear rate.
Finally, there are several significant and important papers which focus on either leading
process mechanisms in machining of both ductile and brittle materials, or on the
development of systematic experimental‐statistical approaches and artificial neural
networks to predict the relationship between the settings of operational variables and
the machining rate and accuracy in surface finishing.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of the formation and discharge

process of an air‐water flow in an abrasive waterjet (AWJ) head is presented by
Umberto Prisco & Maria Carmina D'Onofrio. Numerical simulations have been conducted

using the commercial code Fluent® 6.3 by Ansys. Dynamic characteristics of the

flow inside the AWJ head and downstream from the nozzle has been
simulated under steady state, turbulent, two‐phase flow conditions. The final
aim is to gain fundamental knowledge of the ultrahigh velocity flow dynamic
features that could affect the quality of the jet, such as the velocity and
pressure distributions in different parts of the AWJ head and at the outlet.

Experiments have been performed on effect of jet pressure, abrasive

flow rate and work feed rate on smoothness of the surface produced by
abrasive water jet machining of carbide of grade P25. Carbide of grade P25 is
very hard and cannot be machined by conventional techniques. The abrasive
used in investigations was garnet of mesh size 80. It was tried to cut carbide

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with low and medium level of abrasive flow rate, but the jet failed to cut
carbide since it is too hard and very high level of energy is required. Minimum
rate of abrasive flow that made it possible to cut carbide efficiently was 135 g
min‐1. With increase in jet pressure the surface becomes smoother due to
higher kinetic energy of the abrasives. But the surface near the jet entrance is
smoother and the surface gradually becomes rougher downwards and is the
roughest near the jet exit. Increase in abrasive flow rate also makes the
surface smoother which is due to the availability of higher number of cutting
edges per unit area per unit time. Feed rate didn’t show significant influence
on the machined surface, but it was found that the surface roughness
increases drastically near the jet entrance.

The study of the results of machining under various conditions approves

that a commercial AJM machine was used, with nozzles of diameter ranging
from 0.45 to 0.65 mm, the nozzle materials being either tungsten carbide or
sapphire, both of which have high tool lives. Silicon carbide and aluminium
oxide were the two abrasives used. Other parameters studied were nozzle tip
distances (5–10 mm), spray angles (60° and 90°) and pressures (5 and 7
bars) for materials like glass, ceramics, and electro‐discharge machined (EDM)
die steel. The holes drilled by AJM may not be circular and cylindrical but
almost elliptical and bell mouthed. High material removal rate conditions do
not necessarily yield small narrow clean‐cut machined areas.

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ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF

NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING
1. NON – TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESS Non-traditional
manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that
remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical,
thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies
but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for
traditional manufacturing processes. Non traditional machining
processes, also called advanced manufacturing processes, are employed
where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or
economical due to special reasons as outlined below. Very hard fragile
materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining. When the work
piece is too flexible or slender. When the shape of the part is too
complex.

2. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) This technique utilises

thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the work
piece by a series of discrete electrical sparks between the work piece
and the electrode. EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode
unwanted material in order to create desired shape.

3. ADVANTAGES: By this process, materials of any hardness can be

machined; No burrs are left in machined surface. One of the main
advantages of this process is that thin and fragile/brittle components
can be machined without distortion. Complex internal shapes can be
machined.

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4. LIMITATIONS: This process can only be employed in electrically

conductive materials. Material removal rate is low and the process
overall is slow compared to conventional machining processes.
Unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur. Rough
surface finish when at high rates of material removal.
5. ADVANTAGES: The components are not subject to either thermal or
mechanical stress. No tool wear during ECM process. Fragile parts can
be machined easily as there is no stress involved. ECM deburring can
debur difficult to access areas of parts. High surface finish (up to 25 μm
in) can be achieved by ECM process. Complex geometrical shapes in
high-strength materials particularly in the aerospace industry for the
mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts and nozzles can be
machined repeatedly and accurately. Deep holes can be made by this
process.

6. LIMITATIONS: ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or

flat bottoms because of the tendency for the electrolyte to erode away
sharp profiles. ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high
equipment costs, is usually used primarily for highly specialised
applications.

7. ADVANTAGES: It is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes

in the microstructures, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece
and offers virtually stress free machined surfaces. Any materials can be
machined regardless of their electrical conductivity Especially suitable
for machining of brittle materials Machined parts by USM possess better

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surface finish and higher structural integrity. USM does not produce
thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface.
8. Limitations: USM has higher power consumption and lower material-
removal rates than traditional fabrication processes. Tool wears fast in
USM. Machining area and depth is restraint in USM. Laser Beam
Machining (LBM) Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal
process that utilizes a high-energy, coherent light beam to melt and
vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-metallic
workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is
particularly suitable for making accurately placed holes.

9. ADVANTAGES: No limit to cutting path as the laser point can move

any path. The process is stress less allowing very fragile materials to be
laser cut without any support. Very hard and abrasive material can be
cut. Sticky materials are also can be cut by this process. High accuracy
parts can be machined. No cutting lubricants required. No tool wear.
Narrow heat effected zone.
10. LIMITATIONS: Uneconomic on high volumes compared to
stamping. Limitations on thickness due to taper. High capital cost. High
maintenance cost. Assist or cover gas required Water Jet Cutting Water
jet technology uses the principle of pressurising water to extremely high
pressures, and allowing the water to escape through a very small
opening called “orifice” or “jewel”. Water jet cutting uses the beam of
water exiting the orifice to cut soft materials. This method is not
suitable for cutting hard materials. The inlet water is typically
pressurised between 1300 – 4000 bars. This high pressure is forced
through a tiny hole in the jewel, which is typically 0.18 to 0.4 mm in
diameter.

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11. ADVANTAGES: There is no heat generated in water jet cutting;

which is especially. useful for cutting tool steel and other metals where
excessive heat may change the properties of the material.Unlike
machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or
particles that are harmful if inhaled.It reduce the costs. Since no heat is
applied on the materials, cut edges are clean with minimal burr.
LIMITATIONS: Alimited number of materials can be cut economically.
Thick parts cannot be cut by this process economically and accurately.
Taper is also a problem with water jet cutting in very thick materials.
Taper is when the jet exits the part at different angle than it enters the
part, and cause dimensional inaccuracy.

12. Abrasive Water Jet Cutting The water jet contains abrasive
particles such as silicon carbide or aluminium oxide in order to increase
the material removal rate above that of water jet machining. Almost
any type of material ranging from hard brittle materials such as
ceramics, metals and glass to extremely soft materials such as foam
and rubbers can be cut by abrasive water jet cutting. This process is
particularly suitable for heat sensitive materials that cannot be
machined by processes that produce heat while machining. This is
similar to water jet cutting apart from some more features underneath
the jewel. In this process, high velocity water exiting the jewel creates
a vacuum which sucks abrasive from the abrasive line, which mixes
with the water in the mixing tube to form a high velocity beam of
abrasives.

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13. ADVANTAGES: In most of the cases, no secondary finishing

required. Typical finish achieved is125-250 microns. No cutter induced
distortion.Low cutting forces on workpieces.Limited tooling
requirements. Little to no cutting burr.No heat affected zone. Therefore,
eliminates thermal distortion.Localises structural changes.Smaller kerf
size reduces material wastages. No cutter induced metal
contamination.No slag or cutting dross. Precise, multi plane cutting of
contours, shapes, and bevels of any angle.

14. LIMITATIONS: Cannot drill flat bottom.Cannot cut materials

that degrades quickly with moisture.Surface finish degrades at higher
cut speeds which are frequently used for rough cutting.High capital cost
and high noise levels during operation.

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IMPORTANCE OF NON TRADITIONAL

MACHINING
Selection of the optimal values of different operating parameters is of
utmost importance for enhancing the performance of various non-traditional
machining (NTM) processes. The performance measures (responses) of
different NTM processes usually include metal removal rate, surface
roughness, radial overcut, tool wear rate, heat affected zone, etc. In this
paper, artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm is employed to search out the
optimal combinations of different operating parameters for three widely used
NTM processes, i.e. electrochemical machining, electrochemical discharge
machining and electrochemical micromachining processes. Both the single and
multi-objective optimization problems for the considered NTM processes are
solved using this algorithm. The results obtained while applying the ABC
algorithm for parametric optimization of these three NTM processes are
compared with those derived by the past researchers, which prove the
applicability and suitability of the ABC algorithm in enhancing the performance
measures of the considered NTM processes.

DEFINITION:
In abrasive jet machining, a focused stream of abrasive particles,
carried by high pressure air or gas is made to impinge on the work surface
through a nozzle and the work material is made to impinge on the work
surface through a nozzle and work material is removed by erosion by high
velocity abrasive particles.

PROCESS:
In Abrasive jet machining abrasive particles are made to impinge on
work material at high velocity. Jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas

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or air. The high velocity stream of abrasives is generated by converting

pressure energy of carrier gas or air to its Kinetic energy and hence high
velocity jet. Nozzles directs abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto work
material. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro-
cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material.

This is a process of removal of material by impact erosion through the

action of concentrated high velocity stream of grit abrasives entrained in high
velocity gas stream. AJM is different from shot or sand blasting, as in AJM,
finer abrasive grits are used and parameters can be controlled more
effectively providing better control over product quality.

In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 microns grit size

would impinge on the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of ID
0.5mm with a stand off distance of around 2mm. The kinetic energy of the
abrasive particles would sufficient to provide material removal due to brittle
fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives.

PHYSICS OF THE PROCESS:

 Fine particles (0.025mm) are accelerated in a gas stream
 The particle are directed towards the focus of machining
 As the particles impact the surface, it causes a micro fracture, and gas
carries
 fractured particles away
 Brittle and fragile work better

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EQUIPMENT:

A schematic layout of AJM is shown above. The gas stream is then

passed to the nozzle through a connecting hose. The velocity of the abrasive
stream ejected through the nozzle is generally of the order of 330 m/sec.

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING CONSISTS OF

1. Gas propulsion system
2. Abrasive feeder
3. Machining Chamber
4. AJM Nozzle

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5. Abrasives

GAS PROPULSION SYSTEM

Supplies clean and dry air. Air, Nitrogen and carbon dioxide to propel
the abrasive particles. Gas may be supplied either from a compressor or a
cylinder. In case of a compressor, air filter cum drier should be used to avoid
water or oil contamination of abrasive powder. Gas should be non-toxic,
cheap, easily available. It should not excessively spread when discharged
from nozzle into atmosphere. The propellant consumption is of order of 0.008
m3/min at a nozzle pressure of 5 bar and abrasive flow rate varies from 2 to 4
gm/min for fine machining and 10 to 20 gm/min for cutting operation.

ABRASIVE FEEDER
Required quantity of abrasive particles is supplied by abrasive feeder.
The filleted propellant is fed into the mixing chamber where in abrasive
particles are fed through a sieve. The sieve is made to vibrate at 50-60 Hz
and mixing ratio is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of sieve. The
particles are propelled by carrier gas to a mixing chamber. Air abrasive
mixture moves further to nozzle. The nozzle imparts high velocity to mixture
which is directed at work piece surface.

MACHINING CHAMBER
It is well closed so that concentration of abrasive particles around the
working chamber does not reach to the harmful limits. Machining chamber is
equipped with vacuum dust collector. Special consideration should be given to

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dust collection system if the toxic material (like beryllium) are being
machined.

AJM nozzle
AJM nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire ( usually life
– 300 hours for sapphire , 20 to 30 hours for WC) which has resistance to
wear. The nozzle is made of either circular or rectangular cross section and
head can be head can be straight, or at a right angle. It is so designed that
loss of pressure due to the bends, friction etc is minimum possible. With
increase in wear of a nozzle, the divergence of jet stream increases resulting
in more stray cutting and high inaccuracy.

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ABRASIVES
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) Silicon carbide (SiC) Glass beads, crushed
glass and sodium bicarbonate are some of abrasives used in AJM. Selection of
abrasives depends on MRR , type of work material , machining accuracy.

PROCESS PARAMETERS
For successful utilization of AJM process, it is necessary to analyze the
following process criteria.
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometry and surface finish of work piece
3. wear rate of the nozzle

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However, Process criteria are generally influenced by the process

parameters asenumerated below:

• ABRASIVES
a. material – Al2O3 SiC Glass beads Crushed glass Sodium bi carbonate
b. shape – irregular/regular
c. Size – 10 to 50 microns
d. Mass flow – 2-20 gm/min

• CARRIER GAS
a) Composition – Air, CO2, N2
b) Density – 1.3 kg/m3
c) Velocity - 500 to 700 m/s
d) Pressure - 2 to 10 bar
e) Flow rate - 5 to 30 microns

• ABRASIVE JET
a) b) Velocity - 100 to 300 m/s
b) Mixing ratio – Volume flow rate of abrasives/Volume flow rate of gas
c) Stand off distance – SOD- 0.5 to 15mm.
d) Impingement angle – 60 to 90 deg.

Nozzle
a) Material – WC/Sapphire
b) Diameter – 0.2 to 0.8 mm
c) Life – 300 hours for sapphire, 20 to 30 hours for WC

Process capability
1. Material removal rate – 0.015 cm3/min
2. Narrow slots – 0.12 to 0.25mm ± 0.12mm
3. Surface finish -0.25 micron to 1.25 micron
4. 4 Sharp radius up to 0.2mm is possible
5. Steel up to 1.5mm ,Glass up to 6.3mm is possible to cut

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6. Machining of thin sectioned hard and brittle materials is possible.

Applications
1. This is used for abrading and frosting glass more economically as
compared to etching or grinding
2. Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics, oxides on metals, resistive
coating etc.
3. AJM is useful in manufacture of electronic devices , drilling of glass
wafers, deburring of plastics, making of nylon and Teflon parts
permanent marking on rubber stencils, cutting titanium foils
4. Deflashing small castings, engraving registration numbers on toughened
glass used for car windows
4. Used for cutting thin fragile components like germanium, silicon etc.
5. Register treaming can be done very easily and micro module fabrication
for electrical contact , semiconductor processing can also be done
effectively.
6. Used for drilling , cutting , deburring etching and polishing of hard and
brittle materials.
7. Most suitable for machining brittle and heat sensitive materials like
glass, quartz, sapphire , mica , ceramics germanium , silicon and
gallium.
8. It is also good method for deburring small hole like in hypodermic
needles and for small milled slots in hard metallic components.

Advantages
1. High surface finish can be obtained depending upon the grain sizes

2. Depth of damage is low ( around2.5 microns)

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3. It provides cool cutting action, so it can machine delicate and heat sensitive
material
4. Process is free from chatter and vibration as there is no contact between
the tool and work piece.
5. Capital cost is low and it is easy to operate and maintain AJM.
6. Thin sections of hard brittle materials like germanium, mica, silicon, glass
and ceramics can be machined.
7. It has the capability of cutting holes of intricate shape in hard materials.

Disadvantages /Limitations
1. Limited capacity due to low MRR. MRR for glass is 40 gm/minute.
2 Abrasives may get embedded in the work surface, especially while
machining soft material like elastomers or soft plastics.
3. The accuracy of cutting is hampered by tapering of hole due to unavoidable
flaring of abrasive jet.
4. Stray cutting is difficult to avoid
5. A dust collection system is a basic requirement to prevent atmospheric
pollution and health hazards.
6. Nozzle life is limited (300 hours)
7. Abrasive powders cannot be reused as the sharp edges are worn and
smaller particles can clog the nozzle.
8. Short stand off distances when used for cutting , damages the nozzle.

Machining characteristics
Following are the AJM process criteria
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometry and surface finish of work piece
3. wear rate of the nozzle

Process criteria are generally influenced by the process parameters

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The characteristics of above process parameters on process criteria are as

follows

1. EFFECT OF ABRASIVE FLOW RATE AND GRAIN SIZE ON MRR

It is clear from the figure that at a

particular pressure MRR increase with
increase of abrasive flow rate and is
influenced by size of abrasive particles.
But after reaching optimum value, MRR
decreases with further increase of
abrasive flow rate. This is owing to the
fact that Mass flow rate of gas decreases
with increase of abrasive flow rate and hence mixing ratio increases causing a
decrease in material removal rate because of decreasing energy available for
erosion.

2. EFFECT OF EXIT GAS VELOCITY AND ABRASIVE PARTICLE

DENSITY

The velocity of carrier gas conveying the

abrasive particles changes considerably with the
change of abrasive particle density as indicated in
figure. The exit velocity of gas can be increased to
critical velocity when the internal gas pressure is nearly
twice the pressure at exit of nozzle for the abrasive particle density is zero. If
the density of abrasive particles is gradually increased exit velocity will go on
decreasing for the same pressure condition. It is due to fact that Kinetic
energy of gas is utilized for transporting the abrasive particle

3.EFECT OF MIXING RATIO ON MRR

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Increased mass flow rate of abrasive will result in a decreased velocity

of fluid and will thereby decreases the available energy for erosion and
ultimately the MRR. It is convenient to explain to this fact by term MIXING
RATIO. Which is defined as

The effect of mixing ratio on the material

removal rate is shown above.
The material removal rate can be improved by
increasing the abrasive flow rate provided the mixing
ratio can be kept constant. The mixing ratio is
unchanged only by simultaneous increase of both
gas and abrasive flow rate.

An optimum value of mixing ratio that gives maximum MRR is

predicted by trial and error. In place of Mixing ratio, the mass ratio (α ) may
be easier to determine. Which is defined as

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3.EFFECT OF NOZZLE PRESSURE ON MRR

The abrasive flow rate can be increased by

increasing the flow rate of the carrier gas. This is
only possible by increasing the intern algas pressure
as shown in the figure. As the internal gas pressure
increases abrasive mass flow rate increase and thus
MRR increases.

As a matter of fact, the material removal rate will increase with the
increase in gas pressure Kinetic energy of the abrasive particles is responsible
for the removal of material by erosion process. The abrasive must impinge on
the work surface with minimum velocity for machining glass by SIC particle is
found to be around 150m/s.

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ADVANCES IN AJM
Abrasives are very expensive but abrasive jet process requires low
capital cost and operational cost because the investment on equipment is very
low in comparison with other non-traditional machining processes giving
tighter tolerances. As the carrier gas serves as a coolant, the cutting action is
cool and hence better surface finish can be obtained. Now days it is widely
used in manufacturing of electronic devices, LCD's, tribo-elements, MEMS, and
semiconductors. There exists an increasing demand to develop
micromachining technologies for these difficult – to - machine materials due
to their properties of extreme hardness, brittleness, corrosion resistance and
low melting temperatures. Abrasive jet machining (AJM) is a nontraditional
machine process which operates without producing shocks and heat. In this
machining process, the high - velocity stream of abrasives is generated by
converting the pressure energy of carrier gas or air to its Kinetic energy and
hence the high - velocity jet results. A nozzle directs abrasives in a controlled
manner onto the work material. AJM is applied for many applications like
cutting, cleaning, polishing, deburring, etching, drilling and finishing the
operation. The nozzle is the most critical part in the abrasive air - jet
equipment. The process is used chiefly to cut intricate shapes in hard and
brittle materials which are sensitive to heat and have a tendency to chip
easily. The process can be easily controlled by varying the parameters such as
Velocity, Flow rate, Pressure, Standoff distance, Grit size, and nozzle angle.
Response variables like surface finish, Material Removal Rate(MRR), kerfs
width is producing a cylindrical hole.

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TROUBLESHOOTING OF AJM

The AJM differs from sandblasting. In AJM the abrasive is much finer

and the process parameters and cutting action are carefully controlled. Sand

Blasting. Abrasive Jet ... AJM is inherently free from chatter and vibration

problems. The cutting .... deburring of plastics, making of nylon and teflon

parts, permanent marking on. Classify different non traditional machining

processes v. Identify the need for non traditional machining processes

Describe the basic mechanism of material removal in AJM. Identify major

components of AJM equipment. State the working principle of AJM equipment

Draw schematically the AJM equipment.

Appearance of the dimples during AJM for 10s. for various machining

sets of abrasives and ceramic materials. properties of the dimples do not

differ in terms of the removed volume, but also the roughness of the struck

face for different ...

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CONCLUSION
The major conclusions that can be drawn from the results of this thesis

can be summarized as follows: & (i) An optimum stand off distance for AJM

exists. This is found from .theory to be within the range of 20-30 mm. The

optimum standoff distance is more.

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Bibliography & References

BOOKS

1. “Production technology”, HMT publication.

2. “Elements of workshop technology”, S K Hajra Choudhury, S K Bose, A K Hajra

choudhury, Niranjan Roy, Vol‐II, Media promoters and media publications

3. “Modern machining process”, S Pandey and H N Shah, S. Chand and co.

WEBSITES

4. www.scopus.com

5. www.science direct .com.

6. www.maharashtradirectory.com

7. www.grampusimpex.com

8. www.thk.co.in

9. www.apex.com

10. www.elgi.com

11. www.indiamart.com

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