I.

INTRODCTION

II.THE ROLES OF GENES IN HEREDITY

III.EFFECTS OF GENES IN OUR ENVIRONMENT

IV.GENE MUTATIONS

V. DNA CODE

VI. THE GENETIC C0DE

▪ Heredity is the passing on of traits from parents to their
offspring, either through asexual reproduction,

▪ the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information

of their parents, through heredity, variations between individuals
can accumulate and cause species to evoke by natural
selection.
▪ The study of heredity is Biology of genetics.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/heredity)
 ▪ The heredity information is contained or within the genes, located

in the chromosomes of each cell. an inherited trait can be determined

by one or by many genes and a single gene can influence more than
one trait. A human cell contains many thousands of different genes in
the nucleus.

▪ Heredity factors known as genes are thought to exist as

discrete portions (known as loci) of chromosomes. The term

“discrete” refers to the concept that genes are always
located at the same point or (locus) on a chromosome.
▪ It is believed that pairs of homologous
chromosomes contain linear, matching
arrangements of genes exerting parallel control
over the same traits.
▪ Pairs of genes that exercise such parallel control

over the same traits are known as alleles, which are

of two kinds: dominant and recessive
What are Dominant genes?
• An allele is a
variant form of a given
gene. Sometimes,
different alleles can result
in different observable
phenotypic traits, such as
different pigmentation
• .
• Dominance is a
relationship between two
alleles of a gene and their
associated phenotypes.
• Dimples
• Freckles
• Cleft-chin
• Widow’s peak
▪ Is A V-shaped
in the hairline
in the center
of the
forehead.
Hair growth on the
forehead is
suppressed in a
bilateral pair of
periorbital fields.
What are recessive genes?
A recessive gene is
a gene whose effects are
masked in the presence of a
dominant gene. Every
organism that has DNA
packed into chromosomes
has two alleles, or forms of
a gene, for each gene: one
inherited from their mother,
and one inherited from their
father.
A recessive gene is
a gene that can be masked
by a dominant gene. In
order to have a trait that is
expressed by a recessive
gene, such as blue eyes, you
must get the gene for blue
eyes from both of your
parents.
▪ Genetic characteristics can be extremely complex and may

require the actions of several separate genes to be expressed

in the adult organism.

• Traits that require more than a single pair of genes to be

expressed.
▪ Human Height

▪ Human Color

• Traits that can may be controlled by a single pair

of genes.
• Some of the traits may have extreme phenotypes
For Example:

▪ Albinism (Lack of skin pigment ) in humans

TRISOMY 21
About 95 percent of the time,
Down syndrome is caused by
trisomy 21 — the person has
three copies of chromosome 21,
instead of the usual two copies,
in all cells. This is caused by
abnormal cell division during
the development of the sperm
cell or the egg cell.
There is no definitive scientific
research that indicates that
Down syndrome is caused by
environmental factors or the
parents' activities before or
during pregnancy. The
additional partial or full copy
of the 21st chromosome
which causes Down
syndrome can originate from
either the father or the
mother.
• Sickle cell disease is a group
of disorders that affects
hemoglobin, the molecule in
red blood cells that delivers
oxygen to cells throughout the
body. People with this
disorder have atypical
hemoglobin molecules called
hemoglobin S, which can
distort red blood cells into a
sickle, or crescent, shape.
Sickle cell disease is a
group of inherited red
blood cell disorders. People
who have sickle cell
disease have an abnormal
protein in their red
blood cells. In the United
States, most people who
have sickle cell
disease are of African
ancestry, but the condition is
also common in people with
a Hispanic background.
 Phenylketonuria (fen-
ul-key-toe-NU-ree-uh),
also called PKU, is a
rare inherited disorder
that causes an amino
acid called
phenylalanine to build
up in the body. PKU is
caused by a defect in
the gene that helps
create the enzyme
needed to break down
phenylalanine.
▪ Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an
inborn error of metabolism that
results in decreased metabolism
of the amino acid phenylalanine.
▪ Untreated, PKU can lead to
intellectual disability, seizures,
behavioral problems, and mental
disorders.
▪ It may also result in a musty smell
and lighter skin.
 Hemophilia is a rare
disorder in which your
blood doesn't clot
normally because it
lacks sufficient blood-
clotting proteins (clotting
factors). If you have
hemophilia, you may
bleed for a longer time
after an injury than you
would if your blood
clotted normally.
 Genes are inherited, but their expression can be modified
by interactions with the environment.

▪ Genetic traits are determined largely through the precise

information found in the cell’s gene structure.

▪ A variety of factors in the environment can actually alter the

effects of a particular gene.

 Some examples of this effect are as follows:

Effect of light or chlorophyll production

o Although most plants have the genetic ability to produce

chlorophyll they will do these only in the presence of light.
o Without light, these plants produce only a light-yellow
pigment and therefore appear pale and sickly until they are
exposed to sunlight
 Factors in the
environment that
can alter the
effects of a
particular gene
• CELL WALL
• CHLOROPLASTS
• LARGE
VACUOLES
• Genes are segment of DNA molecules. Any alteration of the
DNA sequence is a mutation. Usually, an individual cell’s
altered gene will be passed on to every cell that develops
from it.

• Gene Mutations may be defined as any changes in the

nitrogenous base sequence of a molecule DNA. When the
base sequence of DNA is altered, the amino acid sequence of
the polypeptide for which codes will likewise be altered.
• Such an operation of the
resulting enzyme,
preventing it from
properly catalysing its
reaction and thus
preventing a trait from
being expressed by the
cell.
• The majority of gene mutations are harmful because they

result in the cell being impaired from performing some

specific task.

• In rare cases, a mutation may result in a lethal gene that

kills the cell either by producing a substance toxic to the

cell or by failing to produce a protein of vital importance
to the cell
• Gene mutations are passed to every cell that arises from

the mutated. If the mutations occurs in somatic (body)

tissues, its defect is limited to the tissues immediately
surrounding the mutated cell.

• If the mutations occurs in a primary sex cell, it passed on

to the offspring that result from fertilization of or by

gametes produced from the primary sex cell.
• A mutation can enter the
gene pool of a
population and be
passed on to succeeding
generations. This is
known to be a cause of
variation in a species.
• Nucleotides or polypeptides are the building blocks of the nucleic acids

• DNA nucleotides themselves are quite complex, being composed of three

subunits:
o Phosphate group – a chemical group made up of phosphorus and oxygen

o Deoxyribose – a five-carbon sugar made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen

o Nitrogenous base – a chemical unit composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,

and nitrogen. Bases found in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
(C), and guanine (G).
• Decoding a messages is also a keep step in gene expression, in

which information from a gene is read out to build a protein.

• Genetic code allows DNA and RNA sequences to be “decoded” into

amino acides of a protein.

▪ (http://ww.khanaacademy.org/science/biology/gene-expression-

centriadogma)
• The chemical and structural properties of DNA are the bases for

how the genetic information that underlies heredity is both encoded

in genes (as a string of molecular bases) and replicated by means of
template.

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a complex organic molecule

composed of thousands or repeating nucleotide molecules and that

each free nucleotide carries with it one of our nitrogenous bases.
• The particular sequence of nitrogenous bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine (A, T, C, and
G) comprise a strand of DNA and providing the type
of chemical code that is understood by the chemical
mechanisms of the cell.

• The DNA code is used by these mechanisms to

manufacture specific enzymes and other proteins

through the process of protein synthesis.
▪ DNA technology is an exciting DNA and Technology.
field these days. This is the ▪ DNA and molecular
study and manipulation of biology has advanced by
genetic material, and scientists
are using DNA technology for leaps and bounds. It has
a wide variety of purposes and found use in
products. A major component of pharmacology, genetic
DNA technology is cloning,
which is the process of making engineering in disease
multiple, identical copies of a prevention, in increasing
gene. agricultural growth, in
detection of disease and
crime (forensics) etc.
• A DNA strand provides a template (pattern) for the

formation of messenger RNA (mRNA)

• The DNA code is transcribed (read) by mRNA as the latter

is synthesized in a pattern complementary to the DNA

strand.

• Transcription the process by which the DNA code is

transferred to mRNA

• C=G T=A
• In conclusion DNA is not merely a molecule with a pattern, it is a CODE, a

language, and an information STORAGE.

• The concept that all living organisms possess a set of instruction, in the form

of genes that determine the characteristics of the organism.

o It is unique for the general physical and biochemical traits that sets one individual organism apart from all others

of that species.

o Mechanisms by which genetic traits are passed from generations to generation to maintain generation continuity

of the species.

o Molecular basis of genetics that is used to maintain genetic continuity mechanisms by which it changes through

recombination, mutation, and genetic engineering.

o DNA and RNA in the coding of cell-specific proteins

and understand the role of these structural and

functional proteins, enzymes, hormones, and other
substances in the Genetic code.
• Every organism requires a set of coded
instructions for specifying its traits.

• For offspring to resemble their parents,

information must be reliably transferred from one
generation to the next.
Protein synthesis is
accomplished through
a process called
translation.
After DNA is
transcribed into a
messenger RNA
(mRNA) molecule
during transcription,
the mRNA must be
translated to produce a
protein.
In translation,
mRNA along
with transfer
RNA (tRNA) and
ribosomes work
together to
produce
proteins.
C- T- G- A.T- T-A- G- A- T
G – A- C- T- A- A – C- T- A
G – A- C- T- A- A – C- T- A
C- U- G – A- U – U- G- A- U
• Heredity is the passage of these instructions from

one generation to another.

• DNA is passed from generation to generation

during reproduction and acts as genetic factors.

• DNA interacts with the cell’s chemical factory and

produces the observable effects of the phenotype

when genes are inherited by a cell or an organism
• DNA regulates the production of enzyme in

the cell and thereby enables the cell to

perform the complex cellular chemical
reactions necessary to sustain life.
 Second Base

First Base U C A G Third Base

Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine U

U Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine C

Leucine Serine STOP STOP A

Leucine Serine STOP Tryptophan G

Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine U

C Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine C

Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine A

Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine G

Isoleucine Threonine Aspargine Serine U

A Isoleucine Threonine Aspargine Serine C

Isoleucine Threonine Lysine Arginine A

Methionine/ Start Threonine Lysine Arginine G

Valine Alanine Aspartate Glycine U

G Valine Alanine Aspartate Glycine C

Valine Alanine Glutamate Glycine A

Valine Alanine Glutamate Glycine G

• Stem-cell therapy focuses on the use of stem cells

to treat or prevent a disease or condition

o Stem cells are special cells that are capable of

differentiating into more than one kind of tissue

that are used for curing various diseases such as
diabetis, arthritis, few cancer, bone marrow
failure.
• Genetic engineering is a technique of

controlled manipulation of genes to

change the genetic make-up of cells and
more genes across species boundaries.
▪ Science, Technology, and Society, Prieto, Nelia G, and et. Al
,OBE – and PPST –Based, LORIMAR Publishing Inc. 2019,
Boston Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran, Cubao, Quezon City, Metro
Manila, Philippines.

▪ (http://www.remedypublications.com/annals-of-stem-cell-
research-and-therapy)

▪ (http:www.omiconline.org/advancements-in-geentic-
engineering.php)
THANK YOU!