Definition Scope of Educational Psychologyu-Converted-Merged

Psychology of Teaching and
Learning
By P. Muthupandi.
Psychology
Psychology is an academic and scientific study of mental processes and behavior.
Psychologists study such concepts as perception, cognition, emotion,
personality, behavior, interpersonal relationships, and the individual and collective
unconscious.
Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various
spheres of human activity including issues related to daily life—e.g. family, education,
and work—and the treatment of mental health problems.
Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned
with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, media, law.
Psychology is the science of the intellects, characters and behavior
of animals including man. Human education is concerned with certain
changes in the intellects, characters and behavior of men, its problems being
roughly included under these four topics: Aims, materials, means and
methods.
Meaning of Psychology:
 Psyche = soul, mind.
 Logos = word, science, study, discourse.
 Psychology as the science of soul.
 Psychology as the science of mind.
 Psychology as the science of consciousness.
 Psychology as the science of behaviour.

By P. Muthupandi.
Definition of Psychology:
W. B. Kolesnik:
“Psychology is the science of human behaviour.”
C.V. Good defines :

“Psychology is the study of adjustments of
organism, especially the human organism to
changing environment.”
By P. Muthupandi.
 Psychology is a pure science:
◼ It is empirical : experimental.
◼ It is a systematic study.
◼ It uses measurements and
tools of measurement.
◼ It has Definitions of terms.
By P. Muthupandi.
Major Branches of psychology
 Abnormal psychology deals with behaviour disorders and

disturbed individuals. For example, researchers might
investigate the causes of violent or self-destructive
behaviour or the effectiveness of procedures used in
treating an emotional disturbance.

Clinical psychology uses the understandings derived
from developmental and abnormal psychology to
diagnose and treat mental disorders and adjustment
problems. Some clinical psychologists work to develop
programmes for the prevention of emotional illness or
conduct basic research on how individuals can better
cope with the problems of daily life.
By P. Muthupandi.
 Comparative psychology explores the differences and

similarities in the behaviour of animals of different
species. Psychologists in this field make systematic
studies of the abilities, needs, and activities of various
animal species as compared with human beings.
 Developmental psychology studies the emotional,

intellectual, and social changes that occur across the life
span of human beings. Many developmental
psychologists specialize in the study of children or
adolescents.
By P. Muthupandi.
 Educational psychology attempts to improve teaching methods and

materials, to solve learning problems, and to measure learning ability
and educational progress. Researchers in this field may devise
achievement tests, develop and evaluate teaching methods, or
investigate how children learn at different ages.
 Industrial psychology is concerned with people at work. Industrial
psychologists investigate such matters as how to make jobs more
rewarding or how to improve workers' performance. They also study
personnel selection, leadership, and management. Organizational
psychology is a closely related field.
 Social psychology studies the social behaviour of individuals and
groups, with special emphasis on how behaviour is affected by the
presence or influence of other people. Social psychologists concentrate
on such processes as communication, political behaviour, and the
formation of attitudes.
By P. Muthupandi.
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
D e f i n i t i o n,
S c o p e,
Utility.
By P. Muthupandi.
EDUCATION: has its Latin root:
 “educere” = to lead out,
to draw out
– the innate capacities in man.
 “educare” = to bring up,

to raise.
– from one level to another.
 “educatum” = the act of teaching/training.
By P. Muthupandi.
Definitions of Education:
 Swami Vivekananda defines: “Education is the manifestation
of perfection already present in man.”
 Mahatma Gandhi defines: “By Education, I mean, an alround
drawing out of the best in the child and man – body, mind and
spirit.”
 Froebel: Education is a process by which the child makes the
internal external.
 John Dewey defines: “Education is life, life is education”.
 According to Pestalozzi, “Education is a natural, harmonious,
progressive development of man’s innate powers.’
By P. Muthupandi.
Definitions of Educational Psychology
 C.V. Good : “Educational psychology is (i) the
investigation of psychological problems involved in
education, together with the practical application of
psychological principles to education (ii) a study of nature
of learning.”
 J.M. Stephon : “Educational Psychology is a systematic

study of educational growth.”
 Crow and Crow, “Educational Psychology describes and

explains the learning experiences of an individual from
birth through old age.”
By P. Muthupandi.
Nature of Educational psychology
 is a positive science
 is a practical science
 is helpful in the achievement of the practical
ideals of life.
 is a field of knowledge with which students,
teachers and parents must be familiar.
By P. Muthupandi.
Edu. Psy. is a positive science:
 As every science has, it has its own subject of study. And it is a
systematic study.
 It collects facts and data using the scientific methods; especially
through observation of phenomenon under natural and under
controlled conditions.
 The data so collected is arranged and closely studied by using
quantitative methods of Statistical techniques to arrive at certain
conclusions and general principles, theories or laws.
 The laws or theories thus deduced are subject to verification in
the light of new facts or data. Every science keeps its doors open
for fresh information land new facts and changes its laws if
warranted by the new data.
By P. Muthupandi.
SCOPE
OF
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 a practical science.
 any and every situation in which psychology

becomes applicable to education.
 The subject matter of educational Psychology

revolves round three areas:
(i) The Learner
(ii) The learning process
(iii) The learning situation
By P. Muthupandi.
Scope of Educational Psychology:
A committee set up by the Department of
Educational Psychology in the American
Scientific Council has given the following
areas covered by Educational Psychology:
1. Human Growth and Development:
2. Learning:
3. Personality and Adjustment:
4. Measurement and Evaluation:
5. Techniques and Methods of study:
By P. Muthupandi.
1. Human Growth and Development:
◼ Heredity and environment.

◼ General growth and development.
◼ Social, mental and emotional development
◼ Motivation
◼ Individual differences on the basis of knowledge.
◼ Intelligence, aptitudes, interests
and
Frames programmes for guidance.
By P. Muthupandi.
2. Learning:
◼ General nature of learning

◼ Factors influencing learning
◼ Motivation and devices in teaching
◼ Skills
◼ Reasoning and problem solving
◼ Attitude
◼ Learning of particular school steps
◼ Transfer of training.
By P. Muthupandi.
4. Measurement and Evaluation:
◼ Measurement of intelligence and aptitudes.

◼ Measurement of learning
◼ Measurement of adjustment
◼ Applications on results of measurement
◼ Measurement of changes resulting form evaluation.
By P. Muthupandi.
3. Personality and Adjustment:
◼ Emotions
◼ Mental life of the pupils
◼ Mental health of the teacher.
◼ Exceptional children
◼ Social interaction
◼ Character.
By P. Muthupandi.
5.Techniques and Methods of study:
◼ Scientific study of educational problems

◼ Statistical techniques
◼ Implementation of research for the class-room teacher.
By P. Muthupandi.
Utility / Usefulness of Edu. Psychology:
 Educational Psychology tries to
discharge its aims:
(i) Cultural Aim

(ii) Professional Aim.
By P. Muthupandi.
 Educational psychology is useful in -
(i) Educational administration

(ii) in the curriculum
(iii) in the teacher training
By P. Muthupandi.
 It helps to answer the questions:
(i) When to teach ?

(ii) What to teach
(iii) How of the learning process
(vi) Why of the learning process
By P. Muthupandi.
The utility of Eudcational Psychology
could be seen in the following
areas:
1. Child-centered education:
2. Change in the methods of teaching:
3. Curriculum :
4. Time-Table:
5. Co-curricular activities:
6. Discipline :
By P. Muthupandi.
7.Healthy Environment:
8. Research:
9. Study of educational problems:
10. Measurement and evaluation:
11. Emphases individual differences:
12. Achieving educational objectives:
By P. Muthupandi.
Relationship between Education and Psychology:
Both are related to behaviour

Psychology achieves the aims of education
The Problems of Edu & Psychology are same
Close relationship b/w Teacher & Psychologist
By P. Muthupandi.
 To sum up–
Educational psychology has given a new
direction to education.
It has given rise to a revolution, as a

consequence of which education has become
far more scientific than it was.
T H A N K S
By P. Muthupandi.
Thank You !!
By P. Muthupandi.
Meaning of Educational Psychology.
Aspects of Educational Psychology
Importance of Educational Psychology for the
Teacher
PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION
 Educational psychology is derived from two major concepts
education and psychology.
 Psychology provides explanation of the general idea about
behavior.
 Education’s major concern is practice. These practices are based
on the general idea or laws formulated by psychology.
 Educational psychology focuses on teaching and learning. The
focus is on assessment and other aspects related to teaching and
learning.
 Educational psychology facilitates the work of the teacher by
solving teaching problems, and guides the teacher on what to do
and how to do.
Educational Psychology
is the scientific discipline

that addresses the questions
“Why do some students learn

more than others?”
and
“What can be done to improve that
learning?”
WHERE IS EP APPLIED?
 Educational Psychology is applied in the following major areas:
❖ Curriculum plan and design
❖ Educational and school leadership
❖ Educational measurement and evaluation
❖ Classroom management.
❖ Educational research.
❖ Classroom management
❖ Teaching methods, materials in designing and using.
❖ School guidance and counseling
❖ Planning lessons
(
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY…
is a branch of psychology that

specializes in understanding
teaching and learning in
educational settings.
ASPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 Therefore,
As educational psychology focuses

on teaching and learning it logically
means that it includes the learner,
the learning process, the teacher
and the teaching process.
THE LEARNER
 The learner is the target in teaching and learning process. Therefore, he must be
understood by the teacher or by the educator to device effective strategies of
teaching to involve the learner into effective learning process.
 Characteristics of a learner to be understood by the teacher are:

❑ Behavior of the learner related to age. This is studied in child development
❑ The learner's personality
❑ Physical characteristics (strong, weak, disability)
❑ Mental ability and mental health.
❑ Emotional characteristics
❑ Social characteristics affecting learning (family, peer relations etc.)
❑ Moral characteristics.
THE LEARNING PROCESS
The teacher should understand how the learner

learns. This includes all the activities included in and
experiences encouraged in school.
Children learn through observation,
experimentation, manipulation of objects, acting,
listening, asking, imitating etc.
These mode of learning are sustained by teachers
or adult’s motivation, encouragement and
challenges.
(More about this on learning approaches)

THE TEACHING PROCESS
 Teaching is the process of facilitating students’ learning by putting

the learner into the most conducive environment for learning,
guiding, supporting, instructing, giving good treatment , understand
and help students to solve problems, planning lesson plans,
encouraging, leading, observing etc.
 It is generally accepted that by understanding the learner and the
learning process, the teacher will be able to organize effective
teaching.
 Psychology helps the teacher to understand his/her roles and
responsibilities, develop decision making, abilities, ability to choose
teaching strategies and materials.
THE TEACHER
 Is the one who facilitates learning.
 Helps others to gain experience, acquire knowledge and skills
 Measure students’ learning.
 Correcting students’ learning.
 Psychology will help the teacher to understand :

o His/her attitude about learning,
o Children
o Professional responsibilities
o How to behave.
o How to interact with students.
o How to improve his/her knowledge and understanding in teaching subjects and
children as well..
REFLECTION & OBSERVATION
Reflection:
 What were the characteristics of the
most effective teachers in your
educational experience?
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Teachers Must Exhibit:
• Subject matter competence

• Classroom management skills that create an
optimal learning environment
• Instructional planning skills
• Goal-setting
14
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Teachers Must Exhibit:
• Ability to encourage student motivation:

provide real-world learning opportunities that allow
students to think creatively and deeply about
projects
• Ability to model good communication skill
• Sensitivity in multicultural environments
• Technological skills to integrate computers
appropriately in the classroom
15
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
COMMITMENT AND MOTIVATION
Effective Teachers:
▪ Have a good attitude
▪ Care about students
▪ Invest time and effort
▪ Bring a positive attitude and enthusiasm to
the classroom
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL GROWTH
Effective Teachers:
 Developing a positive identity
 Seek advice from competent, experienced
teachers
 Never stop learning
 Build up good resources and supports
Characteristics of Best Teachers
Source; (Michelle;2009)
Characteristics of Worst Teachers
Source;
IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE TEACHERS
 The knowledge of educational psychology helps teachers in various ways. It
improves the teacher’s ability in teaching and managing students.
 Some of the uses of educational psychology are as follows:
1. It enables the teacher to understand children’s behavior and

characteristics, the cause and effect of their behavior, their
attitudes, mental ability, their problems, that are related to
their age and environment they live, their learning styles and
how they grow and develop. This helps the teacher to
understand ways of assisting them to solve their personal and
learning problems and planning for their learning, in an
effective way
2. Enabling the teacher to understand how environment, rearing

style, values and culture of children influence their behavior,
perception and mental ability. Understanding this will enable
the teacher to create a conducive environment for children’s
effective learning.
3. Educational psychology helps the teacher gain techniques and
strategies for studying his students. Human behavior is difficult
to predict even though various scientific theories attempt to
explain it. With the knowledge of educational psychology the
teacher will be able to gain more knowledge about his/her
students for effective planning of their learning.
4. The knowledge of educational psychology improves
teacher’s ability to choose/design the most
appropriate teaching strategies. When children learn
their learning styles and attitudes towards learning appear.
So, educational psychology helps the teacher to analyze
the styles and attitudes and use them to design effective
learning for children.
5. Educational psychology helps to improve teacher’s
ability to choose and construct appropriate measure
of student’s learning according to knowledge level,
mental ability, learning environment, etc.
6. Educational psychology helps the teacher to
understand children’s individual difference,
behavior, physical and physiological, mental and
personality differences. Children’s individual
differences appear on how they learn , how they
adapt to the environment, how they build social
relationship and how they can be motivated.
Guidance & Counseling in Schools
Today’s Topic
Chapter no 7:
COUNSELING
PRESENTED TO:
DR. MUHAMMAD IQBAL
DEFINITION
 Counseling:
“Counseling is a series of direct contacts with the individual
which aims to offer him assistance in changing his attitude
and behaviors.” (Carl Rogers)
 Guidance:
“Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through
his own effort to discover and develop his potentialities for
his personal happiness and social usefulness.” (Ruth
Strang)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING:
Introduction:
Guidance and counseling are twin concepts and have emerged as
essential elements of every educational activity. Guidance and
counseling are not synonym term but counseling is a part of
guidance. Guidance, in educational context, mean to indicate,
point out, show the way, leads out and direct. Counseling
is a specialized service of guidance. It is a process helping
individuals learn more about themselves and their present and
possible future situations to make a sustainable contribution to the
society.
The difference between guidance and counseling is as follow:
 Guidance is broader and comprehensive but counseling is in-depth and narrow.
 Guidance is more external helps a person understand alternative solution
available to him and make him understand his personality and chose the right
solution but counseling helps people understand themselves and is and inward
analysis. Alternative solutions are proposed to help understand the problem at
hand.
 Guidance is mainly preventive and developmental but counseling is remedial as
well as preventive and developmental.
 Intellectual attitude are the raw material of guidance but emotional rather than
pure intellectual attitude are raw material of the counseling process.
 Decision making is operable at an intellectual level in guidance but counseling
operates at an emotional level.
 Guidance is generally education and career related and may also be for
personal problems but counseling is mostly for personal and social issues.
NEED FOR COUNSELING:
 Following are the situations when counseling is required:

 When a pupil requires not only reliable information but also an interesting
introspection of those in formations which can solve his personal difficulties.
 When a pupil needs intelligent listener who has more experience than the pupil
to whom he can recite his difficulties and through which can seek suggestions
for his working plan.
 When the counsellor has to assess those facilities which can help in resolving the
pupil problems but the pupil doesn’t enjoy such an access to those facilities.
 When the pupil has some problem but he is unaware of that problem and his
development, he is to be made aware of that problem.
 When the pupil is aware of the problem and difficulties created by the problem
but he feels difficult to define it and to understand it that is, when the pupil is
familiar with the presence of the problem and its nature but he is unable to face
the problem due to this temporary tension and distraction.
 When the pupil suffer the main maladjustment problem or some
handicapped which is temporary and which needs careful long due
diagnosis by an expert.
 Majority of students lack a sense of direction, a sense of purpose and a
sense of fulfillment and include in destructive activities which lead to
social damage and loss. Adequate guidance and counseling facilities is
the only answer to help and guide the youth to worthwhile channels
and help them to realize the goals of optimum academic personal and
social development.
 Problems and needs in society are nothing new. But today they have
seen to be multiplying Unexceptional rate. The unique problems in
the changing family, cities in up level, conflicts in values, attitudes and
moral , the new criticism about politics, economic factors the
changing role of work, new pressure and demands on school and the
problems of the youth all points out the needs for the counseling
services. Guidance and counseling have a challenging role to play in
every developing economy much more so if it is a labor surplus one.
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP GUIDANCE/COUNSELING:
➢ Individual Guidance/Counseling:
It is opposite to group guidance as in this assistance is given to a
individual instead of group of people. Individual guidance aimed at the
self development of the individual who studies, plays and behaves in a
group.
Individual counseling is “to facilitate wise choice of the sort on
which the person’s later development depends.”
Counseling aims at behavior change. If we analyze different goals set by
different experts, we feel that three goals are common for clients as
given below. These are actually clients’ goals.
 Client self-disclosure.
 Client self-understanding.
 Client behavior change.
➢ Group Guidance/Counseling:
Group guidance provide beneficial information to a number of a
people at once, instead of repeatedly explaining the concept to
each person individually. This offer the group leader a more
efficient way to educate. It also allows individuals the
opportunity to interact with other facing issues similar to their
own. Common example is career information sessions and job
training workshops. Group guidance in any enterprise in which
the primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to
solve his problems and makes adjustments.
Purpose of Group Guidance:
 To discuss common to the group and to develop awareness
that problems are also shared by the others.
 To enable each individual to understand how others have
met and solved the same problems that confronts him.
 To broaden the horizons of pupils with reference to
occupations available to them in individual guidance.
Fundamental characteristics of Group Counseling:
 Group counseling focuses on conscious thought and behavior.
 It involves such therapy functions as:
 Permissiveness
 Orientation to reality
 Catharsis
 Mutual trust
 Caring
 Understanding
 acceptance
TYPES OF COUNSELING:
Directive Counseling
Non-Direction Counseling
Eclectic Counseling
DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING
 E.G WILLIAMSON is the chief exponent in this viewpoint.
 Counsellor –centred: the counsellor direct the client
to take steps in order to resolve his conflicts.
 It is based on assumption that the client cannot solve his own
problems for lack of information.
 The counsellor plays an important role; he tries to direct the
thinking of counselee by informing , explaining, interpreting
and advising.
 It gives more importance to intellectual aspect than
emotional aspects.
Steps of Directive Counselling
Williamson has given six steps of directive counselling:
1)Analysis :It includes collection of information about the
individual which can be collected through structured
interviews,psychological case history methods, Interaction with
family members, friends, etc.
2) Synthesis: After collection of lot data the information is
organized in the logical manner to analyse the individual in
terms of his qualifications, assets, potentials, liability
adjustment, cultural background, habits etc.
3) Diagnosis :The diagnosis consists of the interpretation of the
data in relation to the nature and problem, the causes of
problems.
.4)Prognosis: Under this step a prediction is made about the future
development of the problem.
5)Counseling : The counseling here is to bring about adjustment and re-
adjustment to the individual in relation to his problem. Attitudes and
interest of the individual are considered during the counseling.It
emphasis the individual to develop life cycle where an effort in the
positive direction could lead to success and success in turn could lead to
further efforts and motivations.
6)Follow -up :The sixth step in directive counseling is follow up which is
extremely important. An individual may be able to solve immediate
problems through counseling but new problems may occur or the
original problem may re-occur. Follow-up with the client is extremely
necessary. The role of counselor is important as he has to make the
individual understand and accept his strength and also his weakness and
faults.
Merits
 It is less time consuming; hence this method can be
adopted when an early solution is required.
 This method is best; less matured and less
intelligent client interact with an experienced
counsellor.
 This is best method at lower levels where the client
is not in a position to analyse his own problem
 In this method, the counsellor becomes readily
available to help the client which makes the client
very happy.
Demerits
 In directive counselling, the client never becomes independent of the
counsellor. So it is not an effective or best guidance.
 The personal autonomy and integrity of the client is not respected, it
leads to new adjustment problems.
 It will not help the individual to develop any attitudes through his
own experiences.
 The counsellor fails in saving the client to commit the mistakes in
future.
Non-directive Counselling
 CARL R. ROGER is the chief exponent in this

viewpoint.
 This school of thought is just reverse to that of
directive counseling.
 It is a client-centred process.
 In this, the counselee is the pivot of the whole
counselling process.
 The main function of the counsellor is to create an
atmosphere in which the client can work out his
problem.
 It is also known as permissive
counselling.
In this type of counselling,
emotional elements rather than
intellectual element are
stressed.
Steps in Client Centred Counselling
Carl Rogers has given the following steps of this

non-directive counselling:
1. Defining the Problematic Situation : First
of all the counsellor should define the
problematic situation.
2. Free Expression of Feelings : After the first
step, the client is made aware of the fact that he
can express his feelings freely and the counselor
approves this.
3. Development of Insight: The counsellor goes on
thinking regarding the client's new feelings along with
the development of client's insight and he goes on
classifying all those new feelings.
4. Classification of Positive and Negative Feelings:
After the free expression of feelings by the client, the
counsellor identifies his negative and positive feelings
and he classifies them.
5. Termination of Counselling
Situation: The counsellor looks for a
point where he can terminate the
counselling situation after all the above
steps. According to this school of
thought, either the client or the
counsellor can suggest for such
termination of counselling situation.
Merits
 It helps the counselee to become independent
and self-reliant and to attain the ability for self-
direction.
 It helps the client to attain emotional integrity;
and helps to reach his full growth.
 It helps to attain more sustainable adjustment
to his situation.
 This type of counselling leaves it’s impressions
for a longer period.
Demerits
 It is usually more time-consuming
 It is not suitable for a less matured and
less intelligent counselee.
 The counsellor’s passive attitude might
irritate the counselee so much that he
might hesitate to express his feelings.
 It is not possible in schools because the
counsellor has to attend many pupils.
Comparative
Analysis Of
Directive And Non-
directive
Counselling
Directive Non-Directive
1. Economical 1. Time consuming
2 .Emphasis on the 2. Emphasis on individual
problem
3. Emphasis on the 3. Emphasis on emotional
intellectual aspects aspects
4.Methdology is direct 4. Methodology is indirect
and persuasive
5. Solves immediate 5. Deals with self analysis and
problems new problems of Adjustment
may be taken care of.
6. Uses psychological 6. May not use psychological
7.Counselor plays active role 7. Counsellor plays passive role
8. Direct counselling 8. A highly professional,

sometimes may be done by competent and trained
supporting staff person
with understanding of
relationship skills is required
9. Help is offered by 9. Client takes his own
counsellor to take decisions
decisions
10. It is more information 10. It is to develop self-
giving, rapport formation insight and more towards
3. Eclectic Counselling
 The chief advocate of this type of counselling is

‘Thorne’.
 Eclectic counselling is a type of counselling which
is neither counsellor-centred nor client centred;
but a combination of both.
 Here the counsellor is neither too active as in
directive counselling nor too passive as in non-
directive counselling, but follows a middle course.
Characteristics of Eclectic Counselling
 Methods of counselling may change from client to

client or even with the same client from time to time.
 It is highly flexible.
 Freedom of choice and expression is open to both the
counsellor and the counselee.
 Experience of mutual confidence and faith in the
relationship are basic.
 The client and the philosophical framework are
adjusted to save the purpose of the relationship.
REFERENCES
 http://www.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_differences_betw
een_%27guidance%27_and_%27counseling%27
 http://www.slideshare.net/tintojohnsvazhupadickal/types-of-
counselling
 http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-
counseling-and-guidance/
 http://teachereducationguidanceandcounsellin.blogspot.com/2
011/03/what-is-counselling-meaning-need-and.html
 Notes given by Dr. Muhammad Iqbal
Meaning of guidance
Dunsmoor Miller
Guidance is a means of helping
individuals to understand and use wisely
the educational. Vocational and personal
opportunities they have or can develop
and as a form of systematic assistance
whereby students are aided in achieving
satisfactory adjustment to school & to
life.”
A.J.Jones
Guidance is an assistance given to the
individual in making intelligence choices &
adjustments.”
Educational Guidance
Meaning OF Educational guidance

“Educational guidance is concerned with the assistance given to students in their
choice and adjustment with relation to school, curriculum courses and school
life.”
• Educational Guidance enable each individual to understand his abilities,
interests and personality traits, to develop them as well as possible to relate
them to his goals and finally to reach a state of complete and mature self
guidance as a desirable citizen of a democratic social order.
Aims of educational guidance
❑ Help to ensure that choice of
education and career will be of
greatest possible.
❑ Benefit to the individual and to
society.
❑ Be targeted particularly at young
people with special needs for
guidance in relation.
❑ Take into account the individual’s
interests and personal qualifications
and skills.
❑ Contribute to limiting, as much as
possible, the number of dropouts.
❑ Students changing from one
education and training programme
to another.
❑ Contribute to improving the
individual’s ability to seek and use
information.
❑ Including IT-based information and
guidance, about choice of education.
Educational Guidance at Different Levels
Elementary Stage:
At this stage the child is a mare beginner. No specialized service is required. The
only consideration as far as educational guidance is concerned is that all efforts
be made to help develop positive and healthy outlook towards life. Also
Educational guidance at elementary stage is to prepare child for secondary stage.
Secondary Stage
At this stage the child in dire need of proper educational guidance. It should be as
specialized service at this stage. All schools must provide this service, as
educational guidance mostly at this stage is given by illiterate parents, neighbors
and unrealistic
Personnel guidance
“Personal guidance is an assistance given to student to solve
their emotional problem and to help them to control their
emotions and feelings.”
Need of Personal Guidance:
→ The personal guidance will be given to each student, a
half hour per student per week.
→ During the first mentoring session, students will be
asked to develop personal goals. These goals will be
developed throughout the year.
→ Students will also be assisted and stimulated to tackle
problems that occur throughout their studies.
→ The aimed result will be that students have learned to
develop and obtain their own goals and therefore leave
the programmed with higher self-esteem and
confidence.
→ Schooling for Life aims to make the transition from
student to professional life as easy as possible.
→ By preparing the student for life after school through
internships, personal guidance and training and formal
education, the Schooling for Life graduate will be able
to successfully participate in his/her society, make a
positive contribution to his/her family and additionally
to his/her larger community.
Role of Counselor:
 Guidance relating to college transition, campus/community resources,
social and cultural enriching activities and general personal concerns can
be provided by all professional staff.
 Limited counseling is available with the project director.
 A goal section of the Individualized Development Plan (IDP) will be
compiled for each participant. Academic, career and personal counseling
is available and encouraged.
 Any participant can schedule an appointment to see the counselor or
advisor as needed.
 Counselors help students in the transition from high school to college and
assist re-entry and late-entry students in adjusting to the academic
environment.
 The counselors aid students in clarifying goals and setting realistic
objectives, as well as helping students with specific personal issues.
Personnel guidance
Who Am I? (Grade 2):
It is surprising what range of knowledge and interests our students have when we
take time to find out.
This activity gives students a chance to reflect on who they are and then to share
that information in a fun way with the rest of the class.
• Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help
them understand and respect self and others.
• Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help
them understand and respect self and others.
• Make New Friends (Grades K-2)
• King of the Playground (Adaptable for Grades K-5):
Teach students the difference between tattling and telling. Bullying
• Recognize, accept, respect and appreciate individual differences. Describe how
behavior influences the feelings and actions of others.
• Decision Making (Grade K):
•
• Students will understand safety and survival skills.
• Being Helpful (Grades K-3):
To recognize how being helpful is beneficial to others and yourself
• All Colors of the Earth (Grades K-5):
• Recognize, accept, respect and appreciate individual differences. Recognize a
variety of emotions, their causes and possible consequences. Describe positive
characteristics about self as seen by self and others.
Vocational guidance
Meaning
Meaning of
of vocational
vocational guidance
guidance
“Vocational guidance is a process of assisting
“Vocational guidance is a process of assisting
the individual to choose an occupation,
the individual to choose an occupation,
prepare them for or enter upon and
prepare them for or enter upon and
progress in it.”
progress in it.”
Vocational guidance is fundamentally an
Vocational guidance is fundamentally an
effort concerning the priceless native
effort concerning the priceless native
capacities of youth in the schools. It
capacities of youth in the schools. It
conserves these rich of all human
conserves these rich of all human
resources by helping the individual to
resources by helping the individual to
invest and use them where they will bring
invest and use them where they will bring
greatest satisfaction and success to
greatest satisfaction and success to
himself and greatest benefit to society.
himself and greatest benefit to society.
Need of Vocational Guidance:
❖ Wrong profession and economic and psychic loss.
❖ Economic advantages
❖ Maximum utilization of human potentialities
❖ Wrong profession and economic and psychic loss.
Aims or Functions
➢ It helps the child to develop his potentialities to an optimum level.
➢ To help the pupil to relate their studies to vocations that is open to them.
➢ To help pupil to make contacts that would help in putting their plans into
successful operations.
➢ Confidence Development & Awareness of Responsibilities:
➢ Decision Making & Employability:
➢ Planning Life Goals:
➢ Benefit from Learning Opportunities
Vocational guidance in different levels
Elementary level:
o Create the habit of neat and systematic work.
o Create and achieve hand eye coordination
o Encourage neatness in work
Secondary school stage
o The child should be helped to know himself
o The child should be make right choice
o The child can be placed during high school in a suitable job.
At college level
o Assisting students to relate their studies to the vocations that would be open to
them at the end of their college carrier.
o Assisting them to make a detailed study of the careers which they would like to
pursue.
o Assisting them to know about the various programmed of financial assistance
scholarships fellowship for improving their prospects.
An Overview of Growth and Development
 An Overview:
Understanding the growth and development
of the human organism requires an
understanding of nature and nurture, and the
complex interplay between the two.
Cont….
 Nature  Nurture
 Inherited  Environmental
 In  Acquired tendencies
born tendencies
 Learned & Develop
 Un learned &develop
differently according to
automatically environmental
difference.
Meaning of Growth and Development
Growth and development in education has a

specific meanings and both are relates to each
other. The following comparison will clarify
the meaning of growth and development.
Growth means:
 Growth is a physical progress, physical

change, quantitative progress, stops at
certain stage. It is external in nature. It is
indicative i.e. increase in body, size and
weight etc.
Development mean:
 Development is psychological change,

cognitive progress, continuous process,
qualitative progress. It is internal in nature. It
is not indicative.
Definition of Growth
Growth: “Growth” as an
increase in the size or the amount of an entity. The word growth is used for all
those structural and physiological changes that take place within individual
during the process of maturation.
For example, the increase in weight, height, and different organs is called
growth. It is a biological process and continues for birth to adulthood.
From the very beginning, a child needs food. When he eats food, it becomes
a part of his body. During this time new cells are produced which results in
physical increase. This physical increase is called growth.
Definition of development
 ‘Development’ is the name of all those psychological

changes that take place in the functions and activities of
different organs of an individual. For example, when the
muscles of legs become strong, a child begins to creep,
then stand, and then starts walking. So, this creeping,
standing and walking are called development.
Overview of Physical Growth:
 Growth in young people occurs in the following pattern:

 Relatively rapid growth during infancy with a gradual
deceleration until about the fourth year of life
 A slow but uniform period of growth until puberty
 A prominent adolescent growth spurt
 A relatively gradual decrease in the rate of growth until
completion of maturity, usually after age 20.
Difference between Growth and
Development
 Growth is different from development. But both are

correlated and one is dependent on other. We can say that
growth is a part of development, which is limited in
physical changes. Growth is physical changes whereas
development is overall development of the organism. The
main differences between both are
Cont…..
Development
Growth
 Development is overall changes and progressive
 Growth is change of physical aspects changes of the organism.
of the organism.  Development is organizational.
 Growth is cellular.  Development is structural change and functional
progress of the body.
 Growth is the change in shape, form,

structure, size of the body.
 Development continues till death of the
 Growth stops at maturation. organism.
 Growth is a part of development.  Development also includes growth.
 Growth is quantitative.  Development is qualitative in nature.
 Growth can be measured accurately.  Development is subjective interpretation of one’s

change.
General Pattern of Growth and
Development
 The general pattern of Growth and Development are:

 Physical structure or Physique
It involves changes in terms of height, weight, body
proportions and general physical appearance.
 Internal Organs
It involves changes in the function of glands, nervous system,
circulatory system, digestive system, reproductive system,
muscular etc.
SAADIA ZAHID (131728)
TOPIC:
Presenter # 2 AN OVER VIEW OF
DEVELOPMENT
Development:
 Positive change accruing for the betterment or

improvement of human organism and mental process.
Positive change in human growth is development.
Development is sequential change in organism for the
improvement in behavior.
Areas of Development
Development is divided into four major areas:

 Motor
 Speech/language
 Cognitive
 Social/emotional.
Motor development
 Motor milestones will be described in the lecture devoted

to this topic. The infant first achieves postural control of
the head through control of the neck muscles, and is able
to lift her head. Subsequently, she develops control of the
shoulders, upper back, lower back, hips, etc
Speech and Language development:
The development of speech and language skills also follow predictable

patterns.
 Infant communication: proto-conversations, in which parent and infant
take turns responding through facial gestures.
 Cooing: the infant makes vowel sounds
 Babbling: the infant makes consonant sounds. Arises prior to six months
 Jargon: speech-like sounds which include vowels, consonants, and
prosody (the music of language) without actually using words. Arises
prior to one year.
 Single words. Usually arise by age one.
 Two and three word sentences. Usually arise by age two.
Cognitive development (The work of Piaget)
 Piaget was the first child psychologist to

map out child cognitive development in any
detail
Stages of child development:
Piaget divided child development into four stages

 Sensorimotor stage (ages 0 to 2)
 The Preoperational stage: ages ( 2 to 4 or 5)
 The concrete operational stage: ages 5 to 11 or 12
 . The stage of formal operations (Adolescence and
beyond)
Sensorimotor stage (ages 0 to 2)
 In the sensorimotor stage, infants learn:

 About their own body movements
 That the movements of their body can have an effect on their
environment
 To coordinate two or more movements or activities to reach a
goal
 The concept of object permanence
The Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4 or 5)
 "Operations" was a word Piaget coined to refer to ‘mental

schemes’ or ‘mental strategies’. Today, these are perhaps
better understood as neural schemes or neural
connections. They come into play after the preschool
years.
Cont…..
 Cause and Effect Relationships. A preschooler might say that a
child who misbehaved one day and caught a cold the next day
caught that cold because of the misbehavior. Transductive
reasoning persists in the adult population, where a “cold” is said to
come from “being cold."
 The egocentricity of preschoolers. Preschoolers cannot understand
that someone seeing an object from an angle different from
themselves see the object differently from themselves.
 Preschoolers cannot apprehend more than one concept at a time.
This is illustrated by the concept of conservation of volume. They
cannot apprehend two aspects of a problem such as this, e.g. width
and length, simultaneously.
The concrete operational stage:
(ages 5 to 11 or 12)
The child learns operations such as:
 addition,
 subtraction,
 multiplication,
 division,
 serial ordering
The stage of formal operations:
(Adolescence and beyond)
Instead of thinking only about real things and actual occurrences, the
adolescent must start to think about imaginary things and possible
occurrences. Adolescents learn how to
 Use strategies for solving problems.
 Accept a proposition that may be completely ridiculous and make
arguments or conclusions from this proposition.
 Understand abstractions (justice, liberty, etc.).
 Think about their own thinking.
Social/emotional development
Healthy social-emotional development includes the ability to:

 Form and sustain positive relationships
 Experience, manage, and express emotions
 Explore and engage with the environment
Cont…..
 Children with well-developed social-emotional skills are also more

able to:
 Express their ideas and feelings
 Display empathy towards others
 Manage their feelings of frustration and disappointment more easily
 Feel self-confident
 More easily make and develop friendships
 Succeed in school.
ASIFA MOAZZAM
(131750)
Presenter # 3 TOPIC:
NATURE OF
GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Growth:
Growth is the progressive increase in the

size of a child or parts of a child
Development:
Development is progressive acquisition of various

skills (abilities) such as head support, speaking,
learning, expressing the feelings and relating with
other people.
Importance of Assessing Growth and
Development
The assessment of growth and development is very helpful

in finding out the state of health and nutrition of a child.
Continuous normal growth and development indicate a good
state of health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal growth or
growth failure is a symptom of disease. Hence,
measurement of growth is an essential component of the
physical examination
Relationship of Growth and Development
The term growth is used in purely physical sense. It

generally refers to an increase in size, length, height and
weight. Changes in the quantitative aspects come into the
domain of growth. Development implies overall changes in
shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or
functioning. It indicates the changes in the quality or
character rather than in quantitative aspects.
Cont…..
 Growth is one of the parts of developmental process. In a
strict sense, development in its quantitative aspect is
termed as growth. Development is a wider and
comprehensive term. It refers to overall changes in the
individual
 Growth describes the changes which take place in
particular aspects of the body and behavior of an
organism. Development describes the changes in the
organism as a whole and does not list the changes in parts
Cont….
 Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops when maturity

has been attained. Development is a continuous process. It goes
from womb to tomb. It does not end with the attainment of
maturity, the changes however small they may be, continue
throughout the life span of an individual.
 The changes produced by growth are the subject of measurement.
They may be quantified. Development implies improvement in
functioning and behavior and hence brings qualitative changes
which are difficult to be measured directly
Measuring Growth
 There are various measurements that are used to measure
growth. These are:
 weight,
 height,
 head circumference,
 mid upper arm circumference (MUAC)
 the eruption of teeth.
To be useful, these measurements must be taken accurately
using reliable equipment and correct measuring techniques.
Measuring weight:
 Hung the scale securely with the dial of the scale at your eye level
for correct reading. If you use the Salter scale, hang the weighing
pants on the hook of the scale. See figure 5.1.
 Adjust the pointer of the scale to zero (“0”) by turning the knob on
the top of the scale to account for the extra weight of the weighing
pants;
 Ask the parent to remove any heavy clothes and shoes including the
nappies and to dress the child in the weighing pants. .
.
Cont….
 Once the child wears the weighing pants, ask her to lift
the baby and fasten the loop of the pants to the hook of
the weighing scale. Ask the mother to let go of the child
but to continue standing nearby and talk to keep talking to
the baby. The child’s feet should be off the ground as
shown in figure 5.1.
 If the child is upset, ask the mother to calm him or her.
When the child stops moving, note the weight quickly,
reading to the nearest 10gm in infants and 100 gm in
children
Height/Length
 Measuring children with any clothing, including a nappy,

can distort the hips and shorten the length. Thus, babies
up to 24 months of age should be measured nude
Head circumference
 Head circumference should be measured at birth and at

six to eight weeks. Immediately following birth the head
of a new born baby can be misshapen so this
measurement is normally taken at approximately 24 to 30
hours after birth
TUBA MAHMOOD
(131737)
TOPIC:
Presenter # 4 FACTORS
INFLUENCING
CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Anything that contributes causally to a result is known

as factor.
In the matter of factors that influence the child development
varies. But they can be mainly divided into two main factors
which is
 Nature factors
 Nurture factor
Nature factor
 Nature factors are factors that carried by the

individual from conception to birth.
Nurture factor
 Nurturefactors are factors that affect the

individual from after birth often regarding
with the environment.
Nature factors
Nature Factors
 Genetic
 Maternal nutrition
 Emotional stress
 Maternal age
Genetic
 This gene is a segment of DNA that actually controls the physical,

mental and many attributes in the body. The height, type of hair or
color, skin color, blood groups are actually being control by the
DNA.
 Gene is also affects the character and mental intelligence or IQ of
an individual . If the parents are temperament it is said that the child
might also inherited it and so the IQ.
 However to those parents who have mental disability then child
may also have the mental disability
Maternal nutrition
 If the mother has a poor

nutrition it may affect the
growth of the baby physical
body and brain cell. Hence
when the baby is born the
size of the baby is not healthy
and deformities might occur.
The cognitive development
also slows down.
Emotional stress
 When a pregnant mother is often stressed the baby will

have a shortage of oxygen and nutrient supply. Somehow
this will implement to the prematurely and low birth
weight. Lack of oxygen and nutrient supply is a matter
but excessive adrenaline in the blood may enter into the
baby’s blood. The not supposed to exist hormone in the
baby’s body causing the baby having newborn irritability
and behavioral problems.
Maternal age
 Theteenager mother and more than 35 age

mother may have the problems and babies
height , weight , brain may be effected.
Nurture factors
Nurture Factors
 Child’s Nutrition and Fitness

 Family
 Peer
 School
 House and Neighborhood
 Mass media
Child’s Nutrition and Fitness
 Food has been put into a very
important role in a child’s growth.
Correct food amount helps child to
grow in the correct rate and size.
Malnutrition on the other hand
causes many problems such as
slow growth and many deficiency
diseases. Sufficient amount of
exercise is important too. Playing
basketball and skipping rope can
help the child to grow taller.
Family
 Family is important as they are the
person that support and educate the
child. The child is given freedom but
with limitation. The child can have
the freedom to test out their ideas and
have a better communication but
when the child fails the parent is there
to support. Using this method it is
said the child will be independent,
assertive, friendly, cooperative, high
self-esteem and achievement oriented.
Peer
 To play in a group there is
something such as rules and
regulations that need to be learned
and obey so that the child will be
accepted. This is where the
influence of the peer where the
child will try to gain acceptance
and will act according to the
group. At the same time they also
learn to respect other’s right as
they learned to socialize
School
 Providing the knowledge
required for the child the
school
 prepared as a socializing
medium for the students
 School rules and regulation
enable to discipline the
student.
 Lastly the school culture also
affects greatly on the child.
House and Neighborhood
 The environment of the house
can be decorated in some
ways that motivate the child’s
interest in learning and
culture
 the location of the house is
also important as various
neighborhoods have different
culture and style
Mass media
One study found that TV viewing
before age three slightly hurt several
measures of later cognitive
development, but that between ages
three and five it slightly helped
reading scores
media violence can contribute to
aggressive behavior, desensitization
to violence, nightmares, and fear of
being harmed.
Guidance and Counseling in School
Chapter No: 1
Concept of Guidance
“Guidance is continues process of
helping, individual development
What is Guidance? to the maximum of his capacity
in the direction most beneficial to
himself and to society”
Means (Synonyms)
▪ To direct To Seek
▪To Indicate To Show the way
▪To Point out To lead out
Some form of help and assistance given to an individual to solve their

problems.
❑ Guidance as the promotion of the growth of the individual in self-
direction.
❑ Guidance helps the individual to adjust to the environment
❑ Guidance is a personal assistance.
❑ Guidance is a process by which individual solves his problems by his
own efforts.
❑ Guidance focuses on the attention of the welfare of the individual.
A guide therefore, shows the way enlightens a new path, place, situations
and subject etc.
 “Guidance as a process through which an
individual is able to solve their problems and pursue
a path suited to their abilities and aspiration.”(JM
Brewer)
 “Guidance is an educational service designed to
help students make more effective use of the schools
training program”. (Educational point of view)
 “Guidance is a process of helping every individual,
through his own effort to discover & develop his
potentialities for his personal happiness & social
usefulness.”(Ruth Strang)
 As a process
 A continuous process
 Related with life
 Development of capacities
 Individual assistance
 Task of trained persons
 Wide scope
Guidance is concerned with the optimal
development of the individual for educational,
vocational, personal, social, moral, physical
both for his own satisfaction and for the benefit
of the society.
The concept of guidance is taken as any kind
of help or assistance to the individual to make
intelligent choice and adjustment. Guidance is
needed by men or woman throughout his/her
life when no choice is possible the necessity of
guidance if felt by the individual for the
solution of his personal needs and adjustment.
 It focuses our attention on the individual and not the
problem.
 It leads to the discovery of abilities of an individual.
 Guidance is based upon the assets and limitations of
an individual.
 It leads to self development and self-direction.
 It helps the individual plan wisely for the present
and the future.
 It assists the individual to become adjusted to the
environment
 Guidance is a slow process.
 Based on individual difference.
 Guidance is developing the insight of an individual.
 Problems for which guidance is required arise out of
situations.
 Problems are interrelated.
 Guidance is based on planning.
 Guidance is related to the development of the student.
 Guidance is meant for all.
 Should be flexible according to the needs of the
individual and community.
 Guidance is based on educational objectives.
 Guidance is a specialized service.
 It is a form of assistance given by a matured and
experienced person to less matured and inexperienced
person.
 It involves the promotion of an individual’s ability in
self direction.
 It helps an individual to recognize and use his inner
resources, to set goals, to make plans to work out his
own problems of development.
 It is an organized program.
 It consists of specialized services – testing, counseling,
educational and vocational information, and placement
and follows up.
 It is a continuous and life long process.
 To help in the total development of the school.
 To enable the students to make proper choices at various stages of their
educational career.
 To help students choose, prepare for, enter upon and progress in career.
 To help students make the best possible adjustments to the situations in
the schools as well as in the home.
 To minimize the mismatching between education and employment and
help in the efficient use of manpower.
 To check wastage and stagnation.( inactivity)
 To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.
 To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new challenges.
 To identify and help students in need of special help
Three forms of 1. Informal
guidance are 2. Incidental
found: 3. Formal
The guidance provided on an open plat form from
one person on small group to a large group or
universal group.
Features:
 It is provide at open plat form.
 One person or small group communicates with a
large group/ population.
 Specific methodology a technique is adopted for the
type of guidance.
 Oral or written type communication can be adopted.
 Can be provided by any person.
The type guidance provided according to the need of
time, emerging problems, issues, demanding immediate
solution i.e. Strike, paper outs, earth quakes, downfalls
of authorities or natural disasters political issues,
administrative.
Features:
 It handles emerging needs, problems immediately.
 This type of guidance may involve suitable authorities,
members of society according to solution.
 Foreigner agencies can also be involved to solve
problems according to acuteness of the issue.
 Incidental help is provided during the specific time limit
by the specific people.
Formal guidance is provided by specific personals within
resources, techniques used for one person or a small group.
Features:
 Competencies + experiences of guidance experts are
required.
 Formal guidance cannot be provided without suitable
reasons.
 One person can provide guidance to another or a small group
of people with similar issues.
 Communication skills (writing, speaking, listening and
thinking) are required to provide formal guidance.
 It takes as much time as required till the solution of problem.
There are three Agencies of
guidance: Home
School
Society
It guidance for the fulfillment of basic needs e.g.
food, shelter, comfort, medication, cleanliness etc…
Ethical needs:
Social Ethics:
 Childs needs cultural guidance.
 To dress up.
 To adopt eating habits.
 To adopt cleanliness.
 To follow traditions (Family traditions related to family)
according to family rules.
 Family gathering & interaction with relatives.
 Use of aptitude and formation of attitude.
Religious Ethics:
 Guidance to follow religious ethics e.g. in case
of Islam, how can we follow fine pillars of
Islam.
Develop learning skills as well as teaching skills.
 Remove all types of barriers in educational
process mental readiness to learn.
 Use for skills and develop these skill through
touch of motor movement writing.
 How to stand with an interesting progressive
educational process.
 How to make educational journey comfortable
 Produce suitable syllabi / curriculum make
modification when required.
Agency and society provide confidence and social
interaction with human being and develop narration.
 Develop confidence
 Character building
 Learning of rules and value and these implications in society.
 Identification of duties and rights.
 Fulfillment of social needs.
 How to seek good collaboration of activities of other and
understanding of one own abilities.
 Societies enhance a personality.
 Society generates new ideas.
 Society unable to help and solve the problem related to all
personal needs and social needs.
http://www.slideshare.net/CHAMAKAT/nature-of-
guidance-and-guidance-and-other-terms
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25421693/Guidance-and-
Counselin
http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/126909-
Concept-scope-use-of-guidance-and-counseling.aspx
A.K. Nyack: Guidance and Counseling, (1997) APH Publishing
Corporation
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A (Very) Brief History of
Learning Theory
Matthew D. Laliberte
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
NERCOMP SIG 01.19.05
Learning as a Black Box
INPUTS OUTCOMES
INPUTS Learning OUTCOMES
So what’s happening inside the box?

A Superficial Review
 Behaviorism
 Cognitivism
 Social Learning Theory
 Social Constructivism
 Multiple Intelligences
 Brain-Based Learning
Behaviorism
 Learning is defined by the outward
expression of new behaviors
 Focuses solely on observable behaviors
 A biological basis for learning
 Learning is context-independent
 Classical & Operant Conditioning
◼ Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
◼ Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)
Behaviorism in the Classroom
 Rewards and
punishments
 Responsibility for
student learning
rests squarely
with the teacher
 Lecture-based,
highly structured
Critiques of Behaviorism
 Does not account for processes taking
place in the mind that cannot be observed
 Advocates for passive student learning in a
teacher-centric environment
 One size fits all
 Knowledge itself is given and absolute
 Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Cognitivism
 Grew in response to Behaviorism
 Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
 Learning is the process of connecting
symbols in a meaningful & memorable way
 Studies focused on the mental processes
that facilitate symbol connection
Cognitivism cont.
 Jean Piaget
◼ Genetic Epistemology
 Assimilation and Accommodation
 Jerome Bruner
◼ Discovery Learning
 Learner as independent problem-solver
Cognitivism in the Classroom
 Inquiry-oriented
projects
 Opportunities for the
testing of hypotheses
 Curiosity encouraged
 Staged scaffolding
Critiques of Cognitivism
 Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given
and absolute
 Input – Process – Output model is
mechanistic and deterministic
 Does not account enough for individuality
 Little emphasis on affective characteristics
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
 Grew out of Cognitivism
 A. Bandura (1973)
 Learning takes place through observation
and sensorial experiences
 Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
 SLT is the basis of the movement against
violence in media & video games
◼ Bobo Doll Experiment
SLT in the Classroom
 Collaborative
learning and group
work
 Modeling responses
and expectations
 Opportunities to
observe experts in
action
Critiques of Social Learning Theory
 Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating
factors
 Suggests students learn best as passive
receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to
being active learners
 Emotions and motivation not considered
important or connected to learning
Social Constructivism
 Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism,
framed around metacognition
 Knowledge is actively constructed
 Learning is…
◼ A search for meaning by the learner
◼ Contextualized
◼ An inherently social activity
◼ Dialogic and recursive
◼ The responsibility of the learner
 Lev Vygotsky
◼ Social Learning
 Zone of Proximal Development
Social Constructivism in the Classroom
 Journaling
 Experiential
activities
 Personal focus
 Collaborative &
cooperative learning
Critiques of Social Constructivism
 Suggests that knowledge is neither given
nor absolute
 Often seen as less rigorous than
traditional approaches to instruction
 Does not fit well with traditional age
grouping and rigid terms/semesters
Multiple Intelligences (MI)
 Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
 H. Gardner (1983 to present)
 All people are born with eight intelligences:

1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical
2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist
3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal
4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal
 Enables students to leverage their strengths and

purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
MI in the Classroom
 Delivery of
instruction via
multiple mediums
 Student-centered
classroom
 Authentic
Assessment
 Self-directed
learning
Critiques of MI
 Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
 Lack of evidence that use of MI as a
curricular and methodological approach
has any discernable impact on learning
 Development process is a time-sink
 Suggestive of a departure from core
curricula and standards
Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
 Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism
 D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen
(1980’s to present)
 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception
2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes
3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory
4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks
5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat
6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique
BBL in the Classroom
 Opportunities for group
learning
 Regular environmental
changes
 A multi-sensory
environment
 Opportunities for self-
expression and making
personal connections to
content
 Community-based
learning
Critiques of BBL
 Research conducted by neuroscientists, not
teachers & educational researchers
 Lack of understanding of the brain itself
makes “brain-based” learning questionable
 Individual principles have been
scientifically questioned
Other Learning Theories of Note
 Andragogy (M. Knowles)
 Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
 Situated Learning (J. Lave)
 Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
 Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)
Learning as a Not-So-Black Box
INP
UT
S
INPU OM ES
TS OU TC
INPUTS Learner OUTCOMES Lost
OUT
P U TS C OME
IN Environment S
U TS
IN P
Chapter 2: Cognitive Development
and Language
Ed Psych 202/Dr. Bauer
Marietta College
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon

Overview
◼ Definition of Development
◼ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
◼ Implications of Piaget’s Theory
◼ Vygotsky Sociocultural Perspective
◼ Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory
◼ Development of Language

Concept Map for
Chapter 2
Language Development
Development Defined
Cognitive
Development and
Language
Vygotsky’s Theory Piaget’s Theory

and and
Implications Implications

Development

Types of Developmental
Change
◼ Physical
◼ Personal
◼ Social
◼ Cognitive

Principles of Development
◼ Rates differ
◼ Orderly
◼ Gradual

Brain Development
◼ Main structures
◼ Specialization and
integration
◼ Lateralization
◼ Storing and
transferring
information

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
◼ Maturation
◼ Activity
◼ Social transmission
◼ Equilibration
◼ Mnemonic: MASE

Piagetian Terminology
◼ Organization
◼ Schemes / schema
◼ Adaptation
◼ Assimilation
◼ Accommodation
◼ Equilibration
◼ Equilibrium
◼ Disequilibrium

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
◼ Sensorimotor
◼ Pre-operational
◼ Concrete
operations
◼ Formal operations

Sensorimotor Stage: 0-2
◼ Learning through
5 senses
◼ Object
permanence
◼ Goal directed
actions
Rules for Toddlers
◼ If I like it, it’s mine.

◼ If it’s in my hand, it’s mine.
◼ If I can take it from you, it’s mine.
◼ If I had it a little while ago, it’s mine.
◼ If it’s mine, it must never appear to be
yours in any way.
Rules for Toddlers, continued
◼ If I’m doing or building something, all

the pieces are mine.
◼ If it looks like mine, it’s mine.
◼ If I saw it first, it’s mine.
◼ If you are playing with something, and
you put it down, it automatically
becomes mine.
◼ If it’s broken,
it’s yours!
Preoperational Stage: 2-7
◼ Operations
◼ Semiotic function
◼ One-way logic
◼ Difficulty with
centering &
conservation
◼ Egocentrism
◼ Language develops
Concrete Operational Stage:
Ages 7 - 11
◼ ‘Hands on’
thinking
◼ Conservation,
identity,
compensation
◼ Reversability
◼ Classification
◼ Seriation
Formal Operational Stage:
Ages 11 - 15
◼ Not all individuals
reach this stage
◼ Hypothetico-
deductive reasoning
◼ ‘Scientific’ reasoning
◼ Adolescent
egocentrism &
imaginary audience
Implications of Piaget’s Theory
for Teachers
◼ Understanding students’ thinking
◼ ‘Match’ teaching to cognitive stage
◼ Presentation strategies
◼ Illustrations and examples
◼ Assignments
◼ Use disequilibrium to motivate
◼ Individuals ‘construct’ knowledge Use
disequilibrium to motivate
◼ See Guidelines, Woolfolk pp. 33, 36, & 38
Create a Mnemonic for
Piaget’s Four Stages
Examples:
Sometimes Piaget Can

Frustrate!
Sophomore Psychologists
Can’t Fail!
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and
Bacon
Limitations of Piaget
◼ Stage theory
inconsistencies
◼ Underestimating
children's abilities
◼ Cognitive
development &
information
processing
◼ Overlooks influence
of cultural and social
groups See Point▼Counterpoint, Woolfolk p. 41
Lev Vygotsky

Vygotsky Sociocultural
Perspective
◼ Knowledge is co-constructed
◼ Interpsychological
◼ Intrapsychological
◼ Social interactions
◼ Role of cultural tools
◼ Role of language & private speech
◼ Self-talk & learning
◼ Role of adults and peers

Private Speech: Piaget versus Vygotsky
Piaget Vygotsky
Developmental Lack of ability External

Significance thinking
Course of Declines with Increases in
Development age youth, then
declines
Relationship to Negative; Positive; social
Social Speech immature stimulated
Relationship to Piaget did not Increases with
Environmental comment task difficulty
Context
Implications of Vygotsky’s
Theory for Teachers
◼ Assisted learning
◼ Scaffolding
◼ Zone of proximal
development
◼ Collaborative learning
◼ Alternative assessment
◼ See Table p. 50 &
Guidelines p. 52

Reflection Questions
◼ Compare Piaget with Vygotsky

regarding implications for teaching.
◼ Compare disequilibrium with the zone
of proximal development.
◼ Compare the role of social transmission
in Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories.


◼ Reinforced behaviors or special capacity

for language learning?
◼ Influences of heredity and environment

Language Development:
The School Years
◼ Pronunciation
◼ Syntax
◼ Vocabulary & meaning
◼ Metalinguistic awareness

1st Grade Teachers and
Literacy
◼ Build on existing emerging literacy skills
◼ Be supportive and positive
◼ Actively involve children in meaningful,
functional language experiences
◼ Acknowledge differences
◼ Emphasize reading
◼ Develop partnerships with families
◼ See Family and Community
Partnerships, Woolfolk, p. 56
Summary
◼ Definition of Development
◼ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
◼ Implications of Piaget’s Theory
◼ Vygotsky Sociocultural Perspective
◼ Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory
◼ Development of Language

Review Questions
◼ What are three principles of development?

◼ What part of the brain is associated with
higher mental functions?
◼ What is lateralization and why is it
important?
◼ What are the main influences on cognitive
development?
◼ What is a scheme?
Review Questions
◼ As children move through Piaget’s four

stages, what are the major changes?
◼ What is the “problem of the match”?
◼ What is active learning? Why is Piaget’s
theory consistent with active learning?
◼ What are some limitations of Piaget’s theory?
◼ Explain how interpsychological development
becomes intrapsychological development.

Review Questions
◼ What are the differences between Piaget’s and
Vygotsky’s view of private speech and its role in
development?
◼ What is assisted learning? Scaffolding?
◼ What is a student’s zone of proximal
development?
◼ How are humans predisposed to develop
language? What role does learning play?
◼ Describe teacher actions and responses that
encourage language development.
Compare & Contrast Piaget’s and
Vygotsky’s Theories.
Piaget Vygotsky
Key concepts
Role of teacher
Can development
be accelerated?
How does the

child’s thinking
change with age?
How does social

interaction affect
cognitive level?
Copyright
Copyright 20012001 by and
by Allyn Allyn and Bacon
Bacon
Short Answer
When a child can focus on both

width and length of two triangles in
order to compare their areas,
Piaget would say that the child is
capable of _________________.

Short Answer
When a child can focus on both

width and length of two triangles in
order to compare their areas,
Piaget would say that the child is
capable of decentering.

Multiple Choice
According to Vygotsky, which of the

following would be most influential
on a child’s learning?
a. Social transmission
b. Cognitive level
c. Repetition of information
d. Maturation
Multiple Choice
According to Vygotsky, which of the

following would be most influential
on a child’s learning?
a. Social transmission
b. Cognitive level
c. Repetition of information
d. Maturation
Mnemonics: How Will
You Remember…...
◼ Piaget’s influences
on development?
◼ Piaget’s four stages?
◼ The zone of
proximal
development?

Time for Bill’s Story: Hearing Aid
loss

Piaget’s Psychological
Development
Piaget (1896 - 1980)
• Swiss Psychologist, worked for
several decades on understanding
children’s cognitive development
• Most widely known theory of cognitive
development.
• Was interested by kids’ thoughts &
behavior, & worked to understand their
cognitive development
Piaget: Background
• Young Piaget was incredibly precocious
– Published first paper at 10
– Wrote on mollusks, based on these writings
was asked to be curator of mollusks at a
museum in Geneva (he declined in order to
finish secondary school)
– Earned his doctorate in natural sciences at 21
– Began to study psychology, applying
intelligence tests to school children
Constructivism
• Assumption that learning is an active
process of construction rather than a
passive assimilation of information or rote
memorization.
• Credited for founding constructivism
• Has had a large influence on American
schools
…Piaget and Constructivism
• Best known for idea that individuals
construct their understanding, that
learning is a constructive process
– Active learning as opposed to simply
absorbing info from a teacher, book, etc.
– The child is seen as a ‘little scientist’
constructing understandings of the world
largely alone
….Piaget & Constructivism
• believed all learning is constructed,
whether it is something we are taught or
something we learn on our own.
• Whether or not we are taught in a
“constructivist” manner, Piaget believed
we are constructing knowledge in all our
learning.
Piaget & Learning
• Two main states – equilibrium &
disequilibrium
• Believed that we are driven or motivated to
learn when we are in disequilibrium
– We want to understand things
Piaget & Learning
• Equilibration: assimilation & accommodation
• We adjust our ideas to make sense of reality
• Assimilation:
• process of matching external reality to an
existing cognitive structure.
• Accommodation:
• When there’s an inconsistency between the
learner’s cognitive structure & the thing being
learned the child will reorganize her thoughts
Example of Learning….
Constructivism, Learning, &
Education
• Not interested in applying his theory to
school-based education, he called this
“The American question”
• Constructivist educators create an
environment which encourages children
to construct their own knowledge.
– But according to Piaget, we construct our
learning regardless of how it is presented.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
• A child’s capacity to understand certain

concepts is based on the child’s
developmental stage
Piaget’s Four Stages
• Believed that all children develop according to
four stages based on how they see the world.
– He thought the age may vary some, but that we all
go through the stages in the same order.
1. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years)

2. Preoperational (~2-7)
3. Concrete operational (~7-11)
4. Formal operations (~12-15)
Sensorimotor Stage
• Birth to about 2 years, rapid change is
seen throughout
• The child will:
– Explore the world through senses & motor
activity
– Early on, baby can’t tell difference between
themselves & the environment
– If they can’t see something then it doesn’t
exist
– Begin to understand cause & effect
– Can later follow something with their eyes
Preoperational Stage
• About 2 to about 7
– Better speech communication
– Can imagine the future & reflect on the past
– Develop basic numerical abilities
– Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be able
to delay gratification (satisfaction)
– Can’t understand conservation of matter
– Has difficulty distinguishing
fantasy(imagination) from reality (ex: cartoon
characters are real people).
…more preoperational
• Conservation of matter – understanding
that something doesn’t change even
though it looks different, shape is not
related to quantity
• Ex: Are ten coins set in a long line more
than ten coins in a pile?
• Ex: Is there less water if it is poured into
a bigger container?
Piaget’s
Pre-
Operational
Stage
Inability to understand
conservation of matter.
Concrete Operational Stage
• From about 7 to about 11
– Abstract reasoning ability & ability to
generalize from the concrete increases
– Understands conservation of matter
Formal Operations
• From about 12 to about 15
– Be able to think about hypothetical
situations
– Form & test hypotheses
– Organize information
– Reason scientifically
… Piaget’s Development
• Development happens from one stage to
another through interaction with the
environment.
• Changes from stage to stage may occur

abruptly and kids will differ in how long
they are in each stage.
• Cognitive development can only happen

after genetically controlled biological
growth occurs.
…Piaget’s Development
• Development leads to learning
– Drive for development is internal
– The child can only learn certain things when
she is at the right developmental stage
– Environmental factors can influence but not
direct development
– Development will happen naturally through
regular interaction with social environment
Piaget & Education
• Piaget did not think it was possible to hurry
along or skip stages through education
• Regardless, many American schools will

try to teach to the stages in an attempt to
accelerate development
Problems with Piaget’s Theory
• Children often grasp ideas earlier than
what Piaget found
• Cognitive development across domains

is inconsistent (e.g. better at reading
than math)
• Studies have shown that development

can to some degree be accelerated
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
1
The Prefrontal Cortex
This portion of the brain (bright blue) shows extensive
development from 3 to 6 years of age and is believed to
play important roles in attention and working memory
Prefrontal
cortex
2
Figure 8.1
7.2 Piaget’s Four Stages of
Cognitive Development
The Sensorimotor Stage

The Preoperational Stage
The Concrete Operational Stage
The Formal Operational Stage
3
Piaget’s
Piaget’sStages
Stagesof
ofCognitive
Cognitive
Development
Development
Formal Operations
(adolescence to adult)
Concrete Operations
(~ 7-12 yrs)
Preoperational Period
(~2 to 6 yrs)
Sensorimotor Period
(~Birth to 2 yrs)
Inborn Reflexes
4
CONCRETE FORMAL
SENSORIMOTOR PREOPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL OPERATIONAL
STAGE STAGE
STAGE STAGE
The infant constructs an The child begins to He child can now reason The adolescent reasons
understanding of the represent the world with logically about concrete in more abstract,
world by coordinating words and images. events and classify idealistic, and logical
sensory experiences These words and images objects into different sets ways.
with physical actions. reflect increased
And infant progresses symbolic thinking and go
from reflexive, instinctual beyond the connection of
action at birth to the sensory information and
beginning of symbolic physical action.
thought toward the end
of the stage
11 Years of Ages
Birth to 2 Years of Age 2 to 7 Years of Age 7 to 11 Years of Age
Through Adulthood
5
7.2 The Sensorimotor Stage
• From birth to approximately 2 years

• Begins with reflexive responding and ends
with using symbols
• Object permanence: understanding that
objects exist independently
6
7.2 The Preoperational Stage
• From approximately 2 to 7 years

• Children use symbols but are many errors in
thinking
> Egocentrism: The inability to distinguish
between one’s own perspective and someone
else’s perspective.
> Confuse appearance and reality
7
Three Mountains Problem
8
7.2: The Preoperational Stage
The Three Mountain Tasks
9
Conservation Tasks
10
7.2: The Preoperational Stage
Piaget’s Conservation Task
11
Piaget’s Conservation Task
A B C A B C
Two identical beakers Child is asked if (A)

shown to child, and and (C) have the same
then experimenter amount of liquid. The
pours liquid from (B) preoperational child
into (C) says “no” and will
point to (C) as having
more liquid than (A).
12
Figure 8.8
Some Dimensions of Conservation:
Number, Matter, and Length
Type of Number Matter Length
conservation
Initial
presentation Two identical Two identical Two sticks are
rows of objects balls of clay aligned in
shown to child shown to child front of child
Manipulation
One row is Experimenter Experimenter
spaced changes shape moves one
of one ball stick to right
Preoperational “No, the one
child’s answer to “No, the longer “No, the longer on top is
“Are they still row has more” one has more” longer”
the same?”
13
Figure 8.9
7.2 The Concrete Operational
Stage
• From approximately 7 to 11 years

• Thinking based on mental operations
(strategies and rules that make thinking more
systematic and powerful)
• Operations can be reversed
• Focus on the real and concrete, not the
abstract
14
7.2 The Formal Operational
Stage
• From approximately 11 years to adulthood

• Adolescents can think hypothetically
• Use deductive reasoning
15
Object Permanence and the
“Impossible Event”
16
7.3: Criticisms of the Theory
Theory of Mind
17
7.4 The Child as Theorist
The Sociocultural Perspective:
Vygotsky’s Theory
• Cognitive development is inseparable from social

and cultural contexts
• Zone of proximal development: difference
between what can do alone or with assistance
• Scaffolding: teaching style that matches
assistance to learner’s needs
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

student can work with the ZPD student can work
assistance of an instructor ________________________ independently 18
19
Comparison of
Vygotsky’s and Vygotsky Piaget
Piaget’s Theories
Sociocultural Context • Strong emphasis • Little emphasis
Constructivism • Social constructivist • Cognitive constructivist
Stages • No general stages • Strong emphasis on stages
Key processes • Zone of proximal • Schemata, assimilation,
development, language, accommodation, operations,
dialogue, tools of the conservation, classification,
culture hypothetical-deductive
reasoning
Role of language •It has a major role in •It has a minimal role
shaping thought
View on education •It has a central role •It just defines existing skills
Implications for •Teacher is facilitator •Teacher is facilitator and
teacher and guide, not director guide, not director
20
Figure 8.11
Developmental Changes in Memory Span
8
7
In one study:
6
memory span
5 increased
4
from 3 digits
Digit at age 2, to 5
Span 3 digits at age
2 7, to 7 digits
at age 12.
1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 Adult
Age (years)
21
Figure 8.13
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Birth to Infants know the world through their

2 years senses and through their actions. For
example, they learn what dogs look
like and what petting them feels like.
Preoperational 2-7 Toddlers and young children acquire

years the ability to internally represent the
world through language and mental
imagery. They also begin to be able to
see the world from other people’s
perspectives, not just from their own.
22
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Concrete 7 - 12 Children become able to think

Operational years logically, not just intuitively. They now
can classify objects into coherent
categories and understand that
events are often influenced by
multiple factors, not just one.
Formal 12+ years Adolescents can think systematically

Operational and reason about what might be as
well as what is. This allows them to
understand politics, ethics, and
science fiction, as well as to engage
in scientific reasoning.
23
Sensorimotor Substages
Sub Age Description

Birth – 1 Infants begin to modify the
1 month reflexes with which they are born
to make them more adaptive.
1–4 Infants begin to organize
2 months separate reflexes into larger
behaviors, most of which are
centered on their own bodies.
24
Sub Age Description

4–8 Infants becoming increasingly
3 months interested in the world around them.
By the end of this substage, object
permanence, the knowledge that
objects continue to exist even when
they are out of view, typically emerges.
8 – 12 During this substage, children make

4 months the
A-Not-B error, the tendency to reach
to where objects have been found
before, rather than to where they were
last hidden.
25
Object permanence
⚫ Objects are tied to infant’s awareness of
them
– “out of sight, out of mind”
⚫ Hidden toy experiment
– 4 months: no attempt to search for hidden
object
– 4-9 months: visual search for object
– 9 months: search for and retrieve hidden object
⚫ A-not-B task (Diamond, 1985)
– 9 months: A/B error after 1/2 second delay
– 12 months: 10 second delay needed to produce
error
26
Piaget’s A-Not-B Task
27
Sub Age Description

12 – 18 Toddlers begin to actively and
5 months avidly explore the potential uses
to which objects can be put.
18 – 24 Infants become able to form
6 months enduring mental representations.
The first sign of this capacity is
deferred imitation, the repetition
of other people’s behavior a
substantial time after it occurred.
28
Preoperational Stage
⚫ A mix of impressive cognitive
acquisitions and equally
impressive limitations
– A notable acquisition is symbolic representation, the use
of one object to stand for another, which makes a variety of
new behaviors possible
– A major limitation is egocentrism, the tendency to perceive
the world solely from one’s own point of view
– A related limitation is centration, the tendency to focus on
a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
– Preoperational children also lack of understanding of the
conservation concept, the idea that merely changing the
appearance of objects does not change their key properties
29
Piaget’s Three-Mountain Task
30
Egocentric Conversations
31
The Balance Scale: An Example of Centration
32
Procedures Used to Test Conservation
33
Concrete Operational Stage
⚫ Children begin to
reason logically
about the world
⚫ They can solve
conservation
problems, but their
successful reasoning
is largely limited to
concrete situations
⚫ Thinking
systematically
remains difficult
34
Inhelder and Piaget’s Pendulum Problem
⚫ The task is to compare the
motions of longer and
shorter strings, with lighter
and heavier weights
attached, in order to
determine the influence of
weight, string length, and
dropping point on the time it
takes for the pendulum to
swing back and forth
⚫ Children below age 12
usually perform
unsystematic experiments
and draw incorrect
conclusions
35
Formal Operational Stage
⚫ Cognitive development culminates in the

ability to think abstractly and to reason
hypothetically
⚫ Individuals can imagine alternative worlds
and reason systematically about all
possible outcomes of a situation
⚫ Piaget believed that the
attainment of the formal
operations stage, in
contrast to the other
stages, is not universal
36
Implications for Education
⚫ Piaget’s view of children’s cognitive development
suggests that children’s distinctive ways of
thinking at different ages need to be considered in
deciding how best to teach them
⚫ In addition, because children learn by mentally
and physically interacting with the environment,
relevant physical activities,
accompanied by
questions that call
attention to the lessons
of the activities, are
important in
educational practice
37
Critique of Piaget’s Theory
⚫ Although Piaget’s theory remains highly
influential, some weaknesses are now
apparent
– The stage model depicts children’s thinking as
being more consistent than it is
– Infants and young children are more cognitively
competent than Piaget recognized
⚫ Object permanence in 3-month-olds (Bower,
1974)
⚫ Number conservation in 4 year olds
(McGarrigle & Donaldson, 1974)
38
Critique of Piaget’s Theory
– Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of
the social world to cognitive development
⚫ Piaget’s tasks are culturally biased
⚫ Schooling and literacy affect rates of development
– e.g. Greenfield’s study of the Wolof
⚫ Formal operational thinking is not universal
– e.g. Gladwin’s study of the Polynesian islanders
– Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive

processes that give rise to children’s thinking
and about the mechanisms that produce
cognitive growth
39
Behavioral Theories Of Learning
EDU 6303
Psychology of Teaching and Learning
Overview
• Definition of learning
• Pavlov
• Thorndike
• Skinner
• Principles of Behavioral Learning Theory
• Bandura
• Meichenbaum
What is learning?
• Learning is usually defined as a change in
an individual caused by experience not by
reflexes (Slavin, 2003).
Pavlov
• Unconditioned stimulus – elicits a response
automatically
• Unconditioned response – occurs
automatically unconditioned stimulus
• Neutral stimulus – does not automatically
elicit a response, but can become a
• Conditioned stimulus during
• Classical conditioning
Thorndike – Law of Effect
• Thorndike went beyond Pavlov by showing that
stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an
influence on future behaviors
• An act that is followed by a favorable effect is
more likely to be repeated in similar situations;
an act that is followed by unfavorable effect is
less likely to be repeated.
Skinner
• Skinner’s work focused on the relationship
between behavior and its consequences.
• Operant conditioning – the use of pleasant
and unpleasant consequences to change
behavior.
• Skinner Box – allows the study of behavior
in a controlled environment.
Principles of Behavioral
Learning
• Behavior changes according to its immediate
consequences (immediacy of consequences is
key).
• Reinforcers – consequences that are likely to
increase the frequency of the behavior, i.e.,
strengthen the behavior.
• Primary reinforcers – satisfy basic human needs.
• Secondary reinforcers acquire their value for
being associated with primary reinforcers.
Principles (continued)
• Shaping – guiding behavior toward goals
by reinforcing the many steps that lead to
success.
• Extinction – removing reinforcers from
previously learned behavior until the
behavior disappears.
• Extinction burst – the increase in levels of
behavior in the early stages of extinction.
• Positive reinforcement – are usually things
given to students that they value, e.g.,
praise.
• Negative reinforcement – escape from an
unpleasant or a way of preventing
unpleasant behavior from occurring.
• Punishment – consequences that weaken
behavior; punishment like reinforcement is
in the eye of the receiver and the impact on
behavior.
• Removal punishment – forbidding a desirable
task or situation;
• Presentation punishment (aversive stimulus) –
imposing an undesirable task or situation; and
• No reinforcement discourage behaviors.
• However, positive reinforcement generally works
better to shape behavior than punishment.
• Premack principle (grandma’s rule) – you can
encourage less-desired (to the individual by
linking them to a desired behavior.
• Intrinsic motivators – behaviors that people enjoy
for the pleasure of the behavior.
• Extrinsic motivators – rewards given to people to
motivate them to engage in behavior that they
might not engage in otherwise.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed interval – reinforcer
is given after a fixed
number of behaviors.
(Fixed ratio schedules are
effective in motivating
individuals to do a great
deal of work especially
with high requirements
for reinforcement
• Variable interval –
variable number of
behaviors are necessary
for reinforcement. This
reinforcement schedule is
very effective for
maintaining a high rate of
behavior and are highly
resistant to extinction.
• Fixed interval
schedule –
reinforcement is
available on at certain
times - can encourage
cramming, e.g., end of
grade test.
• Variable interval –
reinforcement is
available at some
times, but not at
others – spot checks
Maintenance
• Some behaviors that
have been acquired
through reinforcement
become intrinsically
motivating, e.g.,
reading, soccer.
• Variable interval
schedules produce
behaviors that are
resistant to extinction.
Role of Antecedents
• Cueing – antecedent behavior or cues tell
people what behavior will be reinforced
• Discrimination is the use of cues, signals,
or information to know when behavior is
likely to be reinforced – learning is largely
a matter of mastering more and more
complex discriminations.
Generalization
• Is the transfer of behavior under one set of
conditions to other situations.
• Generalization must be planned for; it is most
likely to occur across similar settings or similar
concepts.
• It is more likely to occur is using many relevant
examples.
• The instruction is repeated in a variety of
settings.
Social Learning Theory
• Bandura and observational learning – he
noted that Skinnerian emphasis of the
consequences of behavior largely ignored
the phenomena of modeling – the imitation
of others.
• Observational learning involves four
phases:
• Attentional phase – the first phase of
observational learning is paying attention
to model.
• Retention phase – once teachers have
students’ attention, it is time to model the
behavior they want the students to imitate
and then give students a chance to practice
and rehearse.
• Reproduction phase – student’s try to
match their behavior to the model’s.
• Motivational phase – students will imitate
a model because they believe that doing so
will increase their own chances of being
reinforced.
• Vicarious Learning - People learn in this
process learn by seeing other people
rewarded or punished.
• Self-regulation – people can observe their
own behavior, judge it against their own
standards, and reinforce or punish
themselves.
• Meichenbaum’s model of self regulated
learning argues that students can be taught
to monitor and regulate their own behavior,
which is often called cognitive behavior
modification.
Michenbaum’s Model of Self-
Regulated Learning
1. An adult model performs a task while talking to
self out loud (cognitive modeling).
2. The child performs the same task under the
direction of the model’s instructions (overt,
external guidance).
3. The child performs the task while instructing
self aloud (overt, self-guidance).
Michenbaum’s Model of Self-
Regulated Learning
4. The child whispers instructions to self as
he or she goes through the task (faded,
overt self-guidance).
5. The child performs the task while guiding
his or her performance via private speech
(covert self-instruction).
Strengths and Limitations of
Behavioral Learning Theories
• The basic principles are as firmly
established as any in psychology and have
been demonstrated under many different
conditions.
• However, the theories only deal with
observable behavior.
• In some ways in complements cognitive
theories of learning.
Reference
• Slavin, R. E. (2003). Educational
Psychology: Theory and Practice, 7th
Edition.
BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM"—
Presentation transcript:
1 BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM

LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM
2 Background Information
Learning theories allow teachers to better understand the process of
learning.
Together with the use of technology, learn theories have made a
significant impact in the classroom.
There are many learning paradigms, however, behaviorism, cognitivism
and constructivism will be the focus for this lesson.
3 Behaviorism
The theory originates from the works of Ivan Pavlov’s, classical
conditioning, and B. F. Skinner’s, operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning is when an unconditioned stimulus and response
is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned
response.
Operant Conditioning is a controlled response with a reward/
punishment system according to the behavior.
The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest.
Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior.
As a result, the behaviors can be measured to record learning success.
4 Cognitivism
Information Processing looks at how information is retrieved and stored.
This theory focuses on how to store and retrieve information.
Learning is attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the
information.
Retention strategies such as breaking down information and comparing
the information to long term storage are great techniques.
5 Constructivism
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner
constructs knowledge based on their past experiences.
The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages students to explore
within a given framework.
Learners may collaborate with others to organize their ideas and learn
from each other to construct their own knowledge.
6 Putting It All Together

Learning Theory
Learning Process
Technology Support
Behaviorism
Through positive/ negative reinforcement and punishment
Educational software can be used to measure the students assessment
Cognitivism
Rehearsing information and then storing it for long term use
Flashcards and memory games can help retain information taught in a
lesson
Constructivism
Constructing ones own knowledge through past experiences and group
collaboration
Group PowerPoint projects allow students to work together and combine
their knowledge to learn
7 Web Resources Behavioral Learning Theory

Cognitivism Learning Theory
Constructivism Learning Theory
Chapter 7
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: PIAGET’S
THEORY AND VYGOTSKY’S
SOCIOCULTURAL VIEWPOINT
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Genetic epistemology – experimental study of

the origin of knowledge
• What is intelligence?
– A basic life function that helps an organism
adapt to the environment
– Cognitive equilibrium – balance between
thought processes and the environment
– Constructivist approach – child constructs
knowledge
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Gaining Knowledge: Schemes and Processes

– Schemes: mental patterns (thought/action)
• Organization – combine existing
schemes into new/complex schemes
• Adaptation – adjustment to environment
–Assimilation – new information into
existing schemes
–Accommodation – modify existing
schemes for new information
• Table 7.1 A small sample of cognitive growth from Piaget’s perspective
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Invariant developmental sequence

– Sequencing fixed
– Individual differences entering/emerging
stages
DEVELOPMENT
• The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

– Coordinate sensory inputs and motor skills
– Transition from being reflexive to reflective
– Development of Problem-Solving Abilities
• Reflex activity (birth – 1 month)
• Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
–first motor habits, repetitive
DEVELOPMENT
• Secondary circular reactions

(4-8 months)
–Repetitive actions with objects
beyond the body
• Coordination of secondary reactions
(8-12 months)
–Coordinate 2 or more actions to
achieve an objective (intentional)
DEVELOPMENT
• Tertiary circular reactions -12-18 months

–Active experimentation, trial & error
• Symbolic problem solving -18-24 months
–Inner (mental) experimentation
DEVELOPMENT
– Development of Imitation
• Novel responses by 8-12 months of age
• Deferred imitation – 18-24 months
• Research now shows 6-month-olds are
capable of deferred imitation
DEVELOPMENT
– Development of Object Permanence

• Objects continue to exist when they are
no longer visible/detectable
• Appears by 8-12 months of age
–A-not-B error: search in the last place
found, not where it was last seen
• Complete by 18-24 months
DEVELOPMENT
• Challenges to Piaget Account

– Neo-nativism –
• Infants are born with substantial innate
knowledge
• Require less time/experience to be
demonstrated
• Young children seem to possess some
object permanence, memory
• Table 7.2 Summary of Piaget’s account of sensorimotor development
DEVELOPMENT
• Challenges to Piaget’s Approach

– Theory theories
• Combination of neo-nativist and
Piagetian perspective
–Infants are prepared at birth to make
sense of some information
–Beyond this, Piaget’s constructivist
approach is generally accurate
DEVELOPMENT
• The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

– Symbolic function / representational insight
• One thing represents another
• Language
• Pretend (symbolic) play –
developmentally a positive activity
• New views on symbolism
–Dual representation – think about an
object in 2 ways at one time (3 years)
DEVELOPMENT
• Deficits in preoperational thinking

–Animism
»Attribute life/life like qualities to
inanimate objects
–Egocentrism
»View world from own perspective,
trouble recognizing other’s point of
view
• Figure 7.2 Piaget’s three-mountain problem. Young preoperational children are egocentric. They
cannot easily assume another person’s perspective and often say that another child viewing the
mountain from a different vantage point sees exactly what they see from their own location.
DEVELOPMENT

–Appearance/reality distinction
»Cannot distinguish between the
two
–Dual encoding
»Representing an object in more
than one way at a time
• Figure 7.3 Maynard the cat, without and with a dog mask. Three-year-olds who met Maynard
before his change in appearance nonetheless believed that he had become a dog.
DEVELOPMENT

–Lack of conservation – do not realize
properties of objects do not change
just because appearance does
»Lack of decentration – concentrate
on more than one aspect of a
problem at the same time
»Lack of reversibility – mentally
undo an action
• Figure 7.4 Some common tests of the child’s ability to conserve.
• Figure 7.5 Reversibility is an important cognitive operation that develops during middle childhood.
DEVELOPMENT
• Did Piaget Underestimate the Preoperational

Child?
– New evidence on egocentrism
• Piaget’s tasks were too complex
– Another look at children’s reasoning
• Animism not routine among 3-year-olds
– Can preoperational children conserve?
• Can be trained at 4 years (identity
training)
DEVELOPMENT
• The Development Theory of Mind (TOM)

– Belief-desire reasoning
• Understand behavior is based on
–What an individual knows or believes
–What they want or desire
• Develops after preschool age
• False-belief task – desire, not belief
–Based on lack of cognitive inhibition
–Improves with interaction with siblings
DEVELOPMENT
• The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

– Cognitive operations
• Internal mental activity to modify
symbols to reach a logical conclusion
–Conservation – capable of
»Decentering
»Reversibility
• Table 7.3 A comparison of preoperational and concrete operational thought
DEVELOPMENT
–Relational logic – capable of

»Mental seriation
»Transitivity
• Horizontal decalage – different levels of
understanding that seem to require
same mental operations
–Based on complexity
• Limited to real or tangible aspects of
experience
• Figure 7.7 Children’s performance on a simple seriation task. If asked to arrange a series of sticks
from shortest to longest, preoperational children often line up one end of the sticks and create an
incomplete ordering (a) or order them so the top of each successive stick extends higher than the
preceding stick (b). Concrete operators, by contrast, can use the inverse cognitive operations
greater than (>) and less than (<) to quickly make successive comparisons and create a correct
serial ordering.
DEVELOPMENT
• The Formal Operational Stage (11-12 +)

– Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
• Ability to generate hypotheses and use
deductive reasoning (general to specific)
• Inductive reasoning
–Going from specific observations to
generalizations
DEVELOPMENT
– Personal and Social Implications of Formal

Thought
• Thinking about what is possible in life
• Stable identity
• Understanding of other’s perspectives
• Questioning others
• Thinking of how the world “ought to be”
DEVELOPMENT
– Does Everyone Reach Formal Operations?

• Early Piaget – Yes, at least some signs
by 15-18
• Other researchers – No. Lack of
education
• Later Piaget – Yes, but only on problems
that are either interesting or important
• Seem to be more adolescents at this
level than 30 years ago
• Figure 7.8 Expertise and formal operations. College students show the greatest command of
formal-operational thought in the subject area most related to their major. ADAPTED FROM DE
LISI & STAUDT, 1980.
AN EVALUATION OF PIAGET’S THEORY
• Piaget’s Contributions
– Founded cognitive development
– Stated children construct their knowledge
– First attempt to explain development
– Reasonably accurate overview of how
children of different ages think
– Major influence in social and emotional
development, and education
– Influenced future research
AN EVALUATION OF PIAGET’S THEORY
• Challenges to Piaget
– Piaget failed to distinguish competence
from performance
– Does cognitive development really occur in
stages?
• Little evidence of broad stages
– Does Piaget “explain” cognitive
development? – more of an description
– Little attention to social/cultural influences
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
• The Role of Culture in Development

– Ontogenetic development – development
of an individual over his or her lifetime
– Microgenetic development – change over
relatively brief periods of time
– Phylogenetic development – changes over
evolutionary time
– Sociohistorical development – changes in
one’s culture
PERSPECTIVE
• Tools of Intellectual Adaptation

–Born with elementary mental
functions (attention, memory)
–Culture transforms these into higher
mental functions
»Culture specific tools allow the use
of the basic functions more
adaptively (language, pencils)
• Table 7.4 Chinese and English number words from 1 to 20. The more systematic Chinese
numbering system follows a base-ten logic (i.e., 11 translating as “ten one” [“shi yee”]) requiring
less rote memorization, which may explain why Chinese-speaking children learn to count to 20
earlier than English-speaking children.
PERSPECTIVE
• The Social Origins of Early Cognitive

Competencies
– Many discoveries active learners make
occur in collaborative dialogue with a tutor
– The Zone of Proximal Development
• Difference between what a learner can
do independently and what can be done
with guidance
PERSPECTIVE
• Scaffolding – tendency to tailor support

to a learner near the limit of capability
• Guided participation/apprenticeship
–May be very formal and context
dependent
–May occur in day-to-day activities
• Figure 7.9 Some functions of shared remembering in children’s memory development. Source:
Gauvin, M (2001). The social context of cognitive development. New York: Guilford, p. 211.
PERSPECTIVE
• Working in the Zone of Proximal

Development in Different Cultures
– Cultures where adults and children are
segregated, learning is in schools
– Cultures where adults and children are
together most of the day, learning is
through real life observation
– Verbal versus nonverbal emphasis of
instruction
PERSPECTIVE
• Playing in the Zone of Proximal Development

– More likely to engage in symbolic play
when others are present
– Cooperative social play of preschoolers is
related to later understanding of others’
feeling and beliefs
PERSPECTIVE
• Implications for Education

– Active, not passive learning
– Assess what is known to estimate
capabilities
– Guided participations structured by
teachers who would gradually turn over
more of activity to students
– Cooperative learning exercises – help each
other; very effective!
PERSPECTIVE
• The Role of Language in Cognitive

Development
– Primary method of passing modes of
thinking to children
– Becomes important tool of intellectual
adaptation
PERSPECTIVE
• Piaget’s Theory of Language/Thought

–Egocentric speech
»Self-directed utterances
»Reflected ongoing mental activity
»Shifted to communicative speech
with age
»Little role in cognitive development
PERSPECTIVE
• Vygotsky’s Theory of Language/Thought

–Egocentric is really an illustration of
transition from prelinguistic to verbal
reasoning
–Private speech – communicative
“speech for self”
»Serves as a cognitive self-
guidance system; does not
disappear, becomes inner speech
PERSPECTIVE
• Which viewpoint should be endorsed?

–Vygotsky
»Social speech gives rise to private
speech
»More common with difficult tasks
»Self-instruction improves
performance
»Does tend to turn into inner
speech
PERSPECTIVE
• Vygotsky in Perspective: Summary

– Cognitive development involves
• Dialogues with skilled partners within the
zone of proximal development
• Incorporation of what tutors say into
what they say to themselves
– Expect wide variations in development
across cultures
PERSPECTIVE
• Vygotsky in Perspective: Evaluation

– Not yet received intense scrutiny
• Verbal guided participation may be less
adaptive in some instances than others
• Collaborative problem solving can
undermine performance
– More a perspective, not a theory with as
many testable hypotheses as Piaget
• Table 7.5 Comparing Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories of cognitive development

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Psychology of Teaching and

 Psyche = soul, mind.

 Logos = word, science, study, discourse.

 Psychology as the science of soul.

 Psychology as the science of mind.

 Psychology as the science of consciousness.

 Psychology as the science of behaviour.

C.V. Good defines :

 Abnormal psychology deals with behaviour disorders and

 Comparative psychology explores the differences and

 Developmental psychology studies the emotional,

 Educational psychology attempts to improve teaching methods and

 “educare” = to bring up,

 “educatum” = the act of teaching/training.

 J.M. Stephon : “Educational Psychology is a systematic

 Crow and Crow, “Educational Psychology describes and

 any and every situation in which psychology

 The subject matter of educational Psychology

◼ Heredity and environment.

◼ General nature of learning

◼ Measurement of intelligence and aptitudes.

◼ Scientific study of educational problems

(i) Cultural Aim

(i) Educational administration

(i) When to teach ?

Both are related to behaviour

It has given rise to a revolution, as a

is the scientific discipline

“Why do some students learn

is a branch of psychology that

As educational psychology focuses

 Characteristics of a learner to be understood by the teacher are:

The teacher should understand how the learner

(More about this on learning approaches)

 Teaching is the process of facilitating students’ learning by putting

 Psychology will help the teacher to understand :

• Subject matter competence

• Ability to encourage student motivation:

1. It enables the teacher to understand children’s behavior and

2. Enabling the teacher to understand how environment, rearing

 Following are the situations when counseling is required:

 CARL R. ROGER is the chief exponent in this

Carl Rogers has given the following steps of this

8. Direct counselling 8. A highly professional,

 The chief advocate of this type of counselling is

 Methods of counselling may change from client to

Meaning OF Educational guidance

Growth and development in education has a

 Growth is a physical progress, physical

 Development is psychological change,

 ‘Development’ is the name of all those psychological

 Growth in young people occurs in the following pattern:

 Growth is different from development. But both are

 Growth can be measured accurately.  Development is subjective interpretation of one’s

 The general pattern of Growth and Development are:

 Positive change accruing for the betterment or

Development is divided into four major areas:

 Motor milestones will be described in the lecture devoted

The development of speech and language skills also follow predictable

 Piaget was the first child psychologist to

Piaget divided child development into four stages

 In the sensorimotor stage, infants learn:

 "Operations" was a word Piaget coined to refer to ‘mental