Heat Transfer

z Nature of heat flow

When two objects at different temperature is
brought into thermal contact , heat flow from
the object at the higher temperature to that at
the lower temperature.

The net flow is always in the direction of the

temperature decrease.
The mechanisms by which the heat flows are
three:

™Conduction
™Convection
™ Radiation
 Conduction
If a temperature gradient exists in a continuous
substance, heat can flow unaccompanied by
any observable motion of matter.
According to Fourier’s law, the heat flux is
proportional to the temperature gradient and
opposite to it in sign. For one-dimensional heat
flow
dq dt
= −k
dA dx
z In metals, thermal conduction results from the
motion of free electrons.
z In solids that are poor conductor of electricity
and in most liquids, thermal conduction results
from momentum transfer between adjacent
vibrating molecules or atoms.
z In gases, conduction occurs by the random
motion of molecules.
 Convection

When a current or macroscopic particle of

fluid crosses a specific surface, such as the
boundary of a control volume, it carries with
it a definite quantity of enthalpy.

Such a flow of enthalpy is called a convective

flow of heat.
The convection flux is usually proportional to the
difference between the surface temperature and
temperature of the fluid, as stated in Newton’s
law of cooling
q
= h(t s − t f )
A
Note that the linear dependence on the
temperature driving force ts-tf is the same as that
for pure conduction in a solid of constant thermal
conductivity.
The heat-transfer coefficient is not an intrinsic
property of the fluid, but depends on the flow
patterns determined by fluid mechanics as
well as on the thermal properties of the fluid.

The forces used to create convection currents

in fluids are of two types:

znatural convection
zand force convection
 Natural convection

If the currents are the result of buoyancy

forces generated by differences in density
and the differences in density are in turn
caused by temperature gradients in the fluid
mass, the action is called natural convection.
 forced convection

If the currents are set in motion by the action

of a mechanical device such as a pump or
agitator, the flow is independent of density
gradients, and is called forced convection.
 Radiation
Radiation is a term given to the transfer of
energy through space by electromagnetic waves.
If radiating is passing through empty space, it
is not transformed to heat or any other form
of energy, nor is it diverted from its path.

If , however, matter appears in its path, the

radiation will be transmitted, reflected, or
absorbed. It is only the absorbed energy that
appears as heat.
The energy emitted by a black body is
proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature.

Wb = σT 4

σ=stefan-boltzmann constant
T=absolute temperature
Heat transfer by conduction

Conduction is most easily understood by

considering heat flow in homogeneous
isotropic solids because in these there is no
convection and the effect of radiation is
negligible.
 Basic law of conduction
The basic relation for heat flow by conduction
is the proportionality between heat flux and the
temperature gradient.
It can be written
dq ∂T
= −k (10-1)
dA ∂n
The partial derivative calls attention to the fact
that the temperature may vary with both location
and time.
The negative sign reflects the physical fact
that heat flow occurs from hot to cold and
the sign of the gradient is opposite that of
the heat flow.

In using equation it must be clearly

understood that the area A is that of a
surface perpendicular to the flow of heat
and distance n is the length of path
measured perpendicularly to area A.
¾ Unsteady-state conduction
The temperature varies with both time and
location. The process is called unsteady-state
conduction.

¾Steady-state conduction
Conduction under the condition of constant
temperature distribution is called steady-state
conduction. In the steady state, T is a function
of position only, and the rate of heat flow at
any point is a constant.
 For steady one-dimensional flow.Eq.(10-1)
may be written
dq dt
= −k (10-2)
dA dx
Where q= rate of heat flow in direction normal
to surface
x=distance measured normal to surface
k= thermal conductivity
 Thermal conductivity
The proportionality constant k is a physical
property of the substance. It , like the Newtonian
viscosity µ, is one of the so-called transport
properties of material.

Foures’s law states that k is independent of the

temperature gradient. Experiment does confirm
the independence of k for a wide range of
temperature gradients except for porous solids.
On the other hand, k is a function of temperature,
but not a strong one.

For small ranges of temperature, k may be

considered constant.

For larger temperature ranges, the thermal

conductivity can usually be approximated by
an equation of the form

k = a + bT (10-3)
k vary over a wide range. They are highest for
metals and lowest for finely powdered materials
from which air has been evacuated.
k of metals cover a wide range of values, from
about 17W/m.ºC for stainless steel and 45 for
mild steel, to 380 for copper and 415 for silver.
k of metals are generally nearly constant or
decrease slightly as the temperature is increased.

The conductivity of alloys is less than that of

pure metals.
For glass and most nonporous materials, the
thermal conductivities are much lower,
from about 0.35 to 3.5.

For most liquid k is lower than that for solids,

with typical values of about 0.17, and k
decreases by 3 to 4 percent for a 10 ºC rise in
temperature.
Gases have the smallest thermal conductivities,
with values as low as 0.007.

For air at 0ºC, k is 0.024 W/m.ºC.

The thermal conductivity decreases with

increasing molecular weight or with decreasing
temperature because of changes in the
molecular velocity and energy distribution.
 Steady-state conduction
For the simplest case of steady-state conduction,
consider a flat slab like that shown in Fig.10-1.
assuming
zk is constant;
zThe area of the wall is very large in comparison
with its thickness;

zThe external surfaces are at right angles to the

plane.
Since in steady state there can be neither
Accumulation nor depletion of heat within the
slab, q is constant along the path of heat flow.

If x is distance from the t

hot side.
q
q dt
= −k (10-4)
A dx
x
Since the only variables in Eq.(10-4) are x and
t, direct integration gives

q t1 − t 2 ∆t
=k =k (10-5)
A x2 − x1 b

When k varies linearly with temperature, Eq.(10-

5) still can be used rigorously by taking an
average value k.
Equation (10-5) can be written in the form

∆T ∆T
q= = (10-6)
b R
kA

Where R=b/Ak is thermal resistance between

points 1 and 2.

Equation (10-6) equates a rate to the ratio of a

driving force to a resistance.
 Compound resistance in series
Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of
layers, as shown in Fig.

Assume that the layers are

in excellent thermal contact,
so that no temperature
difference exists across
the interfaces between the
layers.
Then, if Δt is the total temperature drop
across the entire wall

Δt= Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3

In heat flow through a series of layers the

overall thermal resistance equals the sum of
the individual resistances

R=R1+R2+R3
The rate of heat flow through several resistance
in series is analogous to the current flowing
through several electric resistances in series.

In an electric circuit the potential drop over any

one of several resistances are to the total
potential drop in the circuit as the individual
resistances are to the total resistance.
In the same way the potential drop in the
thermal circuit, which are the temperature
differences, are to the total temperature drop
as the individual thermal resistances are to
the total thermal resistance.
The rate of heat flow through several resistance
in series is
∆t ∆t1 ∆t2 ∆t3 ∆t1 + ∆t2 + ∆t3
q= = = = =
R R1 R2 R3 R1 + R2 + R3
 Heat flow through a cylinder
ri
Consider the hollow
cylinder represented by
Figure.10-3.
The inside radius of the L
cylinder is ri,
the outside radius is ro,
ro
and the length of the
cylinder is L.
The thermal conductivity of the material
of which the cylinder is made is k.

The temperature of outside surface is to,

and the that of inside surface is ti.

It is desired to calculate the rate of heat

flow outward for this case.
The rate of heat flow through an arbitrary
cylinder, concentric with the main cylinder,
is given

dt
q = − k 2π rL (10-11)
dr

Since the area perpendicular to the heat flow is

2πrL,and thickness of the wall of this cylinder
is dr. rearranging Eq(10-11) and integrating
between limits gives
 dr 2π Lk
ro ti

∫r r = q t∫ dt
i o

thus
k ( 2π L )( ti − to )
q= (10-12)
ln ( ro / ri )

It can be put in a more convenient form by

expressing the rate of flow of heat as
 kA ( ti − to )
q= (10-13)
ro − ri

This is of the same general form as Eq.(10-5)

for heat flow through a flat wall with the
exception of A

The term A can be determined by equating

the right-hand sides of Eqs.(10-12)and (10-13)
and solving for
Where
2π L ( ro − ri )
A= (10-14)
ln ( ro / ri )

r =
( ro − ri )
ln ( ro / ri )
It is known as the logarithmic mean.
The logarithmic mean is less convenient than
the arithmetic mean, and the latter can be used
without appreciable error for thin-walled tubes,
where ro/ri is nearly 1.
The ratio of the logarithmic mean to the arithmetic
mean is a function of ro/ri
as shown in Fig10-4.

Thus when ro/ri =2.

The logarithmic
mean is 0.96 ra , and
the error in the use
of the arithmetic
mean is 4 percent.
Heat transfer to fluids without
phase change

Regimes of heat transfer in fluids

A fluid being heated or cooled may be

flowing in different flow pattern. Also, the
fluid may be flowing in forced or natural
convection.
At ordinary velocities the heat generated from
fluid friction is negligible in comparison with
the heat transferred between the fluids.

Because the situations of flow at the entrance to

a tube differs from those well downstream from
the entrance, the velocity field and associated
temperature field may depend on the distance
from the tube entrance
The properties of the fluid-viscosity,
thermal conductivity, specific heat, and
density are important parameters in heat
transfer.

Each of these, especially viscosity, is

temperature-dependent.
 Heat transfer by forced convection in
turbulent flow

Perhaps the most important situation in heat

transfer is the heat flow in a stream of fluid
in turbulent flow.

Since the rate of heat transfer is greater in

turbulent flow than in laminar flow, most
equipment is operated in the turbulent
range.
A dimensional analysis of the heat flow to a
fluid in turbulent flow through a straight pipe
yields dimensionless relations.

hd ⎛ du ρ c p µ ⎞
= f⎜ , ⎟ (12-27)
k ⎝ µ λ ⎠

The three group in Eq(12-27) are recognized

as the Nusselt, Reynolds, and prandtl numbers
respectively.
 Empirical equation

For heat transfer to and from fluids that follow

the power-law relation, the dimensionless
relation becomes

hd du ρ m c p µ n
= c( ) ( )
k µ k
To use the dimensionless relation, the constant
c and index m,n must be known.
A recognized empirical correlation, for long
tubes with sharp-edged entrances, is the Dittus-
Boelter equation

hi d
Nu = = 0.023 Re Pr
0.8 n
(12-30)
k

Where n is 0.4 when the fluid is being heated

and 0.3 when it is being cooled.
A better relationship for turbulent flow is known
as the Sieder-Tate equation

µ 0.14
Nu = 0.023Re Pr ( )
0.8 1/ 3 (12-32)
µw

Equation(12-32) should not be used for

Reynolds numbers below 6000 or for molten
metals, which have abnormally low Prandtl
numbers.
 Effect of tube length

Near the tube entrance, where the

temperature gradients are still forming, the
local coefficient hx is greater than h for fully
developed flow.

But the hx value drops rapidly toward h in a

comparatively short length of tube.
Average value of hi in turbulent flow
Since the temperature of the fluid changes
from one end of the tube to the other and
fluid properties µ , cp and k are all function
of temperature, the local value of hi also
varies from point to point along the tube.

For gases the effect of temperature on hi is

small. The increase in conductivity and heat
capacity with temperature offset the rise in
viscosity, giving a slight increase in hi.
z Forliquids the effect of temperature is much
greater than for gases because of the rapid
decrease in viscosity with rising temperature.

The effects of k, cp, and µ in Eq(12-36) all act

in the same direction, but the increase in hi with
temperature is due mainly to the the effect of
temperature on viscosity.
z In practice, unless the variation in hi over
the length of the tube is more than about
2:1,an average value of hi is calculated and
used as a constant in calculating the overall
coefficient U.

the average value of hi is computed by

evaluating the fluid properties k, cp, and µ at
average fluid temperature, defined as the
arithmetic mean between the inlet and outlet
temperatures.
 Estimation of wall temperature tw

The estimation of tw requires an iterative

calculation based on the resistance equation

∆tm ∆To ∆tw ∆ti

= = =
1 1 b do 1 do
Uo ho k d m h i di
To determine tw the wall resistance can
usually be neglected

∆tm ∆ti
=
1 1 do
U o h i di

Substituting Uo, gives

1/ hi
∆ti = ∆tm (12-38)
1/ hi + ho di / d o
 Cross sections other than circular

To use Eq(12-30) for cross section other

than circular it is only necessary to replace
the diameter in both Reynolds and Nusselt
number by the equivalent diameter de.

de is defined as 4 times the hydraulic radius

rH. The method is the same as that used in
calculating friction loss.
 Heat transfer in transition region
between laminar and turbulent flow

Equation (12-32) applies only for Reynolds

numbers greater than 6000.

The range of Reynolds numbers between 2100

and 6000 is called the transition region, and no
simple equation applies here.
A graphical method therefore is used.
The method is based on a common plot of the
Colburn j factor versus Re, with lines of constant
value of L/D
The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated
by following equation
1 0.14
⎛ πd ⎞ 3 ⎛ µ ⎞
Nu = 2⎜ Re Pr ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4L ⎠ ⎝ µw ⎠
 problem
Waste gases flowing across the outside of a bank of pipes
are being used to warm air which flows through the
pipes . The bank consists of 12 rows of pipes with 20
pipes, each 0.7 m long,each row. They are arranged in-
line. Both inner and outer diameter may be taken as
12mm. Air with a mass velocity of 8kg/m2s enters the
pipes at 290 K. The initial gas temperature is 480 K and
the total weight of the gases crossing the pipes per second
is the same as the total weight of the air flowing through
them. Estimate the outlet temperature of the air.
Assuming individual coefficient of the tube is 59.3w/m2K
the physical properties of air: k=0.028w/m k,
μ=0.0193×10-3 Ns/m2, and Cp=1.0×103J/kg K.
 Heat transfer to fluids
with phase change

Processes of heat transfer accompanied by

phase are more complex than simple heat
exchange between fluids
Heat transfer from condensing vapors

The condensation of vapors on the surfaces

of tubes cooler than the condensing
temperature of the vapors is important.

friction losses in a condenser are normally

small, so that condensation is essentially a
constant-pressure process.
The condensing temperature of a single pure
substance depends only on the pressure, and
therefore the process of condensation of a pure
substance is isothermal.
Mixed vapors, condensing at constant pressure,
condense over a temperature range and yield a
condensate of variable composition until the
entire vapor stream is condensed.

The condensation of mixed vapors is complicated

and beyond the scope this text.
 Dropwise and film-type condensation

A vapor may condense on a cold

surface in one of two ways,
which are well described by the
terms dropwise and film-type.
In film condensation the liquid condensate
forms a film, or continuous layer, of liquid
that flows over the surface of the tube under
the action of gravity.

It is the layer of liquid interposed between

the vapor and the wall of the tube which
provides the resistance to heat flow and
therefore which fixes the value of the heat-
transfer coefficient.
In dropwise condensation the condensate begins
to form at microscopic nucleation sites.
Typical sites are tiny pits, scratches, and dust
specks.

The drops grow and coalesce with their neighbors

to form visible fine drops.
The fine drops, in turn, coalesce into rivulets,
which flow down the tube under the action of
gravity, sweep away condensate, and clear the
surface for more droplets.
z Because of this the heat-transfer coefficient
at these areas is very high; the average
coefficient for dropwise condensation may
be 5 to8 times that for film-type
condensation. The average coefficient
obtainable in pure dropwise condensation is
as high as 114kW/m2.ºC.
Although attempts are sometimes made to realize
practical benefits from these large coefficients by
artifically inducing dropwise condensation, this
type of condensation is so unstable and the
difficulty of maintaining it so great that the
method is not common.
Also the resistance of the layer of Stream
condensate even in film-type condensation is
ordinarily small in comparison with the resistance
inside the condenser tube, and increase in the
overall coefficient is relatively small when
dropwise condensation is achieved.
 Coefficients for film-type condensation

The basic equation for the

rate of heat transfer in
film-type condensation
were first derived by
Nusselt
 Vertical tubes

Two forces remaining acting on the control

volume are shear force and gravity in the
direction of flow.

du y
dx • (δ − y ) • l • ρg = dx • l • µ
dy
ρg
或 du y = (δ − y )dy
µ
Integration of the equation with the boundary
condition uy=0, y=0 gives the velocity distribution

ρg ⎛ 1 ⎞
u = ⎜ δy − y ⎟
2

µ ⎝ 2 ⎠
y

Mean velocity within the film

1 δ
1 ρg ⎛
δ
1 2⎞
u = ∫ u y dy + ∫ ⎜ δy − y ⎟dy
δ 0 δ 0 µ ⎝ 2 ⎠
ρgδ 2
=
3µ
Rate of the condensate flow through the cross
section at the x
ρ gδ 2 3

m = 1 • δρu =
3µ
and
ρ gδ
2 2

dm = dδ
µ
The rate of heat-transfer
ρ gδ
2 2

r • dm = r dδ
µ
The rate of the heat transfers from a fluid to
the wall by the conduction

ρ gδ
2 2
ts − tw
r d δ = 1 • dxk
µ δ
So
1
⎛ 4 µ kx∆t ⎞ 4
δ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ rρ g ⎠
2
The local heat-transfer coefficient can be derived ,
based on the Newtonian law of cooling and the
thermal conduction within the condensate film
1
λ ⎛ r ρ gk ⎞ 2 3 4
α = =⎜ ⎟
δ ⎝ 4µ x∆t ⎠

The local heat-transfer coefficient varies with

the distance from the entrance. The mean
individual coefficient is attainable
 1
4 ⎛ r ρ gk ⎞
L 2 3
1 4
α = ∫ α x dx = ⎜ ⎟
L0 3 ⎝ 4 µ L∆t ⎠

so
1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4
α = 0.943 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ µ L∆t ⎠
(13-12)
 Horizontal tubes
the following equation applies to single horizontal
tubes
1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4
α = 0.725 ⎜ ⎟ (13-14)
⎝ µ d o ∆t ⎠

Practical use of Nusselt equation Eq(13-14)

can be used as they stand for calculating heat-
transfer coefficients for film-type condensation
on a single horizontal tubes.
For film-type condensation on a vertical stack of
horizontal tubes, where the condensate falls
cumulatively from tube to tube and the total
condensate from the entire stack finally drops
from the bottom tube. It is more accurate to use
the equation below

1
⎛ r ρ 2 gk 3 ⎞ 4

α = 0.725 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ N 3 µ d ∆t ⎟
⎝ o ⎠
z Forvertical tubes, the equations were derived on the
assumption that the condensate flow was laminar.
For long tubes, the condensate film becomes
sufficiently thick and its velocity sufficiently large
to cause turbulence in the low portions of the tube.
Also, even when the flow remains laminar
throughout, coefficients measured experimentally
are about 20 percent larger than those calculated
from the equation. This attributed to the effect of
ripples on the surface of the falling film.
In general, the coefficient of a film condensing
on a horizontal tube is considerably larger
than that on a vertical tube under otherwise
similar conditions unless the tubes are very
short or there are very many horizontal tubes
in the stack.

Vertical tubes are preferred when the

condensate must be appreciably subcooled
below its condensation temperature.
Mixtures of vapors and noncondensing gases
are usually cooled and condensed inside
vertical tubes, so that the inert gas is
continually swept away from the heat-transfer
surface by the incoming stream.

•Effect of noncondensable gases on rate of

condensation the presence of even small
amounts of noncondensing gas in a condensing
vapor seriously reduces the rate of condensation.
 Heat transfer to boiling liquids

z Pool boiling of saturated liquid consider a

horizontal wire immersed in a vessel containing a
boiling liquid. The difference between the
temperature of the wire surface tw and that of the
boiling liquid t, are measured.
Start with a very low temperature drop Δt. Increase
the temperature drop by steps, measuring q/A and Δt
at each step, until very large values of Δt are reached.

A plot of q/A vs Δt on
logarithmic coordinates
will give a curve of the
type shown in Fig
This curve can be divided into four segments. In
the first segment, at low temperature drops, the
line AB is straight and has a slope of 1.25. This is
consistent with the equation
q
= α∆t 1.25
(13-20)
A
In the first section, at low temperature drops, the
mechanism is that of heat transfer to a liquid in
natural convection. The heat-transfer coefficient
is low in this segment.
The second segment, line BC, is also approximately
straight, the slope of the line lies between 3and 4.
The second segment terminates at a definite point of
maximum flux, which is pointC.

the temperature drop corresponding to point C

is called the critical temperature drop. The
action occurring at temperature drops below
the critical temperature drop is called nucleate
boiling.
In the third segment, line CD, the flux
decreases as the temperature drop rises and
reaches a minimum at point D.
point D is called the Leidenfrost point. Near
the Leidenfrost point another distinct change
in mechanism occurs.
The hot surface becomes covered with a
quiescent film of vapor, through which heat is
transferred by conduction and (at very high
temperature drops) by radiation. The boiling
action in this region is known as film boiling.
Film boiling is not usually desired in
commercial equipment because the heat
transfer rate is low for such a large
temperature drop and temperature drop is
not utilized effectively.

Heat-transfer apparatus should be so designed

and operated that the temperature drop in the
film of boiling liquid is smaller than the critical
temperature drop.
 problem
7.5kg/s of pure iso-butane are to be condensed at a
temperature of 331.7 K in the shell-side of a horizontal
tubular exchanger using a water inlet temperature of
301 K and flow rate of 36.7kg/s. It is to use 19 mm
outside diameter tubes of 1.6 mm wall and these may
be 4.88m in length. Under these conditions the
resistance of the scale may be taken as 0.0005m2 K/w.
assuming the individual heat transfer coefficient of
outside tubes is 4.2kw/m2 K. (1)it is required to
determine the number; (2)if two tube-side pass may be
used, what is the outlet temperature of the water.
The latent heat of vaporisation of isobutane is
286kJ/kg; the temperature drop across the
condensate film is 14.5 K; the physical
properties of the condensate film:k=0.13w/m K,
ρ=508kg/m3, μ=0.000136N.s/m2.
 Radiation heat transfer

Radiation, which may be considered to be

energy streaming through space at the speed
of light, may originate in various ways.

Some types of material will emit radiation

when they are treated by external agencies.
All substances at temperatures above absolute
zero emit radiation that is independent of
external agencies.

Radiation that is the result of temperature only

is called thermal radiation.
 Fundamental facts concerning
radiation
Radiation moves through space in straight lines,
or beams, and only substances in sight of a
radiating body can intercept radiation from that
body.

Radiation as such is not heat, and when

transformed into heat on absorption, it is no
longer radiation.
z The fraction that is absorbed is called
absorptivity α.

zThe fraction that is transmitted is called

transmissivity τ.

zThe fraction of the radiation falling on a

body that is reflected is called reflectivity
ρ.
The sum of these fractions must be unity, or

ρ+ α + τ =1 (14-1)

The maximum possible absorptivity is unity.

A body which absorbs all incident radiation
is called a black body.
 Emission of radiation

The radiation emitted by any given mass of

substance is independent of other material in
sight of , or in contact with, the mass.

The net energy gained or lost by a body is the

difference between the energy emitted by the
body and that absorbed by it from the radiation
reaching it from other bodies.
When bodies at different temperatures are
placed in sight of one another inside an
enclosure, the hotter bodies loss energy
by emission of radiation faster than they
receive energy by absorption of radiation
from the cooler bodies, and temperatures
of hotter bodies decrease.
 Wavelength of radiation
Known electromagnetic radiations cover an
enormous range of wavelengths, from the short
cosmic rays to long wave broadcasting wave..
Although radiation of any wavelength is,in
principle, convertible into heat on absorption
by matter, the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that is of importance in heat flow
lies in the wavelength range between 0.5 and
50µm.
Visible light covers a wavelength range of about
0.38 to 0.78 µm

At temperature above
about 5000ºC heat
radiation in the visible
spectrum become
significant.

The higher the temperature of the radiating body,

the shorter the predominant wavelength of the
thermal radiation emitted by it.
 Emissive power

The monochromatic energy emitted by a radiating

surface depends on the temperature of the surface
and on the wavelength of the radiation.

At constant surface temperature, a curve can be

plotted showing the rate of energy emission as a
function of the wavelength.
The monochromatic radiation emitted in
this manner from unit area in unit time,
divided by the wavelength, is called the
monochromatic radiating power Wλ.
For the entire spectrum of the radiation
from a surface, the total radiating power
W is the sum of all the monochromatic
radiations from the surface, or ,
mathematically,
∞
W = ∫ Wλ d λ (14-2)
0
 Blackbody radiation

A blackbody has the maximum attainable emissive

power at any given temperature. The ratio of the
total emissive power W of a body to that of a
blackbody Wb is by definition the emissivity ε of
the body, thus

W
ε=
Wb
 Emissivities of solids

Emissivity usually increases with temperature.

Emissivities of polished metals are low, in the
range 0.03 to 0.08. Emissivities of most oxidized
metals range from 0.6 to 0.85, those of nonmetals
from 0.65 to 0.95.
Practical source of blackbody radiation
No actual substance is a blackbody, although
some materials, such as certain grades of carbon
black, do approach blackness.
 Laws of blackbody radiation

A basic relationship for blackbody radiation is the

Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that the total
emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute temperature, or

Wb=σT4 (14-3)

Where σ is a universal constant

The distribution of energy in the spectrum of a
blackbody is known accurately. It is given by
Planck’s law

C1λ −5
Wb ,λ = C1 (14-7)
e λT
−1

Planck’s law can be shown to be consistent with

the Stefan-Boltzmann law by substituting Wb,λ
from Eq(14-7) into Eq(14-2) and integrating.
Absorption of radiation by opaque solids
Kirchhoff’s law at temperature equilibrium, the
ratio of the total radiating power of any body to
the absorptivity of that body depends only upon
the temperature of the body.
Thus, consider any two bodies in temperature
equilibrium with common surroundings.
Kirchhoff’s law states that
W1 W2
=
α1 α2
If the first body is blackbody, α1=1,and
W2
W1 = Wb =
α2
Thus
W2
α2 =
Wb
By definition, the emissivity of the second
body ε2 is
W2
α2 = = ε2
Wb
Thus, when any body is at temperature
equilibrium with its surroundings, its
emissivity and absorptivity are equal.
Kirchholff’law applies whether or not
the two surfaces are at same temperature.
 Radiation between surfaces
The total radiation from a unit area of an opaque
body of area A1, emissivity ε1,and absolute
temperature T1 is
q
= σε1T14 (14-14)
A1
Qualitatively, the interception of radiation from
an area element of a surface by another surface
of finite size can be visualized in terms of the
angle of vision.
The equation for two bodies radiating each
other can be written in the form

q12 = σ AF (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-25)

The factor F is called the view factor or

angle factor; it depends upon the geometry
of the two surface
If surface A1 is chosen for A, Eq(14-25) can
be written

q12 = σ A1 F12 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-26)

If surface A1 is chosen

q12 = σ A2 F21 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) (14-27)
In general, for gray surfaces, Eq(14-26)and
Eq(14-27) can be written

q12 = σ A1 F12 (T − T
1
4
2
4
) = σ A F (T
2 21 1
4
−T
2
4
)
(14-27)

F12 and F21 are the overall interchange factor

and are functions of ε1 and ε2.
 Two large parallel planes

1
F12 = (14-39)
1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
One gray surface completely surrounded by
another
1
F12 = (14-40)
1 A1 1
+ ( − 1)
ε1 A2 ε 2
 Problem
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger consists of 120 tubes of
internal diameter 22 mm and length 2.5m. It is operated as a
single-pass condenser with benzene condensing at a
temperature of 350 K on the outside of the tubes and water of
inlet temperature 290 K passing through the tubes. Initially
there is no scale on the walls, and a rate condensation of 4
kg/s is obtained with a water velocity of 0.7 m/s through the
tubes. After prolonged operation, a scale of resistance
0.20 m2 K/kW is formed on the inner surface of the tubes.
What is the outlet temperature of water? And what is the
rate of benzene condensing?
Assumption that the coefficient for the condensing vapor is 2.25kW/m2K,
based on the inside area. The latent heat of benzene is 400kJ/kg.