NSCA VOLUME 3

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NOV || 2016
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10 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
CLAIRE SIEKANIEC, MS, RD, CSSD
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USING QUESTIONS TO IMPROVE COACH EFFECTIVENESS
ANDY GILLHAM, PHD, CC-AASP, CSCS
T
he need to learn and improve, including through purposeful
reflection, has been cited as a critical component to a
coach’s professional development (4). Coaches learn
through a variety of ways in both formal and informal situations,
and through self-study as well as through collaborations (4).
Similar to many professions, National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Certified Strength and Conditioning
Specialists® (CSCS®) are further incentivized to continue their
professional development by way of required recertification. One
concern with any type of professional development though is how
the learning gets turned into improved practice. For example, after
going to a conference, networking, and returning to your normal
schedule and location with all the new ideas, tips, and tricks, what
happens then? The purpose of this article is to show how using
questions and reflecting can help turn professional development
activities into actionable improvements in your coaching practice.
QUESTIONING PLAYS A KEY ROLE
It sounds simple, but questioning is one of the first steps
toward incorporating the pieces from professional development
pursuits. In addition to academic offerings about how coaches
learn their profession and what sources they prefer to utilize
in professional development, there are numerous examples of
books outside the academic world that could be utilized to
improve coaching (6,15). Having a specific coaching philosophy
is a consistent recommendation within the sport coaching
literature (3,11). This has been explored specifically for strength
and conditioning coaches (10). Engaging in systematic reflection
and questioning of your coaching practice is recommended in
part because it requires thought and a bit of your time, and
provides a gauge on the alignment of your coaching practices
with your coaching philosophy.
COACHING PHILOSOPHY
A cursory glance at nearly any coaching textbook shows the
importance of having a coaching philosophy, as the topic is
often one of the first covered (3,11). There has been concern
over how the term “coaching philosophy” has been used, both
within strength and conditioning and the broader sport coaching
literature (5,7). Only a limited number of strength and conditioning
coaches have specifically addressed the notion of their own
coaching philosophy in published literature (10). Despite the
concern over the term “coaching philosophy,” the central issue is
one of purpose: “why are you doing what you are doing?” Delving
completely into the “why” was the focus of a book by Simon Sinek
(19). Sinek makes the same argument a number of sport coaching
philosophy texts do, namely that understanding your purpose
will guide you along a path that you believe in (19). Knowing
you are on a path consistent with your beliefs allows you to be
an authentic leader for your staff and the athletes with which
you work. There are a limited number of studies on authentic
leadership within coaching, but there was a series of applied
commentaries published recently (8,9,12,13). A considerably larger
number of books have been written by elite coaches emphasizing
6 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
the importance of knowing what you believe in and staying true to
those beliefs. Showing the range of contexts of these books are:
Mike Babcock about the 2010 Canadian Olympic Men’s Hockey
team, Mike Matheny and his foray into coaching youth level
little league, and Urban Meyer reflecting on the season leading
to his team’s most recent national championship (1,16,17). The
consistency across these three texts and how the elite coaches
discuss the need to have a clear purpose guiding coaching
behavior cannot be overstated.
Outside of sport, one of the best known examples of the
importance of why comes from the management practices that
vaulted Toyota® to a spot among the international giants in the
automobile industry (14,18). Specifically, the model practiced
at Toyota was to investigate any problem in the process of
manufacturing a car with a series of five consecutive “why”
questions with each question targeting a deeper level of
understanding the problem (14,18). The visual image here is not
one of a four-year-old child asking “why do I need to eat my
vegetables” that leads to a series of further questions about the
color of broccoli, the size of the dinner plate, where forks come
from, and why all vegetables taste funny, for example. Conversely,
the series of “why” questions at Toyota were meant to trace the
history of any current problem to the inciting incident regardless
of all other factors. The idea is that by going through this process,
a number of realizations are made that would remain masked
without the repetitive “why” questions and it serves as a reminder
that the current problem was not created in a vacuum. The
assumption is that there were other decisions along the way that
led to the current problem showing up when, where, and how it
did.
FRAMEWORK FOR REFLECTIVE QUESTIONING
One way to organize a reflective questioning session is to use three
distinct steps, each with a different type of question and focus: (a)
“why,” (b) “what if,” and (c) “how.” This framework was specifically
put forward in Berger’s book, exploring how questions could be
used more effectively (2). The first step, the “why” questions,
is used to identify a specific problem and may require multiple
“why” questions as in the Toyota example. The “what if” series
of questions is to explore anything that comes to mind on how
to address whatever was found in the “why” section. Finally, the
“how” section is more detail specific about implementing solutions
to the problems. One of the most challenging parts of using
questions effectively is that we can be too close to a situation
to accurately answer our own questions and that is why relying
on a mentor, peer, or an outside consultant may help provide a
necessary different vantage point (2). The following provides two
examples of what this three-step process could look like.
EXAMPLE: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Why do you attend a professional conference?—To learn and
improve my coaching.—If learning and improvement are the
objectives, why do you keep attending the same professional
conferences, listening to the same type of presentations from
speakers you have heard before?—It is difficult to have a good
answer here that is consistent with the first response of learning
and improving. Typical answers are tradition or customary in
nature, “I always go to that conference” and “I am expected to go
to that conference.” There are certainly viable alternative reasons
to attend a professional conference such as networking or to
fulfill a formalized continuing education credit, but those may
not be inherently congruent with the first answer of learning and
improving. This is where an understanding of your own coaching
philosophy and some reflection specifically on why you are
attending the conference is critical.
What if you went to a related professional conference that you
have never attended before? What if you reached out to the local
high school, college, or professional strength and conditioning
coach(es) and hosted your own mini-meeting? What if you
contacted a local professor to (a) help with your communication
with athletes and sport coaches, (b) learn about giving feedback,
or (c) incorporate mental skills development into the work with
your athletes? What if you tried to bring your mentor to your
facility? Essentially, all of these “what if” questions are options
congruent with the initial answer of wanting to learn and
improve. Not all of them may work in your specific circumstance,
but the point of these questions is to be reflective and thoughtful
about what you really want and consider a variety of ways to get
what you want.
Addressing the “how” for any of those “what if” questions is all
about reaching out and finding a solution for all parties. There is
quite a variety of professional conferences locally, nationally, and
internationally, and putting yourself in a new setting is certainly an
opportunity to learn and improve your coaching. All of the other
options are about people and finding what you can offer them to
make it a viable collaboration. It is likely that most strength and
conditioning coaches want to improve and get better and thus, the
first step of reaching out is often the most challenging part. Think
about it this way, the local high school hires a new strength and
conditioning coach that you do not know. If that coach contacts
you, what do you need from that coach to start a collaborative
process aimed at learning and improving? Faculty members may
need help with a research project, tickets to a school’s game, a
sideline pass, or even just a polo shirt with the school’s logo on
it. Focusing on what you can offer, while thinking about what you
might want in exchange if someone reached out to you, will go a
long way toward a solution that both sides can agree to.
EXAMPLE: WORKING WITH SPORT COACHES
Why do I constantly have to argue with the sport coaches about
how to train the athletes?—Because they are used to being in
charge of their staff and team—Ok, but I do not try to call plays
during their practices and games, why does the sport coach feel
the need to tell me how to train the athletes?—Because the sport
coach has not always had a dedicated strength and conditioning
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 7
NSCA.com
professional to work with and had to fill that role for the athletes.
—Why are my training and credentials not enough for the sport
coach to trust I know what I am doing?—The sport coach knows
how important your work is to the competitive success of the
team, but those wins and losses are attached to the sport coach’s
name and job performance.
What if you spent more time with the sport coaches away from the
facility to get to know each other? What if you distributed a short
bio to all new coaches hired? What if you sent out a newsletter a
couple times a year with training tips or details? What if you had
a working lunch with each head sports coach once a month to
discuss team training performance? What if you invited the sport
coaches to any course you may be teaching on campus? What if
you invited the sport coach to a local conference or meeting you
attend? What if you offered to design a training program for the
sport coach personally? What if you shared the training progress
of athletes you have worked with in the past? What if you reach
out to the sport coach(es) about their background and training in
strength and conditioning? What if you worked more through the
assistant sport coach?—Here all of these “what if” questions are
focused on improving the relationship between the strength and
conditioning staff and the sport coaching staff. Some coaches are
just difficult to deal with, but the majority of both strength and
conditioning and sport coaches want what is best for the athletes
and thus discord often comes from a lack of information. Finding
ways to narrow that information gap may go a long way toward a
more effective working relationship.
The “how” for closing the information gap is all about finding the
time that is available in your schedule that matches when the
sport coach can hear you. On the way out to a training session
is unlikely to be a wise time because the sport coach will have
other, more immediate thoughts requiring attention. The medium
of information transfer is also critical here. If you are not a great
presenter in a lecture format in a classroom type setting, try to
avoid putting yourself in that position. If you know the sport
coach barely responds to email, an electronic newsletter is
probably a poor idea. When the problem is an information gap, it
is relatively easy to fix because you already have the information.
You have the education and training that supports your program,
you have the best interests of the athletes in mind, and then what
you have to do is find the most effective way to communicate
that to the sport coach.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The critical message in this article is the importance of questioning
what you do as a coach and what happens in your facility.
Knowing specifically why you are doing something is just as
important as knowing what to do. Working with athletes, sport
coaches, and others in the sport context presents a variety of
challenging situations and it is reasonable to examine any of
those situations for ways to improve your coaching effectiveness.
Experiencing a reoccurring problem, such as injury concerns with
USING QUESTIONS TO IMPROVE COACH EFFECTIVENESS
athletes, training performance of a team, or working with a sport
coach, is an opportunity to increase your effectiveness. If you are
struggling to find solutions to problems, whatever you have tried
as solutions in the past has not worked. Understanding the root of
the problem and why previous solutions did not work are fitting
topics for reflection.
REFERENCES
1. Babcock, M, and Larsen, R. Leave No Doubt: A Credo for
Chasing your Dreams. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University
Press; 2012.
2. Berger, W. A More Beautiful Question: The Power of Inquiry to
Spark Breakthrough Ideas. New York, NY: Bloomsbury; 2014.
3. Burton, D, and Raedeke, T. Sport Psychology for Coaches.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008.
4. Cushion, C, and Nelson, L. Coach education and learning:
Developing the field. In: Potrac, P, Gilbert, W, and Denison, J.
(Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Sports Coaching. New York, NY:
Routledge; 359-374, 2013.
5. Cushion, C, and Partington, M. A critical analysis of the
conceptualization of ‘coaching philosophy’. Sport Education and
Society. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2014.958817
6. Erickson, K, Bruner, MW, MacDonald, DJ, and Côté, J. Gaining
insight into actual and preferred sources of coaching knowledge.
International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching 3(4): 527-538,
2008.
7. Gearity, B. The discipline of philosophy in strength and
conditioning. Strength and Conditioning Journal 32(6): 110-117,
2010.
8. Gilbert, W. Winning formula, man management and the inner
game: Commonalities of success in the Ryder Cup and Super
Bowl; A commentary. International Journal of Sports Science and
Coaching 10(2-3): 247-249, 2015.
9. Gillham, A. Winning formula, man management and the inner
game: Commonalities of success in the Ryder Cup and Super
Bowl; A commentary. International Journal of Sports Science and
Coaching 10(2-3): 243-246, 2015.
10. Gillham, A, Schofield, G, Doscher, M, Dalrymple, D, and
Kenn, J. Developing and implementing a coaching philosophy:
Guidance from award-winning strength and conditioning coaches.
International Sport Coaching Journal 3: 54-64, 2016.
11. Hammermeister, J. Cornerstones of Coaching. Traverse City,
MI: Cooper Publishing Group, LLC; 2010.
12. Jenkins, S. Winning formula, man management and the inner
game: Commonalities of success in the Ryder Cup and Super Bowl.
International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching 10(2-3): 171-
184, 2015.
8 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
13. Kinsler, L. Born to be me… Who am I again? The development
of authentic leadership using evidence based leadership coaching
YOUR BODY’S A WELL-OILED MACHINE.
and mindfulness. International Coaching Psychology Review 9(1):
92-105, 2014.
14. Liker, JK. The Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the
GO FOR PREMIUM.
World’s Greatest Manufacturer. New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2004.
15. Mallett, CJ, Trudel, P, Lyle, J, and Rynne, SB. Formal vs.
informal coach education. International Journal of Sports Science
and Coaching 4(3): 325-334, 2009.
16. Matheny, M, and Jenkins, JB. The Matheny Manifesto: A Young
Manager’s Old-School Views on Success in Sports and Life. New
York, NY: Crown Archetype; 2015.
Make the most of your training
17. Meyer, U, and Coffey, W. Above the Line: Lessons in Leadership and make GNC Pro Performance®
and Life from a Championship Season. New York, NY: Penguin;
2015.
protein a part of your daily
18. Rother, M. Toyota Kata: Managing People for Improvement, routine. Whether you’re fueling
Adaptiveness, and Superior Results. New York, NY: McGraw Hill
Education; 2010.
up or refueling to recover,
19. Sinek, S. Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone it pays to go Pro.
to Take Action. New York, NY: Penguin Group, 2009.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Andy Gillham owns and operates Ludus Consulting, LLC, which
focuses on performance enhancement for athletes, coaches, and
business executives. Of specific note is his work with coaches and
athletic administrators on improving systematic coach evaluation
and providing targeted coach development opportunities. Gillham
is a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through
the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and
a Certified Consultant through the Association for Applied Sport
Psychology (CC-AASP). He serves as a sport psychology consultant
for collegiate teams and coaches as well as individual athletes
competing at high school and college levels in the United States
and Canada. Gillham is an Editorial Board member for two peer-
reviewed journals, the International Journal of Sports Sciences and
20
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earned both his Bachelor of Science degree in Fitness and Master
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THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
CLAIRE SIEKANIEC, MS, RD, CSSD
A
lcohol use is widespread in the realm of sports.
Consumption ranges from the weekend warrior guzzling a
beer after completing a 5-k run to elite athletes popping
champagne in the locker room after a championship win. Alcohol
is often used as a means of celebration or relaxation, and athletes
frequently consume drinks without much thought of the acute
and chronic effects on performance and health. Alcohol’s path
to oxidation is complex, and both short- and long-term use
affects most systems of the body. Factors such as genetics,
gender, amount of alcohol ingested, body mass, and nutrition
status help explain the large variance in effects that alcohol has
within and across individuals (1,4). From an athletic performance
standpoint, the acute use of alcohol can influence motor skills,
hydration status, aerobic performance, as well as aspects of
the recovery process; consequently, influencing subsequent
training and competitions (2,9). Chronic alcohol use can lead to
difficulty in managing body composition, nutritional deficiencies,
and depressed immune function, resulting in increased risk of
injury and prolonged healing and return-to-play (2,17). While the
acute and chronic effects of alcohol are largely dose-dependent,
chronic and heavy intake can increase one’s risk of long-term
health effects such as cardiovascular disease, liver disease,
and cancer (4). The drinking habits of athletes, as well as the
effects of alcohol, are highly variable, making a one-size-fits-all
recommendation difficult and impractical. Furthermore, current
research on the effects of alcohol on athletic performance is
limited due to ethical concerns. This article will discuss the
available evidence related to alcohol and athletic performance.
10 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
ALCOHOL INGESTION PRIOR TO EXERCISE
Blood alcohol concentration increases upon ingestion of alcohol.
Soon after, the acute side effects begin to take place, which can
result in depression of central nervous system activity. While the
effects are dose-dependent, this can lead to compromised motor
skills, decreased coordination, delayed reactions, diminished
judgment, and impaired balance (3,9). These effects on the body
may not only contribute negatively to athletic performance,
but may also increase an athlete’s risk for injury. The effects of
low to moderate doses of alcohol on anaerobic performance
and strength are equivocal, but an aid to performance is not
evident (9). Conversely, research has shown that even small
doses of alcohol ingested prior to exercise led to a decrease in
endurance performance (10). It appears that alcohol may affect
aerobic performance by slowing the citric acid cycle, inhibiting
gluconeogenesis, and increasing levels of lactate (12). Additionally,
the body preferentially metabolizes alcohol, thereby altering the
metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids, which are the preferred
energy sources during endurance exercise (12). Although alcohol
may have been viewed as an ergogenic aid in the past (likely
for psychological reasons), the scientific evidence shows that
alcohol hinders athletic performance, and ingestion prior to
training or competition should be avoided. Alcohol is currently
a banned substance for National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) rifle competitions, and the World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA) prohibits alcohol consumption during air sports, archery,
powerboating, and automobile competitions on the basis of it
being considered an ergogenic aid (11,18).
ALCOHOL INGESTION AFTER EXERCISE
The ingestion of alcohol prior to or during exercise is not very
common. However, the intake of alcohol following an event is
a much more likely scenario. To recover properly from exercise,
it is important to replenish glycogen, stimulate muscle protein
synthesis (MPS), and restore fluid balance. Alcohol and the
behaviors associated with intoxication can interfere with many
aspects of the recovery process. Beverages containing greater
than or equal to 4% alcohol can increase urine output, ultimately
delaying recovery from a dehydrated state (15). Beer has been
plugged as a post-workout recovery beverage because it
contains carbohydrates and electrolytes, but in actuality, the
typical beer does not contain nearly enough carbohydrates or
electrolytes for proper recovery from a long workout with a
large sweat loss. It is reasonable to conclude that the negative
effects of alcohol consumption after a workout outweigh any
potential beneficial effects. To adequately replace lost fluids, it
is important for athletes to drink rehydrating beverages such as
sports drinks, or consume water with salty foods, prior to alcohol
consumption. If immediate alcohol intake is inevitable, athletes
should strive to only consume small volumes of alcohol.
Replenishing glycogen stores is another essential component to
recovery, especially when the turnaround between training and
competition is short. It is unclear if alcohol consumption after
exercise directly affects glycogen synthesis; however, alcohol can
indirectly displace carbohydrate and protein intake (5). When
protein-rich foods are displaced with alcohol during the post-
exercise recovery period, MPS is not optimally stimulated, which
can potentially inhibit muscle growth and repair. Furthermore,
there is evidence for a direct effect of alcohol on MPS. Researchers
have found that alcohol significantly decreases MPS even
when adequate protein is consumed (13). This effect has been
investigated on resistance exercises, as well as exercises commonly
carried out in team sport training (6). Overall, when an athlete
chooses to fill up on alcoholic beverages during the recovery
period they are less likely to follow optimal nutrition guidelines
for recovery, resulting in a prolonged recovery period, inadequate
recovery before the next training session or competition, or lack of
desired muscular adaptations.
ALCOHOL’S EFFECT ON SLEEP, INJURY,
AND HORMONES
Beyond the energy storage and MPS implications, alcohol
can also negatively affect sleep, recovery from injury, and the
production of hormones associated with muscular growth (2).
Athletes need adequate sleep to aid in recovery and to be able
to perform at their best, both physically and mentally. Ingestion
of alcohol before going to bed may help induce sleep, but has
been shown to disrupt restorative sleep cycles throughout the
night, decreasing quality of sleep (7). To compound this, when
athletes enjoy a night out drinking, they may stay out later than
normal, reducing their duration of sleep. These two factors
combined may impact recovery, energy levels, and performance
in upcoming training and competitions.
When athletes experience soft tissue injuries, the body employs
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 11
NSCA COACH 3.4
an inflammatory response. Alcohol has been shown to limit the
inflammatory response via an increase in the production of anti-
inflammatory molecules and a decrease in pro-inflammatory
molecules (2). In addition to an imbalance of the inflammatory
response, alcohol also acts as a vasodilator, increasing blood
flow to the injured area, which could possibly increase the
severity of the injury and prolong the recovery (2). Therefore,
consumption of alcohol is generally not recommended if an
injury has recently occurred.
There are a number of hormones that affect muscle growth. For
example, cortisol stimulates protein breakdown while testosterone
increases protein synthesis. In recreationally trained athletes,
research has found that high doses of alcohol intake after
resistance exercise increased cortisol levels and decreased the
testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, which can interfere with the adaptive
process of long-term resistance training (8). Additionally, alcohol
decreases testosterone secretion; therefore, excessive intake during
the recovery period should be avoided for athletes striving for
muscular hypertrophy or for those with hormonal imbalances (4).
EXERCISE AND HANGOVERS
The effects of alcohol do not simply wear off when signs of
intoxication are gone. Heavy drinking can lead to an array of
symptoms commonly referred to as a hangover. Athletes are not
immune to hangovers, which can influence their training and
competitions. The hangover symptoms produced by alcohol have
many intra-individual variances. However, the main effects of
hangovers include electrolyte imbalance, hypoglycemia, gastric
irritation, vasodilation, and sleep disturbances (14). These effects
cause an array of physical symptoms, which may leave an athlete
feeling drained and unable to train as hard as normal. Research
has shown an approximate 11% decrease in aerobic capacity in
those exercising with a hangover (12). Effects of a hangover on
anaerobic performance remain unclear, but overall it is probable
that athletes training or competing without a hangover will enjoy a
competitive edge over their hungover opponents.
CHRONIC EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL
There is evidence supporting health benefits from moderate
alcohol consumption, but regular heavy consumption and binge
drinking can take a toll on the body. Athletes are susceptible to
the health effects associated with excessive alcohol consumption,
which can also affect performance. Alcohol is calorically dense,
providing seven calories per gram, with a standard drink in
the United States containing 14 grams of alcohol (16). If other
substances are present, such as soft drinks and sugar-based
beverages, the caloric value of an alcoholic drink rises even higher.
As a general reference, the following are common drink sizes and
their average alcohol content: 12 oz of beer (5% alcohol), 5 oz of
wine (12% alcohol), and 1.5 oz of 80-proof distilled spirits (40%
alcohol) (16). The calories from alcoholic beverages can add up
fast and contribute a significant amount of calories to an athlete’s
overall caloric intake. Additionally, behaviors associated with
heavy drinking, such as irregular eating patterns and increased
THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE
consumption of unhealthy foods, may lead to increased caloric
intake. Over time, this combination can affect an athlete’s body
composition.
Heavy intake of alcohol can also lead to nutritional deficiencies.
Athletes require a sound nutrition plan to promote optimal athletic
performance, and may already be at a higher risk of nutritional
deficiencies than their non-athlete counterparts due to the
physical demands of training. Alcohol affects absorption and
utilization of many nutrients. Excessive alcohol intake can reduce
the intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients such as vitamin B12,
thiamin, and folate. Additionally, liver cells can become inefficient
at activating vitamin D and the metabolism of alcohol can destroy
vitamin B6 (4). Nutritional deficiencies present many different
problems to athletes and can have serious health and performance
implications. In addition, long-term misuse of alcohol is associated
with a higher risk of developing cardiovascular disease, liver
disease, and cancer (4). It can also compromise the immune
system and increase susceptibility to illness (2).
CONCLUSION
Overall, the effects of alcohol vary dramatically from person to
person with many different contributing factors. The effects of
alcohol on athletic performance vary depending on quantity,
demographics, and type of exercise. Therefore, it is difficult to
determine specific recommendations, but it is suggested that
athletes follow the same recommended guidelines for safe and
responsible drinking as the general public. Binge drinking is
never recommended due to the side effects that interfere with
desired athletic adaptations. The cumulative effects of binge
drinking episodes may leave an athlete unable to perform at the
expected or desired level. After an athletic event, athletes should
be encouraged to follow recommended nutrition and hydration
guidelines for recovery prior to alcohol consumption.
REFERENCES
1. Alcohol metabolism: An update. Alcohol alert. National
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 2007. Retrieved 2016
from http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AA72/AA72.htm.
2. Barnes, M. Alcohol: Impact on sports performance and
recovery in male athletes. Sports Med 44(7): 909-919, 2014.
3. Beyond hangovers: Understanding alcohol’s impact on your
health. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 2015.
Retrieved 2016 from http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/
Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm.
4. Boyle, M, and Long, S. Personal Nutrition. Belmont, CA:
Thomson/Wadsworth; 251-263, 2007.
5. Burke, L, Collier, G, Broad, E, Davis, P, Martin, D, Sanigorski,
A, and Hargreaves, M. Effect of alcohol intake on muscle glycogen
storage after prolonged exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology
95(3): 983-990, 2003.
6. Duplanty, A, Budnar R, Luk H, Levitt D, Hill D, McFarlin B, et
al. Effect of acute alcohol ingestion on resistance exercise induced
mTORC1 signaling in human muscle. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research Published Ahead of Print, 2016.
12 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
7. Ebrahim, I, Shapiro, C, Williams, A, and Fenwick, P. Alcohol
and sleep I: Effects on normal sleep. Alcoholism, Clinical &
Experimental Research 37(4): 539-549, 2013.
8. Haugvad, A, Haugvad, L, Hamarsland, H, and Paulsen, G.
Ethanol does not delay muscle recovery, but decreases the
testosterone:cortisol ratio. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
46(11): 2175-2183, 2014.
9. Koziris, L. Alcohol and athletic performance. American College
of Sports Medicine Current Comment. April, 2000.
10. Lecoultre, V, and Schutz, Y. Effect of a small dose of
alcohol on endurance performance of trained cyclists. Alcohol &
Alcoholism 44(3): 278-283, 2009.
11. National Collegiate Athletic Association. 2016 – 2017 banned
drugs list. Retrieved September 7th, 2016 from http://www.ncaa.
org/2016-17-ncaa-banned-drugs-list.
12. O’Brien, C, and Lyons, F. Alcohol and the athlete. Sports
Medicine 29(5): 295-300, 2000.
13. Parr, E, Camera, D, Areta, J, Burke, L, Phillips, S, Hawley, J, and
Coffey, V. Alcohol ingestion impairs maximal post-exercise rates of
myofibrillar protein synthesis following a single bout of concurrent
training. PLoS ONE 9(2): 2014.
14. Prat, G, Adan, A, Sanchez-Turet, M. Alcohol hangover: A
critical review of explanatory factors. Human Psychopharmacology:
Clinical and Experimental 24: 259-267, 2009.
15. Shirreffs, S, and Maughan, R. Restoration of fluid balance after
exercise-induced dehydration: Effects of alcohol consumption.
Journal of Applied Physiology 83(4): 1152-1158, 1997.
16. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans
2015-2020 (8th Ed). Retrieved 2016 from https://health.gov/
dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/.
17. Volpe, S. Alcohol and athletic performance. ACSM’s Health &
Fitness Journal 14(3): 28-30, 2010.
18. World Anti-Doping Code International Standard. Prohibited
list: January 2016. Retrieved September 7th, 2016 from http://
www.usada.org/wp-content/uploads/wada-2016-prohibited-list-
en.pdf.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Claire Siekaniec is a Sports Dietitian at the Orthopedic Specialty
Hospital (TOSH) in Murray, UT. She is a Registered Dietitian and
Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics. She completed a Bachelor
of Science degree in Nutrition and Dietetics from the University
of New Haven and a Master of Science degree in Sports Nutrition
from the University of Colorado Colorado Springs. She has spent
time working as a Clinical Dietitian at the Alaska Native Medical
Center and as a Sports Nutrition Intern for the University of Virginia
Athletic Department.

ASSISTANT STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES—
APPLY FOR JOBS WITH THE BEST STRATEGY: A PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE
BOB ALEJO, CSCS, RSCC*E
L
ooking for a job is an art and a skill. Not looking at it that
way may cost a strength and conditioning coach a great
opportunity. As a director of strength and conditioning
and a coach who has been around for a long time, I hear of and
encounter way too many strength and conditioning coaches
not putting the time, effort, or strategy into applying for new,
better opportunities. To me, that means that the strength and
conditioning coach is not willing to put time, effort, and strategy
into their career. This article will provide my perspective on what
I consider to be important as a strength and conditioning coach
looks to climb the ladder or change positions in the profession.
2. List all working experiences.
When I am looking at resumes for a potential hire, the obvious
priorities that I look for are where the candidate has worked so I
can get my bearings on their years of experience, levels they have
worked at, and who I know at those places. In addition to that, the
following outline highlights other important aspects on a resume.
1. Where is the director or head strength and conditioning coach
that the candidate previously worked for listed?
a. When I look at the references, the first thing I look for
3. Make sure all references will give a “stand up on the desk and
is whether or not the director or head strength and
conditioning coach is listed on the resume.
i. I do not like “references upon request.” If I have posted
a job opening, then that means that I have requested
your references.
b. If the director is not listed, then the candidate better have
a reasonable explanation to the following two questions:
14 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
c. 1) why have you not listed the director or head strength
and conditioning coach at your present or last job as
a reference, and 2) why have you not told me about it
before or at the same time that I see your resume? The
candidate should get out in front of it and immediately
explain the situation in an honest and professional
way. If the candidate did not see eye-to-eye with their
previous boss, it does not inherently mean that they
will be unable to work with someone else. Not bringing
it up is unprofessional and brings up a more important
honesty issue.
a. I read the entire resume—all of it. I am curious of all that
the candidate has done. For example, it matters to me if
they have worked at a coffee shop, for example, or did
volunteer work outside of the profession; especially if
the candidate was working at a coffee shop while on a
strength and conditioning staff, this tells me that they
want this profession.
jump up and down” recommendation.
a. Be sure that each person on your reference list has given
permission to be used as a reference. Just because a
strength and conditioning coach has worked with a
candidate does not mean that they think they are a great
coach. List someone who does think you are a great coach.
Talking to someone before you put them on the list allows
the candidate to know firsthand what is thought about
them, and it also gives the reference a heads-up so they
are not completely blindsided.
b. Likewise, when someone asks me to be on their
reference list and I do not think I can give a 100% positive
recommendation, it is my responsibility to tell them that I
cannot give them a positive recommendation and provide
a reason why.
4. Apply online and send an email directly to me with the
resume indicating that they have applied for the position.
a. If a candidate’s only action to secure a job is to apply
online, then they might as well not bother. Only applying
online shows little initiative and that they do not want the
job badly.
b. If there is no reply two days following the application
submission and first email, then the candidate should send
another email or maybe even make a phone call.
i. Candidates should not worry about “bothering”
their possible future employer with too much
communication, as long as it is reasonable. If their
possible future boss is bothered by the candidate’s
persistence and enthusiasm to be a part of their staff,
then the candidate should not want to work there
anyways.
5. Perform a thorough investigation of “who can I find that
knows the person that is going to hire me?”
a. Go to the organization’s website and read the bios of
the entire staff. It is a small world, and the candidate
may know someone that they forgot about. Additionally,
other colleagues may know someone who could help
out; it never hurts to ask. For example, a few days into an
application process I had a member of my staff tell me
that they applied for a position at a college institution.
This ended up being a bad call on their part, as I had
previously coached the athletic director, worked a few
years with the head athletic trainer, and competed for
four years as an athlete in the same conference as this
institution. Had I known before they applied for the job, I
think I could have helped. Further, if a candidate does not
know the background of the current staff they are on, then
they are severely hurting their chances.
b. Include pieces of information about the school, company,
or staff to which you are applying for in the cover letter.
Again, this shows due diligence when applying for the
job. This showcases exactly what is desired from the
candidate—great effort.
6. Do not hesitate to “name drop” in the opening paragraph of
the cover letter.
a. If the first paragraph contains “When I mentioned to
Bryan Mann that I was interested in your position opening,
he told me to tell you hello and to put him down as a
reference,” then the candidate will be getting a response
from me. Dropping the names of my friends, colleagues, or
established professionals that a candidate has a
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 15
NSCA COACH 3.4
relationship with can get a candidate closer to getting an
interview. It also puts a huge accent on their resume because
those professionals who are close to me would only think of
suggesting someone of great character. Do not use words like:
“hard working,” “diligent,” “dedicated,” “creative,” etc.
b. Instead, say “working two jobs during my graduate
assistantship did not stop me from creating an athlete
testing database that correlated the information into
standard deviations, Z scores, and averages for athletes
by year.” This wording provides real-life examples in a
much more powerful way. Providing examples like that can
separate an individual candidate from the others who only
state overused keywords.
c. Do not list conferences attended or practitioners visited.
Since the candidate is already in this profession, it is their
responsibility to attend conferences, visit other coaches,
and network with professionals in the field. I will know this
after we talk.
7. One intentional fabrication on the resume severely limits the
chances of me hiring a candidate.
a. Lying on a resume or cover letter can be revealing of the
character of the candidate who is applying. Also, those of
us who have worked very hard to get where we are may
have disdian for those who try to match our experience
with the stroke of a key.
To be clear, there are more than eight points that are important
for a candidate looking for a new job in the strength and
conditioning field. Some points may be more important to some
coaches than others. When seeking a new opportunity, it is
advised to ask for as much help as possible in order to have the
best chance to get an interview.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Bob Alejo has been the Assistant Athletic Director/Director of
Strength and Conditioning and North Carolina State University,
overseeing all of the strength and conditioning efforts of the
department, while also working with the men’s basketball team.
From 2009 – 2011 and 1993 – 2001, Alejo was the Director of
Strength and Conditioning for the Oakland Athletics Major League
Baseball (MLB) team. He was responsible for the organization’s
physical preparation at the major and minor league levels. From
2005 – 2008, Alejo was the Director of Strength and Conditioning
at University of California, Santa Barbara. From 1984 – 1993,
Alejo was a strength and conditioning coach at University of
California, Los Angeles. While there, the Bruins won 25 National
Championships and produced more than 100 All-American athletes.
A member of the 2008 and 2012 United States Olympic Team,
Alejo was the strength coach for the Gold Medalist men’s beach
volleyball team of Todd Rogers and Phil Dalhausser in 2008. After
earning his Bachelor of Arts in Physical Education from Chico State
in 1982, he was the Strength and Conditioning Coach for football
at his alma mater. Alejo is a Certified Strength and Conditioning
Specialist® (CSCS®) through the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) and holds the NSCA Registered Strength and
Conditioning Coach Emeritus (RSCC*E).
WHY COACHES NEED TO KNOW ABOUT WELLNESS
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW
FROM WELLNESS TO PHYSICAL LITERACY—
A BRIEF HISTORY
T
he term wellness is most often thought of in terms of
the Greek ideal of a healthy mind in a healthy body. This
type of thinking is considered dualist in that the mind and
body are two distinct categories (7). Dunn is credited with the
modern version of wellness, which shifted thinking of the terms
disease and health as being dichotomous to being considered a
continuum, in an effort to achieve high level wellness (4). Hettler
created the six dimensions of wellness (Table 1), which are
interconnected components that can help people improve their
wellness by focusing on a holistic, multi-dimensional approach
(5). Several iterations of Hettler’s model have evolved into six,
seven, and even eight dimensions of wellness, but this article will
focus on six.
Recently, Margaret Whitehead has argued for a more
monistic approach (mind and body are not separate entities)
that advocates for physical literacy to embody not only
physical competence, but also the motivation, confidence,
and knowledge to understand, value, and take personal
responsibility for being physically active (9,10). Physical literacy
has essentially unified the six dimensions of the wellness wheel
around the physical dimension.
WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE?
A key question regarding wellness for youth is whether or not
evidence exists to support its use. In a survey of college students,
the physical dimension was most closely identified with wellness,
followed by the social dimension, with the other dimensions not
as clearly related (1). In a study of perceived holistic health and
physical activity in Kanien’kehá:ka (Mohawk) youth, researchers
found that the four dimensions of health (physical, social,
emotional, and spiritual) resonated well with the youth (3). A
TABLE 1. HETTLER’S SIX DIMENSIONS OF WELLNESS WHEEL (5)
WELLNESS WHEEL DIMENSION
Emotional
Intellectual
Occupational
Physical
Social
Spiritual
16 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
wellness wheel, where one or more of the dimensions are out
of balance, can be described as appearing like a flat tire. The
center of the wheel has been referred to as the “point of self-
determination,” (2). The self-determination theory, which is a
theory of how motivation influences behavior, is a key factor in
physical literacy throughout the life course (8). Therefore, if we
can empower youth to be self-motivated to be physically active,
we have inspired a lifetime of high level wellness.
WHAT COACHES CAN DO TO PROMOTE HIGH
LEVEL WELLNESS
Coaches can use the physical dimension of wellness as a starting
point to working with youth because young athletes tend to self-
identify most with the physical dimension. The physical dimension
promotes physical activity through healthy choices and sound
nutrition. Here is a non-exhaustive sample of what a coach who
works with youth can do to promote high level wellness:
• Be a positive role model and advocate for high-level wellness
by either encouraging or participating.
• Promote the National Strength and Conditioning Association’s
(NSCA) 10 pillars of long-term athletic development (6).
• Encourage physical activity and sound nutrition.
• Facilitate the implementation of sufficient physical activity
during practice, and guard against overuse and overtraining
by avoiding early sport specialization.
• Encourage a balanced approach to physical activity
throughout the year. Promote participation in a variety of
sports and activities, remembering to include time away from
each sport.
• Enlist parents to help youth get adequate rest, reduce stress,
and develop resilience.
CHARACTERISTICS (REFERRING TO YOUTH)
Feelings, emotions, reactions, etc.
How do they deal with the emotional challenges faced?
Desire to learn, mindset, curiosity, etc.
How open are they to new ideas and experiences?
Can be thought of as school time for youth
How is school life and play time balanced?
Physical activity, nutrition, and healthy habits
Do they take charge of their own physical health?
Relationships, our role in society, respect, etc.
How do they get along with others and vice versa?
Meaning, values, tolerance of the beliefs of others, etc.
Have they discovered their meaning/purpose in life?
NSCA.com
• Recognize that at different times during the season and 7. Mehta, N. Mind-body dualism: A critique from a health
in different grades, student-athletes may have increased perspective. In: Singh, AR, and Singh, SA (eds.) Brain, Mind and
stress as they try to balance their sports and strength and Consciousness: An International, Interdisciplinary Perspective. Mens
conditioning sessions with exams, social pressures, and Sana Monographs; 202-209, 2011.
other obligations.
8. Ryan, R, and Deci, E. Self-determination theory and the
• Use questionnaires for youth on their self-rating of physical facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-
wellness, as well as for the other dimensions. Get to know being. American Psychologist 55(1): 68-78, 2000.
youth better by understanding their stressors, helping
9. Whitehead, M. Physical literacy: Philosophical considerations
them recognize their dimensional deficiencies, and working
in relation to developing a sense of self, universality and
together to fix the flat tire and balance their wellness wheel to
propositional knowledge. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy 1(3): 281-
achieve high-level wellness.
298, 2007.
10. Whitehead, M. The concept of physical literacy. European
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR COACHES WORKING
Journal of Physical Education 6(2): 127-138, 2001.
WITH YOUTH
Young athletes have competing demands on their time and the
ratio of those demands can change at different periods of their ABOUT THE AUTHOR
lives. Youth practitioners need to be aware of the competing Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning
demands on young athletes’ lives in order to help them effectively Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
balance these demands. Wellness provides a reference point this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
that can be used to better understand the competing demands the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
placed on youngsters by identifying the six dimensions of Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
wellness. However, the dimensions should be complementary, not is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
competing as the goal of high-end wellness through the physical coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
dimension (physical literacy) can lead to lifelong physical activity. activity and sports participation.
REFERENCES
1. Archer, J, Probert, B, and Gage, L. College students’ attitudes
toward wellness. Journal of College Student Personnel 38(4): 311-
317, 1987.
2. Bopp, J, Bopp, M, Brown, L, and Lane Jr., P. The Sacred Tree:
Reflections on Native American Spirituality. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus
Light; 1986.
3. Cargo, MD, Peterson, L, Lévesque, L, Macaulay, AC, and Giles,
AR. Perceived wholistic health and physical activity in Kanien’keh:
ka youth (doctoral dissertation, Native Counselling Services of
Alberta). 2007. Retrieved 2016 from http://www.pimatisiwin.com/
uploads/463535096.pdf.
4. Dunn, HL. High-level wellness for man and society. American
Journal of Public Health and the Nation’s Health 49(6): 786-792,
1959.
5. Hettler, W. Wellness: Encouraging a lifetime pursuit of
excellence. Health Values: Achieving High Level Wellness 8(4): 13-
17, 1984.
6. Lloyd, R, Cronin, J, Faigenbaum, A, Haff, G, Howard, R,
Kraemer, WJ, et al. National Strength and Conditioning Association
position statement on long-term athletic development. Official
position stand of the National Strength and Conditioning
Association. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 30(6):
1491-1509, 2016.
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 17

FUELING TO WIN—SMART SHOPPING STRATEGIES AND TIPS TO MAXIMIZE PERFORMANCE
TARA BOENING, MS, RDN, CSSD, LD
T
he old adage rings true for nutrition—“failing to plan is
planning to fail.” The type of fuel athletes put into their
bodies can greatly impact performance gains, recovery
time, injury prevalence, body composition, and overall immune
function. For a positive impact, proper planning, grocery
shopping, and meal preparation should be vital parts of an
athlete’s schedule. Carving out as little as one to two hours per
week to carry out nutrition planning and execution can give
athletes a competitive advantage.
POST (AT HOME):
GENERAL PLANNING AND SHOPPING TIPS
Meal prep and planning should be considered an important aspect
of an athlete’s training program. Planning can be broken down into
distinct parts: pre, during, and post.
PRE-GROCERY STORE TRIP:
• Take a minute to check the week’s training and/or competition
schedule. Look for any extra meals that might be needed or
meals that will not need to be prepared.
• Plan meals for the week and make a list.
• Check the pantry and fridge to avoid overbuying.
• Have a snack; do not go to the grocery store hungry.
DURING (AT THE STORE):
• Stick to the list.
• Shop the perimeter of the store to find the freshest, least
processed foods.
18 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
• If picking between two items, the one with fewer ingredients
is typically the better choice.
• Buying store brands can be a big money saver: same quality,
cheaper cost.
• Weigh the cost of convenience. Pre-cut veggies, pre-cooked
meats (i.e., grilled or rotisserie chicken), and hard-boiled eggs
simplify meal prep and make healthy eating more convenient.
• Prep meal ingredients all at once so they are ready to go for
quick cooking.
»» Wash, cut, and portion out produce for added convenience
when prepping dinner in a rush.
»» Marinate, grill, or bake any meat that could be reheated
during the week for quick meals.
• Prepare “grab-and-go” snacks for the week by filling snack or
sandwich-sized bags with fresh fruit, trail mix, veggies, etc. to
meet the needs of the week.
• Take preparation one step further, if time allows, and cook
meals for the whole week so they can be easily reheated.
»» Divide up meals into individual portions and place extras in
the freezer to save time in the future.
NAVIGATING THE GROCERY STORE
In order to make food choices for optimal performance athletes
need to know what to look for in each section of the grocery store.
The grocery store can be broken down into six major sections:
1. PRODUCE
The best bet in the produce department is to try to buy as many
different colors as possible. Fruits and veggies of different colors
provide different vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants; more colors
often translate to more nutrients. Pre-cut fruits and veggies are
a convenient alternative, but are typically more expensive. Try
to buy 2 – 3 different fruits and 2 – 3 different vegetables every
week, while keeping in mind that if it is going to go to waste, it
does no good. Look for fresh produce that is in season to save
money and add variety each week. Suggested produce to look
for throughout the year is outlined in Table 1. Frozen fruits and
vegetables are another great option as they likely will not spoil,
are ready to be cooked or thrown into a smoothie without added
preparation time, and they are always “in-season.”
2. MEAT
“Lean” is the keyword in the meat department. All fish, even
the fatty varieties (e.g., salmon and tuna) are favorable protein
choices. When it comes to poultry, chicken or turkey breast are the
leanest options. Choose dark meat cuts (e.g., legs, wings, thighs)
less often as they are higher in saturated fat. When buying ground
meats, go for at least 90/10 (i.e., 90% protein, 10% fat). With
larger cuts of beef or pork, look for less marbling. Marbling often
equates to fat. Typically anything that ends in “-loin” (e.g., sirloin,
tenderloin) is going to be a leaner cut. Avoid processed meats
such as full fat sausage, hot dogs, bratwurst, and boudin as often
as possible; turkey, center cut bacon, and low-fat pan sausage are
better choices.
3. DELI
The deli section of a grocery store provides great options for
convenience. Prepared guacamole and hummus are great sources
of healthy fat, and fresh salsas are a great way to add in some
extra color, and thus nutrients, to your meals. Rotisserie chickens
are a quick and easy source of protein that can be eaten as-is or
added to soups, casseroles, or salads. Deli meats such as turkey,
ham, and chicken are excellent sources of protein. Cheese can be a
lean source of protein when choosing low-fat varieties.
4. DAIRY
Dairy foods are a great source of lean protein; however, some
options may contain high amounts of saturated fat. The best
option is to make sure to choose 2% or low-fat products when it
comes to milk and yogurt. Greek yogurt is a great choice, often
providing three times the protein of regular yogurt. The butter
versus margarine debate is a popular one. Given the choice,
going for the product with fewer ingredients is typically the more
common option, but the decision will ultimately depend on dietary
goals. Eggs, also found in the dairy section, are a cheap and easily
cooked protein. They are a staple that should always be on hand.
Each egg provides 7 g of natural, highly bioavailable protein.
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 19
NSCA COACH 3.4
5. CENTER AISLES
• Grains and Breads: Because carbohydrates are the main
source of fuel in an athlete’s diet, it is important to stock
up on starches. For dietary goals that include fiber intake,
bread can be a good option. Look for bread with 3 g or more
of fiber per slice, granola bars with 2 g or more of fiber per
serving, and cereal with 5 g or more of fiber per serving.
Oatmeal, whole wheat or corn tortillas, brown rice, and wheat
pasta are also great sources of carbohydrates. Limit highly
processed carbohydrates (i.e., sugary cereals, prepackaged
muffins, chips, cookies, pastries, etc.) as they are often lower
in fiber and essential nutrients.
• Cooking Oils: Fat often gets a bad reputation, but it is a very
important piece to the nutrition puzzle. The bottom line is to
keep in mind that fats are high in calories and should be used
with body composition goals in mind. They can be a great
source of calories for weight gain and should be consumed in
moderation if trying to decrease body fat.
• Snacks: There are quite a few healthy and convenient snacks
that can be found in the center aisles. Trail mixes and nuts
provide healthy fat. Low-fat popcorn, whole grain crackers,
and pretzels are not only a source of carbohydrates, but are
high in sodium, a vital electrolyte for athletes. Tuna packets
and jerky are great for protein on the go. Fruit cups (in 100%
fruit juice), dried fruit, and granola bars provide quick-
digesting carbohydrates; they also make great snacks for
pre-practice or halftimes.
• Canned Goods: There are a few things worth picking up in
the canned goods section. First off, canned beans, which are
high in both fiber and protein, are great to keep in the pantry.
While canned vegetables may not contain as many nutrients
as fresh or frozen varieties, they do provide some. Canned
vegetables are often high in sodium, which is an important
nutrient for athletes and can be prepared very easily. Soups
are a great choice for convenient meals; stick with broth-
based options as opposed to creamy ones.
6. FROZEN FOODS
The frozen food section of the store can be a best friend or a
worst enemy. Plenty of great choices can be found here, such as
frozen chicken breasts, fish filets, veggies, fruits, thin crust pizzas,
whole grain waffles, and fruit-based desserts. These foods not
only provide quality nutrients, but they are convenient staples to
have on hand for quick and easy meal prep. Things to choose less
often include pot pies, frozen meals with cheesy or creamy sauces,
pizzas, dessert bars, French fries, breakfast tacos or sandwiches,
and frozen pastries and Danishes. These foods are often highly
processed, high in fat, and may be deficient in nutrients that
support athletic performance.
FUELING TO WIN—SMART SHOPPING STRATEGIES AND TIPS TO MAXIMIZE PERFORMANCE NSCA COACH 3.4

ORGANIC VS. CONVENTIONAL FOODS REFERENCES TABLE 1. SEASONAL PRODUCE GUIDE (3)
Per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) website, 1. Environmental Working Group. EWG’s 2016 Shopper’s Guide WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL
the term organic is, “a labeling term that indicates that the food or to Pesticides in Produce. Retrieved October 2016 from https://
Apples Apples Apples Apples
other agricultural product has been produced through approved www.ewg.org/foodnews/dirty_dozen_list.php.
methods. The organic standards describe the specific requirements Bananas Apricots Apricots Bananas
2. United States Department of Agriculture. Organic Standards.
that must be verified by a USDA-accredited certifying agent Beets Asparagus Bananas Beets
Retrieved October 2016 from https://www.ams.usda.gov/grades-
before products can be labeled USDA organic. Overall, organic Brussels Sprouts Bananas Beets Bell Peppers
standards/organic-standards.
operations must demonstrate that they are protecting natural
resources, conserving biodiversity, and using only approved 3. United States Department of Agriculture. Seasonal Produce Cabbage Broccoli Bell Peppers Broccoli
substances,” (2). Purchasing organic foods is a personal decision Guide. Retrieved October 2016 from https://snaped.fns.usda.gov/ Carrots Cabbage Blackberries Brussels Sprouts
based on various health concerns, or non-concerns in some cases, nutrition-through-seasons/seasonal-produce.
Celery Carrots Blueberries Cabbage
and may be a bit more costly. However, the annual list published
Grapefruit Celery Carrots Carrots
by the Environmental Working Group called the “Dirty Dozen” is
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Kale Collard Greens Cantaloupe Cauliflower
a widely accepted concept and good place to start if interested
Tara Boening is a Registered and Licensed Dietitian and a Board
in purchasing organic foods as the list orders foods based on the Leeks Garlic Celery Celery
Certified Specialist in Sports Dietetics. She holds a Bachelor’s
amount of potential pesticide residue (1).
degree in Nutritional Science and a Master’s degree in Kinesiology/ Lemons Greens (cooking) Cherries Collard Greens
Sport Management both from Texas A&M University. Boening has Onions Lettuce Collard Greens Cranberries
Investing a small amount of time into nutrition education and
been working in the field of sports nutrition for ten years and has
proper fueling for athletes can have a very large payoff. Grocery Oranges Mushrooms Corn Garlic
worked with athletes of all ages and abilities. She has spent time in
shopping and food preparation are key components of an athlete’s Parsnips Onions Cucumbers Ginger
both the Texas A&M University and University of Houston athletic
training that should be prioritized in order to optimize body
departments and is currently in her fourth season as the Sports Pears Peas Eggplant Grapes
composition and maximize performance. Instead of failing to plan,
Dietitian for the Houston Rockets National Basketball Association
plan to be successful. Pineapple Pineapple Garlic Greens (cooking)
(NBA) team. She is the owner of Eat To Win, a sports nutrition
private practice in the Houston area that caters to individual Potatoes Radishes Green Beans Green Beans
athletes and team sports organizations. Boening serves on both the Pumpkins Rhubarb Honeydew Melon Kale
Conference Planning and Research Committees for the Collegiate Rutabagas Spinach Kiwifruit Lettuce
and Professional Sports Dietitians Association.
Sweet Potatoes Strawberries Lima Beans Mangos
Turnips Swiss Chard Mangos Mushrooms
Winter Squash Turnips Nectarines Onions
Yams Okra Parsnips
Peaches Peas
Plums Pears
Raspberries Pineapple
Strawberries Potatoes
Summer Squash Pumpkins
Tomatillos Radishes
Tomatoes Raspberries
Watermelon Rutabagas
Zucchini Spinach
Sweet Potatoes
Swiss Chard
Turnips
Winter Squash
Yams

NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 21


ACUTE:CHRONIC WORKLOAD RATIO MONITORING FOR ATHLETE PERFORMANCE
COURTENEY BENJAMIN, MS, CSCS
INTRODUCTION
I
n the modern era of competitive sports, monitoring an athlete’s
workload on any given training day, week, month, and year
is becoming increasingly necessary to ensure the athlete’s
health. It is well understood that periodizing an athlete’s training
has several benefits, including peak performance and injury
prevention. Research has been published about the advantages
of monitoring an athlete’s training load to ensure monotony of
training never occurs (4,5,6,7,8). This is critical because monotony
of training load has been shown to increase the likelihood of non-
contact, soft-tissue injuries, such as lower limb injuries including
muscle strains, tears, and knee injuries (2,3,4,5,6,7,8). Optimal
training loads can prevent these types of injuries both from
overtraining and from undertraining. Many types of injuries have
been linked to a decrease in individual and team performance
when optimal training loads are not met (1,10,11).
There have been several proposed methods for monitoring
training loads, including using a rating of perceived exertion (RPE)
scale, as well as wearable technologies such as Global Positioning
System (GPS), accelerometers, and heart rate monitors. An
affordable and easy way to monitor athletes is by using a
subjective scale, which involves a coach asking each athlete how
difficult each training session or game was on a scale of 1 – 10,
following the session.
22 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
Recent literature has defined several terms that are important in
understanding the thought process of monitoring training loads
(5,8). Acute workload is the absolute workload performed in one
week; whereas chronic workload is the four-week average of the
acute workload (8). Previous research has analyzed these types
of workloads and used a calculation of acute workload divided
by chronic workload to determine the acute:chronic workload
ratio, also known as the training stress balance (5,8). This research
indicates that an athlete is progressing and is not at a high risk of
injury if the acute:chronic ratio is below 1.5 (8). An alternative way
to simplify the acute:chronic ratio is by thinking about the value 1.5
as the athlete performing to 150% of their normal level of training.
Consequently, an acute:chronic ratio of 0.8 means that the athlete
is performing at 80% of their normal level. The purpose of this
article is to provide strength and conditioning coaches and sport
coaches with a simple method of monitoring the training loads
of athletes that can be used to prevent overtraining and optimize
performance.
METHODS
Advanced monitoring tools combine GPS, accelerometer, and
heart rate monitors into one unit that can provide the coach with
data on the volume and intensity of a training session or game.
STATSports® is a popular wearable technology company whose
software was used to gather the data presented in this article. The
female soccer players wore a pod on their back in a pouch with a
separate heart rate strap. The strength and conditioning coach was
responsible for charging and providing the pods and heart rate
straps to players at every training session and game. This coach
was also responsible for downloading the data from these units to
the STATSports software on a computer where the analysis of the
data occurred.
To simplify the data analytics process, a metric for external load
and internal load can be monitored. External load describes work
that is performed within the session that can be quantified, such
as total distance covered, high metabolic load distance, and high
speed running (5). High metabolic load distance is the distance an
athlete covers in a high speed zone and number of accelerations/
decelerations performed during a session. High speed running is
the total distance that an athlete spends above a speed threshold
set by the coach. Internal load is the physiological response to the
external load (5). Examples of this type of load include RPE and
heart rate data.
FIGURE 1. OUTCOMES OF MONITORING ATHLETES
FIGURE 2. ACUTE:CHRONIC RATIO—CALCULATION OVER A SEASON
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 23
NSCA COACH 3.4
CALCULATIONS
The calculations that are performed for this model are simple
and are made for coaches of any level. To calculate a baseline,
the coach should collect the data they choose to use for 28 days.
An example of this data can be seen in Table 1. At the end of this
collection phase, the coach then takes the average from the last
seven days of this period and divides it by the 28-day average.
From this day forward, the rolling 7-day and 28-day average can
be used to monitor each training session and game. An example
of calculating the acute:chronic ratio from rolling averages can
be seen in Table 2. Figure 2 illustrates one athlete’s acute:chronic
ratio calculation throughout a season with regard to high speed
running. When the acute (red line) spikes higher than 150% of the
chronic (white line), coaches should consider transitioning from a
practice that is expected to contain ample opportunities for high
speed running to a session that requires less high speed running.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The acute:chronic ratio calculation has been shown to be an
effective way to monitor athletes for peak performance and injury
prevention (3,4,5,6,7,8). As a coach becomes familiar with the
data, he or she can begin to make training decisions based on
objective data, rather than coach’s intuition alone. For example, if
a coach calculated the acute:chronic ratio for an individual athlete
to be greater than 1.5, he or she may choose to have the athlete sit
out or participate in a lighter practice the next day.
A similar thought process can also be applied to help athletes
peak for certain performances at the right time. For example, a
coach can periodize training leading up to games by gradually
decreasing the training workload as game day approaches.
Additionally, coaches can use this method to increase the athlete’s
fitness levels by gradually increasing training loads, without going
over the acute:chronic ratio of 1.5. In an ideal scenario, coaches
would be able to calculate the acute:chronic ratio for an internal
load and an external load and have various training goals for each
ACUTE:CHRONIC WORKLOAD RATIO MONITORING FOR ATHLETE PERFORMANCE NSCA COACH 3.4

day. A coach could decide to have a high external load and a 5. Gabbett, TJ. The training-injury prevention paradox: Should TABLE 1. HIGH METABOLIC LOAD DISTANCE FOR 28 DAYS
high internal load three days before a game but would like a low athletes be training smarter and harder? British Journal of Sports DAY WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 4
external load and medium internal load the day before a game. Medicine 50(5): 273-280, 2016.
1 210 0 0 0
With all of this being said, this process absolutely should not 6. Gabbett, TJ, and Ullah, S. Relationship between running
take away from a coach’s intuition of what is right or wrong for 2 0 382 0 0
loads and soft-tissue injury in elite team sport athletes. Journal of
their athletes. With emerging research and technology at hand, 3 322 24 247 215
Strength and Conditioning Research 26(4): 953-960, 2012.
this process should simply be another tool for coaches to use to
improve their coaching abilities. 7. Hulin, BT, Gabbett, TJ, Blanch, P, Chapman, P, Bailey, D, 4 117 34 37 3
and Orchard, JW. Spikes in acute workload are associated with 5 137 354 510 534
CONCLUSION increased injury risk in elite cricket fast bowlers. British Journal of
6 0 0 0 0
Analyzing the acute:chronic ratio allows one to optimize training Sports Medicine 38: 708-712, 2014.
for the athlete and to continue in advancing fitness goals 7 418 226 274 0
8. Hulin, BT, Gabbett, TJ, Lawson, DW, Caputi, P, and Sampson,
without overtraining. High chronic workloads have been shown JA. The acute:chronic workload ratio predicts injury: High chronic 7-day average of week 4 = 107
to be associated with a reduced risk of non-contact, soft tissue workload may decrease injury risk in elite rugby league players. 28-day average of weeks 1 – 4 = 144
injuries, while large spikes in acute training loads have been British Journal of Sports Medicine, 2015. Acute:chronic workload ratio = 7-day average/28-day average
associated with an increased risk of these types of injury (7). It Acute:chronic workload ratio = 107/144 = 0.74
9. Johnston, RJ, Watsford, ML, Austin, DJ, Pine, MJ, and Spurrs,
is the coach’s responsibility to ensure that training goals are set
RW. An examination of the relationship between movement
and accomplished.
demands and rating of perceived exertion in Australian TABLE 2. HIGH METABOLIC LOAD DISTANCE FOR NEXT 7 DAYS
footballers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Coaches can use the aforementioned monitoring tools to prescribe TRAINING STRESS
29(7): 2026-2033, 2015. WEEK 5 7-DAY AVERAGE 28-DAY AVERAGE CALCULATION
optimal loads in their training programs. They can also use this BALANCE
method to make decisions on how to treat individual athletes 10. Raysmith, B, and Drew, MK. Performance success or failure 229 140 145 140/145 0.97
following a training session or game. This knowledge and process is influenced by weeks lost to injury and illness in elite Australian
track and field athletes: A 5-year prospective study. Journal of 187 167 152 167/152 1.10
of monitoring athletes on an individualized level could help
athletes reach goals faster while reducing the likelihood of injury. Science and Medicine in Sport 19(10): 778-783, 2016. 63 145 143 145/143 1.01
11. Williams, S, Trewartha, G, Kemp, S, Brooks, J, Fuller, C, Taylor, 475 213 155 213/155 1.37
It is important for a coach at any level to remember that despite A, et al. Time loss injuries compromise team success in Elite 0 136 150 136/150 0.91
the data collection method they choose to use, the key for this Rugby Union: A 7-year prospective study. British Journal of Sports
process to be successful is consistent data collection. Just like an Medicine 2015. 146 157 156 157/156 1.01
athlete, the more a coach practices this technique, the easier it 333 172 166 172/166 1.04
will become and the better it will be for the team. The technique
discussed in this article can be an effective and simple way for ABOUT THE AUTHOR
coaches to determine the best course of action when it comes to Courteney Benjamin received an undergraduate degree from the
planning training sessions properly for the athlete and team to University of West Florida in Exercise Science with a Minor in Sport
be successful. and Exercise Psychology. She also was part of the women’s soccer
team the four seasons she attended the University of West Florida.
Recently, she completed her Master’s degree in Sports Sciences
REFERENCES
from Florida State University, while working with the women’s
1. Aughey, RJ, Elias, GP, Esmaeili, A, Lazarus, B, and Stewart,
soccer, cheer, and dance teams. Benjamin is also a Certified
AM. Does the recent internal load and strain on players affect
Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through the National
match outcome in elite Australian football? Journal of Science and
Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).
Medicine in Sport 19(2): 182-186, 2016.
2. Brink, MS, Visscher, C, Arends, S, Zwerver, J, Post, WJ, and
Lemmink, KA. Monitoring stress and recovery: new insights for the
prevention of injuries and illnesses in elite youth soccer players.
British Journal of Sports Medicine 44(11): 809-815, 2010.
3. Colby, MJ, Dawson, B, Heasman, J, Rogalski, B, and Gabbett,
TJ. Accelerometer and GPS-derived running loads and injury risk
in elite Australian footballers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 28(8): 2244-2252, 2014.
4. Cross, M, Williams, S, Trewartha, G, Kemp, S, and Stokes,
K. The influence of in-season training loads on injury risk
in professional rugby union. International Journal of Sports
Physiology and Performance 11(3): 350-355, 2015.

24 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 25


THE BILATERAL DEFICIT—PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATIONS AND SOLVENTS
MAX BARNHART, CSCS, AND JOHN MCNAMARA, PHD, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, USAW
A
thletes can improve strength by understanding what
the bilateral deficit is and how it works. The bilateral
deficit pertains to anomalies in force production between
bilateral and unilateral contractions. The precursory statement
refers specifically to the fact that when two limbs exert force in
tandem, the force per limb is substantially lower compared to
force production in a unilateral capacity (1). While the definition of
a bilateral deficit is clear, there are multiple theories concerning its
cause. The purpose of this article is to examine current research to
see if bilateral deficits can be attenuated and eventually overcome.
Regarding practical application, it is this article’s intention to
suggest reliable methods to enhance bilateral force development
performance, specifically using the dumbbell bench press.
Current literature lacks a universally accepted clarification of the
deficit’s origin, and reliable solvents (1,2,3). This is a concept that
is a significant point of interest in the field of exercise science and
applied strength and conditioning due in part to the elusive nature
of the deficit’s stimulus. Nevertheless, it is commonly concluded
that the bilateral deficit might be triggered by a decrease in neural
activation; specifically, an inhibition of motor unit recruitment (2).
Consequently, the sum of unilateral force production is greater
than bilateral force production, leading to what we now know as
the bilateral deficit (3).
Many prominent figures in the field, such as Yuri Verkhoshansky
and Mel Siff, have cited bilateral contractions as the preeminent
method by which one can reduce this disparity (4). Reductions
26 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
in force production in bilateral conditions, in combination with
subdued electromyography (EMG), indicate diminished prime
mover activity (4). Some, such as the above standouts, view
this as a conspicuous recommendation for bilateral training
to attenuate the deficit (4). Specificity of movement pattern
promotes the preceding, stating that contrasts in movement
patterns facilitate varying effects. While squatting with a barbell
augments one’s maximal strength in that very same movement,
isometric strength accruals in a seated leg press would be
trivial (4). This same concept is supported further by the fact
that “increased performance is primarily a result of improved
neuromuscular skill and that increased strength is apparent
only when measured during the same type of movement used
in training,” (4).
Although different patterns of movement may produce different
results, the type of contraction being trained plays a major role
in the transference of training effects. Specificity of the type of
muscle contraction states that, accessions in strength are due
in large part to the variant of muscle contraction administered;
movement patterns executed in a concentric-eccentric manner
will likely not induce substantial isometric strength improvements
(4). Therefore, as long as concentric-eccentric training is used
in both dependent and independent variables, a reasonable
transference of training effect can be expected irrespective of the
utilized movement.
Therefore, if the type of muscle contraction—rather than the
movement itself—is the more significant variable of the two,
then it is possible that contractions other than bilateral ones can
placate the bilateral deficit. The aforementioned EMG activity
results of various studies, cited by Siff and Verkhoshansky,
suggest that there is a decrease in neural activation during
bilateral contractions, and a symbiotic inhibition of motor units
(4). Consequently, it may be necessary to find means other
than bilateral movement patterns to reduce this deficit (4).
Considering the implication that bilateral contractions are limited
in their ability to stimulate adaptation in particular motor units
due to neural deactivation, unilateral force production may be a
potent substitute for regulating force abnormalities. Unilateral
contractions are inherently higher in force production and allow
for stimulation and adaptation of a wider range of motor units.
Further dissection of unilateral training reveals additional
benefits in the way of cross-education. Exercising the functioning
limb ignites strength accruals in the untrained extremity (3).
The antecedent information has potent implications in the
training of those facing injury, or disability, along with support of
unilateral training in the case of the bilateral deficit. Humans are
axiomatically asymmetrical and will likely favor their dominant
limb while performing a bench press. Unilateral training not only
strengthens the corresponding limb, but the opposing one as
well, consequently diminishing limb-dominance. It is plausible
that the ramifications of cross-education are significant in the
reduction of force-production discrepancies. The most applicable
unilateral movement pattern may be difficult to identify;
however, there are a host of options to choose from. Alternating
dumbbell bench press, where one arm remains fixed at extension
while the other flexes and then extends for the completion of a
repetition, is a popular unilateral movement option. Additionally,
the bottoms-up alternating dumbbell bench press, where one
dumbbell remains on the chest as the other is pressed up and
then back down to the chest, or one-arm dumbbell bench press,
may be other plausible options.
In dealing with a deficit among bilateral contractions, motor unit
inhibition is an important factor to recognize. Taking this into
consideration, maximal strength training is a plausible solution.
Maximal effort training is praised for its neurological effects,
lending it to be the transcendent method to stimulate motor
units (4). Throughout the collegiate realm and beyond, horizontal
pressing is typically done in a maximal effort fashion (4). Maximal
effort training is an effective means by which intermuscular and
intramuscular coordination can be improved. Improvement in
intramuscular coordination can bolster performance (4). Reduced
central nervous system inhibition can also improve performance
through maximal effort training (1).
Support for exercising maximal intensities in training is furthered
by the wide array of effects such percentages have, specifically
on motor units. Maximal intensities induce activation of the
most substantial amount of motor units possible, resulting in
the recruitment of the fastest of these motor units (MUs) (1).
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 27
NSCA COACH 3.4
Maximal lifts can help an athlete recruit motor units and improve
performance via fused tetanus (1). Maximal lifts also overcome
inhibition and can result in improvements in strength, power, and
overall performance (5).
Maximal intensities also take advantage of the size principle. The
size principle states that motor units are recruited from smallest to
largest, a process predicated on the force demands of an activity.
Small motor units with low activation thresholds are recruited first,
with subsequent recruitment of motor units with progressively
higher thresholds based on the increasing demand of the activity
(6). Even in the face of maximal intensities, small motor units
are recruited initially, as recruitment continually moves up in
threshold until enough motor units are recruited to produce the
needed force. If only low resistances are applied within the 12 – 15
repetition maximum (12 – 15RM) range, then only low-activation
threshold motor units consisting primarily of type I fibers receive
conditioning. Consequently, to bolster strength increases, maximal
intensities must be instituted for the adaptation of high-threshold
motor units to occur (6).
The amalgamation of unilateral movement patterns and
maximal intensities may form a potent formula to mitigate
the deficit. The coalescence of these two variables creates an
intrinsic environment where force production is comparatively
at its highest, inhibition is decreased, and adaptation takes
place over a wider and more meaningful pool of motor units.
Nevertheless, there are still other aspects to consider, as training
is a consolidation of numerous factors. Of the myriad of training
facets, second to none is accommodation. Paramount to the
success of any program is the institution of a multitude of
repetitions, most importantly as a preemptive strike against
accommodation’s onset. If qualitative and quantitative facets of
a program remain the same, progress will be, at the very least,
stunted, if not exposing the athlete to performance decrements
(1). In keeping with this concept, it is important to comprehend
the objective of different repetition ranges in order to place a
reasonable expectation on training outcomes. In order to improve
intermuscular and intramuscular coordination, repetitions should
be kept within the one to three range (1). If hypertrophy is the
intent, then repetitions can increase above three (1).
While maximal intensities serve an invaluable purpose, success
in reducing the bilateral deficit may also very well rely upon the
implementation of the repeated effort method. The addition
of this method will not only alter quantitative measures for the
sake of avoiding accommodation, but also promote mitigation of
neural activation issues. The repeated effort method is defined as,
“lifting a nonmaximal load to failure, with the muscles developing
the maximum force possible in a fatigued state during the final
repetitions,” (1). The repeated effort method is characterized
by muscular failure. The last repetition of a set must meet one’s
genuine exhaustion, at which he or she is incapable of performing
another repetition. These very last repetitions require a maximal
number of MUs to be recruited, further mollifying the disparity in
force production due to the interdependent relationship between
THE BILATERAL DEFICIT—PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATIONS AND SOLVENTS
neural activation and motor unit recruitment. Without mechanical
failure, a subpopulation of MUs would be left untrained and
neural deactivation would remain (1). Additionally, this approach
can improve hypertrophy and muscle metabolism (1). Increased
hypertrophy may improve performance as long as flexibility and
the power to bodyweight ratio are maintained (3).
While the above points illuminate conceivable solvents to the
deficit, a deeper level of comprehension of this physiological
occurrence can be gained through analysis of speed, force,
and their relation to jumping. The vertical leap has long been a
dominant means of testing power throughout the strength and
conditioning field and is indeed in a classification far different
than an upper body horizontal pressing pattern. Nevertheless, the
succeeding points elucidated by studies involving the bilateral
deficit in jumping shed light on factors that are perhaps overlooked
in previous examinations of force deficits in horizontal pressing.
In light of studies regarding jumping deficits, there are findings
that help further explain and reinforce key facilitators of the
bilateral deficit in upper body horizontal pressing. In a jumping
study, it has been shown that jumping with one leg produces more
force than with both legs together (2). It was suggested that this
may be because of the way humans naturally move and walk (2).
Challis references human locomotion as a plausible culprit for the
deficit, as it is inherently unilateral (2). Fighting movements such
as punching, kicking, and pushing, along with running mechanics
like arm swing, push-off, deceleration, and acceleration are all
innate unilateral movements. These primitive human movement
examples provide evidence that humankind is hardwired to move
unilaterally. Is this the ultimate reason why humans have a deficit
in force production during bilateral movements?
Despite a multitude of findings deducing that the bilateral deficit’s
primary cause is a reduction in neural drive, there remain jump
studies laying claim to opposing arguments. Work per leg was
found to be comparatively more substantial in a one-leg jump than
a two-leg vertical leap, and was attributed to variables other than
hampered neural drive (2). Researchers noted during a two-leg
jump that the right leg produced roughly 75% of the joint work
that it did in the one-legged jump due to insufficiencies in joint
moments (2). Moreover, deficits in work per leg during the two-leg
jump may be the result of distinctions in contraction between
unilateral and bilateral jumps. During a bilateral leap, muscles
produce greater velocity; consequently, they produce less force.
Simply put, the force-velocity relationship was responsible for
the deficit (2). This may have serious implications in pressing. Do
muscles travel their range of shortening faster during bilateral
pressing than unilateral pressing? If so, then this could entirely
change the way strength and conditioning professionals go about
training the bench press.
28 NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM
Furthermore, peak vertical ground force in the bilateral jump was
higher for the right leg, suggesting limb dominance (2). Extremity-
dominance plays an important part in strength output. If pressing
bilaterally consistently, one side is preferred, and subsequently
fortified. The precursory statement only furthers unilateral force
production’s possible influence on deficit reduction; unilateral
training should elevate the weaker limb to within range of strength
equivalent to that of the stronger limb, lending significant credit to
cross-education.
The extent of the decrease in neural drive to relevant muscles
during bilateral contractions is respective to the movement (2,4).
Although considered to play a minimal role by some in jumping,
reductions in neural drive are thought to play a vital role in
other bilateral contraction movement patterns (2,4). However,
other factors that play a role in the bilateral deficit in jumping
should be evaluated further for their plausible role in facilitating
reduction of bilateral deficits in horizontal upper body pressing,
the speed at which muscles travel their range of shortening, and
total joint work. In regards to practical application, unilateral force
production, in combination with maximal effort and repeated
effort training, may effectively attenuate the bilateral deficit.
By adhering to the basic principles of training, including
progressive overload, periodization, and a safe lifting
environment, the bilateral deficit can be improved by the
amalgamation of unilateral force production, maximal effort,
and repeated effort training (3). Quantitatively speaking,
implementing sets of one, two, and three repetitions of 100%,
95%, and 93% of 1RM respectively will ensure one is exercising
at intensities appropriate for maximal effort training. For the
purposes of hypertrophy, administer repetitions of 6 – 12 of one’s
1RM, and each set should be done in a repeated effort fashion
(3). Variance in repetition ranges will decrease the likelihood
of accommodation from occurring. With respect to qualitative
concerns, institute the above protocols in concurrence with the
alternating dumbbell bench, bottoms-up alternating dumbbell
bench, or one-arm dumbbell press.
REFERENCES
1. Zatsiorsky, VM. Science and Practice of Strength Training.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 60-107, 1995.
2. Bobbert, F, de Graaf, WW, Jonk, JN, and Casius, RL.
Explanation of the bilateral deficit in human vertical squat
jumping. Journal of Applied Physiology 100(2): 493-499, 2006.
3. Baechle, TR, and Earle, RW. Essentials of Strength Training
and Conditioning (3rd ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 99-415,
2008.
4. Verkhoshanksy, Y, and Siff, M. Supertraining (6th ed.) Ultimate
Athlete Concepts; 1-34, 2009.
5. Lin, J, and Chen, T. Diversity of strength training methods: A
theoretical approach. Strength and Conditioning Journal 34(2):
42-49, 2012.
6. Brown, LE. Strength Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;
19-20, 2007.
NSCA COACH 3.4 | NSCA.COM 29
NSCA COACH 3.4
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Max Barnhart served as a strength and conditioning coach for
six years at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Division-I level prior to his recent shift to personal training at
Harbor Fitness in Brooklyn, NY. He received his Bachelor’s degree
from St. Francis College. He is currently a Certified Strength and
Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA).
John McNamara is a Professor at St. Francis College in Brooklyn, NY.
He received his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees at the University
of Alberta in Canada, and his Doctorate in Kinesiology from Temple
University in Philadelphia, PA. He is currently a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist® with Distinction (CSCS,*D®) and NSCA-
Certified Personal Trainer® with Distinction (NSCA-CPT,*D®) from
the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). He
is also a Certified Sport Performance Coach with United States of
America Weightlifting (USAW), and a Certified Physical Best Health
Fitness Specialist with the National Association for Sport and
Physical Education. His research focus is training theory, flexible
nonlinear periodization, nutrition, and exercise program creation.
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