Figure 1.5 SEM-pictures of particles in the flue gas of an automatic wood combustion system.

Left is the
combustion of wood resulting in submicron particles. Right is the combustion of herbage grass
resulting in larger particles at higher mass concentrations [Kaufmann et al. 2000].

Figure 1.6 TEM-pictures of soot agglomerates (left) and tar droplets (right) from the flue gas of a poorly ope-
rated wood stove. Scale of white line in the left picture: 100 nm, right: 500 nm. Pictures from Heu-
berger, EMPA Dübendorf, published in [Klippel & Nussbaumer 2007 b].

12
1.2.3 Contribution to global warming

Beside CO2 and other tracer gases, aerosols have a significant impact on the energy balance of the
earth by direct effects on the radiative forcing and through different indirect effects. Figure 1.7 shows
the global warming potential (GWP) and Figure 1.8 the global temperature change potential (GTP),
the latter being more important but also more uncertain. Figure 1.9 and Figure 1.10 illustrate the total
effect as reported by [IPCC 2007]. For aerosols from biomass combustion, the following effects need
to be considered:

• Black carbon (BC) in the atmosphere, which results from soot from fossil fuel combustion and from
biomass combustion, strongly absorbs sunlight and has a strong direct warming effect. In addition,
BC deposited on ice and snow enhances the melting and changes the albedo of the earth surface
with an additional indirect warming effect called snow albedo effect. [IPCC 2007] accounts the
GWP of soot to be 460-times the one of CO2 for 100 years or 1006 times for 20 years. [Bond
2007] estimates BC to have a GWP of 500 to 700 times the one of CO2 for 100 years, and 2000
times for 20 years, and that indirect effects significantly increase the relevance of BC.

• Sulfates change the albedo by reflecting sunlight and directly cool the earth surface.

• Organic carbon exhibits a direct effect of net cooling according to [IPCC 2007], which is approx.
50% of the net warming effect of BC. [Bond 2007] assesses organic carbon having a slight cooling
or slight warming effect, hence the net effect seems uncertain.

• The major effect of aerosols is contributed to global dimming. Global dimming results from a direct
reduction of the solar radiation to the earth and an increased reflection by clouds. Due to aerosols
acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CNN), more clouds are formed existing of smaller droplets
and with increased lifetime in the atmosphere resulting in the cloud albedo effect und the cloud
lifetime effect.

Due to the different direct and indirect effects of the different particle types, and due to the variation of
the particle types depending on the combustion regime, the net effect of biomass burning on the
climate change is uncertain. However, the reduction of BC is essential to reduce health effects and
direct global warming, while COC are strongly health relevant with a minor effect on climate and con-
sequently need to be reduced with high priority too.

13
Figure 1.7 Global Warming Potential (GWP) [IPCC 2007].

Figure 1.8 Global Temperature Change Potentials (GTP) [ICCT 2009].

Figure 1.9 Warming and cooling of different components [IPCC 2007 (4. Report)].

14