SEDIMENTATION RATE ON THE LOCAL FISHERIES AND

LIVELIHOOD IN THE COASTAL AND REEF AREAS IN GUIUAN,

EASTERN SAMAR, PHILIPPINES

JOHN PAUL E. PAA

A Master’s Thesis Presented

to the Graduate Faculty of the
University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of
Master of Science in Environmental Science

JANUARY 2022
 Table of Contents
1.1. Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................4
1.2. Objectives.......................................................................................................................5
1.3. Significance of the Study..............................................................................................5
1.4. Delimitation of the Study..............................................................................................6
1.5. Conceptual Framework................................................................................................6
2.2. Mining in the Philippines.............................................................................................8
2.3. Mining in Guiuan, Eastern Samar..............................................................................8
2.4. Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape...................................9
2.5. Sediments on Coral Reefs and Associated Marine Organisms.................................9
2.6. Sediment Traps...........................................................................................................11
2.7. Knowledge, Attitude, and Perception Research on Mining and.............................14
the Local Community............................................................................................................14
3.1. Study site......................................................................................................................15
3.2. Sediment Trap Design................................................................................................16
3.3. Sediment Rate Analysis and Particle Size.................................................................17
3.4. Assessment of Coral Community and Reef-Associated Organisms.......................18
3.4.1. Coral Reef Survey..........................................................................................................18
3.4.2. Fish Community Survey................................................................................................23
3.4.3. Macro-invertebrate Community Survey......................................................................24
3.5. Statistical Analysis......................................................................................................25
 List of Tables

Table 1. Sediment trap sizes and timeline of various studies.........................................................13

Table 2. Particle Size Classifications based on Udden-Wentworth Scale......................................18
Table 3. List of Taxonomic Amalgamation Units (TAUs) by Licuanan et al. 2017......................19
Table 4. Other Benthic Substrate Categories by English et al. 1997.............................................20
Table 5. Coral Index developed by Licuanan et al. (2017).............................................................20
Table 6. Coral generic diversity developed by Licuanan et al. (2019)...........................................20
Table 7. Scale used for the Coral Index Scores...............................................................................22
Table 8. Categories of Sites According to Fish Diversity and Abundance....................................23
Table 9. Categories of Sites According to Fish Density..................................................................24
Table 10. Categories of Sites According to Fish Biomass...............................................................24
Table 11. Fish trophic level classification........................................................................................24

List of Figures

Figure 1. Research paradigm illustrating the conceptual framework.............................................7

Figure 2. Map showing the proposed study site in Manicani and Homonhon Islands, Guiuan,
Eastern Samar. Image source: Google Earth Pro, 2022.................................................................15
Figure 3. Proposed sediment trap design using modified Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes.........16
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of the Problem

A variety of natural resources can be acquired through mining. However,

environmental scientists argue that mining activities brought substantial changes in the water,

soil, surrounding natural habitats, and health issues for the residents in the area (Jiang et al.,

2021).

The Philippine Mining Sector contributed a total of Php 126.4 billion to the country’s

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2021. In Eastern Visayas (Region VIII), a gross output

amounting to Php 349,619,079.19 was contributed to the mining industry’s total GDP.

Mining products in Region VIII are SAG, Chromite concentrate, Nickel Ore, and Iron

concentrate. 

Focusing on Nickel Ore, the country has a total Nickel Ore production volume of

386,359 metric tons with an estimated production value of Php 56.2 million. Despite the high

projected values in the Philippine mining industry, it contributed only 0.65% to the national

GDP compared to other sectors. The mining industry's contribution to GDP fails to reach

even 1% in the last ten years. Furthermore, the mining contribution to employment lies

between 0.4% to 0.5% of the country's total employment in the last ten years. A total of 1,281

jobs were generated from mining industries in Eastern Visayas, and 621 were from

Homonhon Island, Eastern Samar.

In the case of Homonhon Island, fisherfolks are complaining about the discoloration of

the sea due to mine tailings coming from one of the mining sites on the island, particularly in

Brgy. Cagusu-an (Kurita, 2016). In this connection, this study generally aims to determine
sedimentation rate and identifying the possible impacts on the local fisheries and livelihood

in the coastal and reef areas within the mining sites in Homonhon and Manicani Islands,

Guiuan, Eastern Samar.

1.2. Objectives

With a myriad of factors affecting the coastal and reef ecosystems’ delivery of their

services, this study aims to assess the potential impact of sedimentation, a coastal process, on

catch fisheries and livelihood of local coastal communities in Homonhon and Manicani

Islands, Guiuan, Eastern Samar. Specifically, this aims:

1. To measure the sedimentation rate especially in coastal areas where sufficient run-offs

from the highlands are evident;

2. To assess the physico-chemical and biological conditions of the coastal and coral reef

ecosystems in the islands of Homonhon and Manicani, Eastern Samar;

3. To measure catch per unit effort of the local fisherfolks; and

4. To determine the community’s level of knowledge, attitude, and perception about

environmental issues affecting their fish catch and livelihood.

1.3. Significance of the Study

The increasing anthropogenic activities on Guiuan coasts should be positively

addressed in order to protect and conserve the coastal and marine ecosystem. The

determination of the sedimentation rate in coastal and marine ecosystems, especially those

adjacent to mining sites may contribute to the few studies on this topic particularly in Eastern

Visayas. This study will focus on the sedimentation rate and its impact on the corals and

associated reef organisms as well as its impact on the livelihood of the local community.
 The Knowledge, Attitude, and Perception survey will determine the socio-

demographic profile of residents who have the knowledge and behavioral intentions to

promote a sustainable mining, forest restoration, and bioremediation which in turn may aid in

identifying target groups on Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaigns in

terms of mining.

1.4. Delimitation of the Study

The study will focus only on sedimentation rate and some relevant physico-chemical

parameters, such as turbidity, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and temperature, among others.

The study will not perform other water quality examinations such as the concentration of

heavy metals on surrounding seawaters of Manicani and Homonhon Islands.

The data generated by the study will serve as a baseline information since there is no

data regarding the impact of sediments caused by mining to the coastal and marine resources

as well as on the livelihood of the local residents of Homonhon and Manicani Islands.

Moreover, due to the limited time of study, sediment traps will be deployed for one

month only. Respondents for KAP survey will be limited to 10% of the total households

inhabiting each island.

1.5. Conceptual Framework

Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape (GMRPLS) was declared as

protected area through the Presidential Proclamation No. 469, s. 1994. Despite being

categorized as protected area, anthropogenic activities such as mining is still allowed. Figure

1 below shows the paradigm of the proposed study.

 Mining can have serious environmental consequences, such as air pollution, water

pollution, and habitat destruction. These consequences are often more severe in developing

countries, where environmental regulations are often weaker and less capable of being

enforced. Mining can have social consequences in addition to environmental consequences,

such as community displacement, worker safety, and worker exploitation (Jiang et al., 2021;

Cui et al., 2004; Li et al., 2014).

Figure 1. Research paradigm illustrating the conceptual framework

 Understanding the communities’ willingness to participate in positive mining and forest

restoration would lead to successful restoration projects (Obeng et al., 2019; Nelson et al.,

2020). Off mining season during heavy rainy season is suggested as mine tailings is often to

happen during this time as described by Holden (2015). Shift in tourism is also possible as an

alternative source of income during the off mining season (Ibrahim et al., 2022).

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.2. Mining in the Philippines

The Philippines has a total land area of 30 million hectares and has about 9 million

hectares of high mineral potential. According to the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources-Mines and Geosciences Bureau (DENR-MGB), mining tenements covered a total

of 763,377.86 hectares or 2.54% of the country’s total land area as of June 2022.

DENR-MGB also listed the Mineral Resources Development Projects in the country as

having 55 Metallic Mines, 60 Non-Metallic Mines, 7 Processing Plants, 4,416 LGU Issued

Permits, and 49 Declared Minahang Bayan. In Eastern Visayas, the agency approved 4

Operating Metallic Mining Projects.

2.3. Mining in Guiuan, Eastern Samar

Four (4) mining corporations are currently operating in the small islands of Guiuan,

Three (3) companies operate in Homonhon island (Nickelace Inc., Chromiteking Inc., and

Mt. Sinai Mining Exploration and Development Corporation) and one (1) company in

Manincani island (Hinatuan Mining Corporation).

 Hinatuan Mining Corporation (HMC) recently granted permission by the DENR to

reoperate on Manicani Island after a 15-year ban. HMC extracts and transport Nickel from

Guiuan to China (DENR-MGB; ejatlas.org).

Opposition arose from several environmental groups against the renewal of HMC.

However, the majority of the locals support continuing the operation for another 25 years. It

was known that HMC banned operation last 2002 but the hauling of nickel ore stockpiles

continued since then.

2.4. Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape

A Presidential Proclamation No. 469, s. 1994 declared the coastal areas of the

Municipality of Guiuan, Province of Eastern Samar, and neighboring islands, as protected

landscapes and seascapes containing an approximate area of 66,725.26 hectares. The area

shall be known as Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape (GMRPLS)

under the Expanded National Integrated Protected Areas System (E-NIPAS) Act of 2018.

The protected area will be managed by the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources in coordination with the Local Government Units (LGU), both Municipal and

Barangay levels, forming part of the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB).

GMRPLS is known for its diverse and abundant terrestrial and marine resources which

are utilized by residents, the academe, and tourists. However, most research published

focuses on marine plants and algae (Peja et al., 2018; Corales-Ultra et al., 2019), mangrove

communities along the coastline of Eastern Samar (Mendoza and Alura, 2001; Alura and

Alura, 2016), and assessment of household resiliency (Hilvano et al., 2016) after Typhoon

Haiyan (local name Yolanda) which devastated the island in the year 2013 (Lin et al., 2014;

Takagi and Esteban, 2016).

 A study conducted by Corales-Ultra et al., 2019 focused on the levels of heavy metals

in seawater and macroalgae adjacent to the “formerly” abandoned mine on Manicani Island.

Hence, this paper plans to determine the sedimentation rate and its effect on the local

community and the adjacent coastal and marine resources in the two mining sites in Guiuan

specifically, Homonhon and Manicani Islands.

2.5. Sediments on Coral Reefs and Associated Marine Organisms

Marine sediments are materials that are deposited on the ocean floor by various

processes, including the settling of particles from the water column and the erosion of land-

based materials. These sediments can consist of a wide range of materials, including sand,

silt, clay, and organic matter (Burdige, 2006).

Marine sediments can have an impact on corals and their associated marine organisms,

both positive and negative. Sediments can provide nutrients that can support the growth of

coral reefs and the organisms that live on them. However, excess sediments can also cause

problems. When there is too much sediment in the water, it can reduce the amount of light

that reaches the coral, which can affect its growth and its survival. In addition, excess

sediment can smother corals, causing them to die (Fabricius, 2005; Wolanski et al., 2005;

Erftemeijer et al., 2012; Goatley and Bellwood, 2013.

Moreover, sedimentation is one of the major controlling factors in the distribution of

reef organisms and overall reef development. The potential effects of sedimentation include

mortality, lower calcification rates, reduced productivity, susceptibility to diseases, and

bleaching (Hubbard, 1986; McLaughlin et al., 2003). Several studies claim that sedimentation

inhibits the settlement and survival of coral larvae. Laboratory experiments conducted by

Perez III et al. (2014), Goatley & Bellwood (2013), and Ricardo et al. (2017) showed that as

sediment increases, coral recruitment decreases. Perez III et al. (2014) observed that "tracts"
were made on the sediment film by larvae seeking for suitable settlement substrate. In

another experiment, Duckworth et al. (2017) discovered that live corals can effectively reject

sediment deposition accumulated on them through their coral polyps with the help of

seawater currents. Stewart et al. (2006) also stated that corals that have symbiotic crabs with

them can remove sediment as well and increases their survival rate.

Other marine invertebrates, aside from coral species, are vulnerable to a variety of

stressors (Albright and Langdon, 2011), particularly during their early life stages when they

have low sediment thresholds (Fabricius et al., 2003; Humanes et al., 2017; Ricardo et al.,

2017). Hawkins et al. (2008) found that with a decrease in coral cover, the biomass of the

associated marine organisms also decreases attributed to sedimentation. Also, Bell et al.

(2015) summarized six effects of sedimentation on marine sponges that included (1) clogging

of filtering and pumping apparatus which affected respiration; (2) reduction in feeding

capacity followed by sediment burial; (3) decreased in reproductive spermatocytes and

oocytes counts; (4) reduced growth due to energy expenditure on sediment removal

mechanism; (5) cyanobacterial loss in buried tissues; and (6) decreased survival of larvae

growth potential. Moreover, some sponges tend to form associations with other organisms as

a way of adapting to high sediment and turbid areas. This is particularly in Mycale

adhaerens, commonly known as smooth scallop sponge, and Myxilla incustans, commonly

known as rough scallop sponge which both grow on the valves of scallops (Bell et al., 2015;

Burns and Brigham, 2002).

2.6. Sediment Traps

The fundamental properties of sediments include grain size and distribution (Blott and

Pye, 2012). Sediments are classified by origin, these are; 1. Lithogenous which came from

land sources formed by the process of weathering; 2. Biogenous or the remnants from
calcareous organisms; 3. Hydrogenous which came from chemical reactions of minerals from

the ocean floor; 4. Cosmogenous that are extra-terrestrial (Smith, 2011).

Moreover, the sedimentation rate is being measured and studied to determine its effect

on the benthic composition as well as the productivity of the associated marine organisms.

Several laboratory experiments were done to come up with an ideal basic design for sediment

traps. Lorenzen et al. (1981) and Gardner (1997) suggested that sediment traps should have a

minimum aperture-length ratio of 1:3 in order to prevent resuspension and eventual loss of

materials from the trap. Abdullah et al. (2011) also recommended that a trap should have a

cylindrical design to have a proportional sediment fallout down to the base. It should not be

also too huge since it would be difficult to manage and install underwater, and not too narrow

which could lead to fouling problems. Sediment traps are also vulnerable to fish inhibition

leading to clean tubes. Thus, fish nets are advised to use to cover the traps and prevent fish

and other organisms to enter (Randall and Birkeland, 1978; Abdullah et al., 2011; Dinesh,

2018). The table 1 below shows the different trap sizes used and timeline in various studies.

2.7. Fisheries and Livelihood in Guiuan, Eastern Samar

Guiuan, Eastern Samar is a coastal town in the Philippines that relies heavily on its

fisheries for livelihood. The town is home to several fishing villages, and fishing has been a

way of life for generations of families in the area. However, in recent years, the fisheries in

Guiuan have been under threat due to various factors, including overfishing, climate change,

and destructive fishing practices. These threats have had a significant impact on the

livelihoods of the people in the area (Anticamara et al., 2017).

Overfishing is one of the main problems facing the fisheries in Guiuan. Fish stocks

have been depleted due to excessive fishing, and this has led to a decline in the catch per unit
effort. This decline in catch has affected the income of fishermen, who rely on their catch to

support their families (Anticamara et al., 2017; Prieto-Carolino et al., 2018). Climate change

has also had an impact on the fisheries in Guiuan. Rising sea temperatures, ocean

acidification, and changes in ocean currents have all affected the fish populations in the area.

Some fish species have migrated to cooler waters, while others have become more vulnerable

to diseases and predators (Holden & Marshall, 2018).

Destructive fishing practices such as dynamite fishing and the use of fine mesh nets

have also contributed to the decline of fish populations in Guiuan. These practices not only

kill large numbers of fish but also damage coral reefs, which are important breeding grounds

for many fish species (Anticamara et al., 2017; Prieto-Carolino et al., 2018).The decline in

fish populations has had a ripple effect on the local economy. Many businesses that rely on

the fisheries, such as fish processors, have been forced to shut down or reduce their

operations. This has led to job losses and a decline in the standard of living for many families

in Guiuan (Prieto-Carolino et al., 2018).

In response to these challenges, the local government and various organizations have

implemented initiatives to promote sustainable fishing practices and support the local fishing

industry. These include the establishment of marine protected areas, the provision of

alternative livelihood opportunities, and the implementation of regulations to limit fishing

efforts (White et al., 2022).

Overall, while the fisheries in Guiuan face significant challenges, there are efforts

underway to promote sustainable fishing practices and support the local fishing industry.

With continued support and investment, it is possible to restore the fisheries and improve the

livelihoods of the people in the area (Bennett & Dearden, 2014; Oracion et al., 2005)
Table 1. Sediment trap sizes and timeline of various studies
SEDIMENT TRAP SEDIMENT RATE
STUDY PERIOD LITERATURE AUTHOR
DIMENSION (cm) (mg cm-2 d-1)

11.5 height December 2015 – March Sediment transportation and its impact in coral health-Palk
14.60 – 38.54 Dinesh (2018)
7.5 diameter 2016 Bay and Gulf of Mannar

11.5 height Seasonal changes of sediment rates and sediment

1.97 – 12.31 July 2007 – June 2008 Kumar et al., (2014)
5 diameter characteristics status in the Gulf of Mannar Coral Island, India

11.5 height June 2010 – November Coral reef recovery status in south Andaman Islands after the
0.27 – 0.89 Marithmu et al. (2013)
7.5 diameter 2010 bleaching event 2010

20 height Bleaching and secondary threats on corals of Palk Bay: a

0.82 – 1.53 May 2010 – Jun 2010 Ravindran et al. (2012)
5 diameter survey and proactive conservation needs

25 height November 1999 – August Coral community structure and sedimentation at different
3.30 – 10.7 Segal and Cartro (2011)
7 diameter 2001 distances from the coast of the Abrolhos Bank, Brazil

11.5 height Sedimentation rate in fringing reefs of Honda Bay, Puerto

April 2003 – November
3.50 – 10.00 Princesa, Palawan, Philippines with reference to coral Becira (2009)
5 diameter 2003
condition

11.5 height Sedimentation of silt in the coral reef environment of Palk

1.00 – 42.00 May 2004 – October 2004 Wilson et al. (2005)
5 diameter Bay, India
2.8. Knowledge, Attitude, and Perception Research on Mining and

the Local Community

Knowledge, Attitude, and Perception (KAP) studies on mining areas are limited,

especially in the Philippines. Environmental and social research studies have been informing

the public about the negative impact of mining on natural resources and the ambient

community (Moeng, 2018). Poudyal et al. (2019) noticed that public support for mining

especially in rural communities depends partly on how local residents perceive its impact on

their well-being. Mining companies receive support from the community mainly because

local residents benefit from mining as their primary source of income and becoming part of

their community identity, neglecting environmental concerns relative to the benefits mining

brings (Poudyal et al., 2019; Ibrahim et al., 2022).

However, a study by Orozco & Veiga (2018) and Litmanen et al. (2016) found that

some communities tend to prefer artisanal mining compared to large-scale mining. Residents

believe that artisanal mining is more compatible relative to their social order promoting

strong relationships within the community. Whereas, large-scale mining breaks the local

dynamics causing division and may eventually displace the community.

Moreover, Obeng et al. (2019) and Nelson et al. (2020) suggest that it is crucial to

understand the communities’ willingness to pay through participation in environmental

restoration activities, such as reforestation and bioremediation. This would also increase the

act of volunteerism which may boost restoration projects. In addition, the transition from

mining activities to tourism is a good alternative source of income for local communities

(Ibrahim et al., 2022).

 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Study site

Guiuan Marine Reserve Protected Landscape and Seascape is located in Eastern

Visayas, specifically in the Eastern part of Samar at the Municipality of Guiuan. Guiuan is

dubbed as the Surfing Capital of Visayas. It has cloud-9 waves due to its location, facing the

Pacific Ocean. The Local Government Unit of Guiuan proudly welcomes tourists and

encourages them to visit regularly. Tourists help increase the economy as well as attract

businessmen to invest in the Municipality. While tourists and residents enjoy the beautiful

marine resources Guiuan could offer, it poses a high vulnerability to anthropogenic activities.

Although it is categorized as Protected Area, DENR-EMB has not yet classified the

water bodies surrounding the area. The figure 2 below shows the proposed study site.

Manicani Island

Homonhon Island

Figure 2. Map showing the proposed study site in Manicani and Homonhon Islands,

Guiuan, Eastern Samar.

3.2. Sediment Trap Design

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes with a height of 11.5 cm and a diameter of 7.5 cm with

PVC clean out on their base will be used as sediment traps (Dinesh, 2018). Traps will be

grouped with 3 PVC pipes and serve as pseudo-replicates. PVC pipes will be tied on a steel

rod using cable ties to support and keep the traps in place, as seen in figure 3.

20 cm

11.5 cm

7.5 cm

Figure 3. Proposed sediment trap design using modified Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes.

Sediment traps will be installed using SCUBA along a 50-meter transect line,

specifically on the 0 m, 25 m, and 50 m marks. An approximately 50 cm distance will be

observed from the substrate and the trap. Traps will be deployed and stay underwater for 30

days.

Upon retrieval, traps will be sealed with zip locks or plastic bags to cover the traps and

prevent sediment loss.

3.3. Sediment Rate Analysis and Particle Size

In the laboratory, retrieved samples will be filtered to separate the seawater and the

sediments using a vacuum pump and filter paper. Filtered samples will then be oven-dried at

60°C for at least 24 hrs.

Dried samples will be weighed to the nearest milligram. The sedimentation rate will be

calculated using the formula below (Becira, 2009; Kumar et al., 2014; Dinesh, 2018; Azuna-

Montaño and Silapan, 2018):

Sediment weight (mg) / Cylinder Surface Area (cm2)

Sedimentation rate =
Total Number of Days of Immersion

For the Cylinder Surface Area, the following formula will be used:

Cylinder Surface Area = 2 π r h + 2 π r2

Where: r = diameter of the PVC pipe

h = Height of the PVC pipe

Sediment particle size and frequency distribution presented in percentage will also be

determined (Abdullah et al., 2011). Samples will be manually homogenized using mortar and

pestle and will be weighed using Analytical Balance before sieving.

 Table 2. Particle Size Classifications based on Udden-Wentworth Scale

Particle Description Particle Size (mm)

Coarse Sand 1 – 0.5
Medium Sand 0.5 – 0.25
Fine Sand 0.25 – 0.06
Silt 0.06 – 0.004
Clay < 0.004

Sediments will be categorized into four size groups: 1 mm, 500 um, 250 um, and .60

um using a mechanical sieve-shaker for 10 minutes. The relative grain size proportions will

be used as a basis for classifying the sediment particles using Udden- Wentworth Scale, as

shown in table 2 (Putra and Tanto, 2015). Stereo Microscope will be used to closely examine

the types of sediments collected.

3.4. Assessment of Coral Community and Reef-Associated Organisms

3.4.1. Coral Reef Survey

The coral community will be assessed using the photo-transect (PT) method (Van-

Woesik et al. 2009) to generate the mean percent cover of biotic (corals, algae, seagrasses,

and other organisms) and abiotic (sand, rubble, rock, silt) components. Following the

established transect line, photos will be taken every meter using an underwater camera

mounted on a modified photo quadrat (T-frame made up of PVC material) to create a 1mx1m

area.

The photos will be processed using a software called Coral Point Count with Excel

Extension (CPCe Version 4.1) developed by Kohler and Gill in 2006 of the National Coral
Reef Institute. In the CPCe Program, 10 random scoring points will be generated per photo

by the software for substrate identification and analysis. Live Hard Corals (LHC) will be

identified following the list of Taxonomic Amalgamation Units (TAUs) of Licuanan et al.

(2017) adopted in DENR Technical Bulletin No. 2019-04 while other substrate categories

will be identified using the codes developed by English et al. (1997) adopted in DENR

Technical Bulletin No. 2017-05. Tables 3 and 4 show the list of the TAUs and other codes

used in the data processing.

Table 3. List of Taxonomic Amalgamation Units (TAUs) by Licuanan et al. 2017

Genus Code Genus Code

Acanthastrea (ACAN) Millepora (MILL)
Acropora branching (ACB) Montastrea (MON)
Acropora corymbose (ACC) Montipora branching (MONTB
)
Acropora digitate (ACD) Montipora encrusting (MONTE
)
Acropora hispidose (ACH) Montipora foliose (MONTF
)
Acropora plate (ACT) Mycedium (MYC)
Acropora robusta group (ACR) Other branching corals (CB)
Astreopora (AST) Other bubble corals (BUB)
Attached fungiids (AF) Other encrusting corals (CE)
Caulastrea (CAU) Other foliose corals (CF)
Coeloseris (COE) Other free living fungiids (FOT)
Coscinarea (COS) Other massive corals (CM)
Cyphastrea (CYP) Oulastrea (OULA)
Diploastrea heliopora (DIP) Oulophyllia (OULO)
Echinophyllia (ECHY) Oxypora (OXY)
Echinopora (ECHI) Pachyseris encrusting (PACE)
Euphyllia (EUP) Pachyseris foliose (PACF)
Favia (FAV) Pavona (PAV)
Favites (FVI) Pectinia (PEC)
Fungia (CMR) Platygyra (PLAT)
Galaxea (GAL) Pocillopora (POC)
Goniastrea (GONIA) Porites branching (PORB)
Goniopora (GONIO Porites encrusting (PORE)
)
Heliopora (HEL) Porites massive (PORM)
Hydnophora (HYD) Seriatopora (SER)
Isopora (ISO) Stylophora (STY)
Leptoria (LEPA) Symphyllia (SYM)
Leptoseris (LEPS) Tubipora musica (TUBI)
 Lobophyllia (LOB) Turbinaria (TURB)
Merulina (MER)

Table 4. Other Benthic Substrate Categories by English et al. 1997

Genus Code Genus Code

Soft Corals SC Algal Assemblage AA
Seagrass SG Macro Algae MA
Dead Corals DC Turf Algae TA
Dead Corals w/ DCA Rock / Pavement RCK
Algae
Other Animals OT Rubble R
Sponges SP Sand S
Coralline Algae CA Silt SI

Coral cover will then be described based on the scale developed by Licuanan et al.

(2017) as presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Coral Index developed by Licuanan et al. (2017)

LHC Category % Live Hard Coral

Cover
Category D 0-22%
Category C 23-33%
Category B 34-44%
Category A 44% and above

Coral generic diversity will also be described using the scale developed by Licuanan et

al. (2019) shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Coral generic diversity developed by Licuanan et al. (2019)

Diversity Category No. of TAUs

Category D 0-18 TAUs
Category C >18-22 TAUs
Category B >22-26 TAUs
Category A >26 TAUs
 Additional reef indices were also computed to further assess the reef condition of the

two sampling stations. These were the condition index (CI), development index (DI),

succession index for algae (SIA) and other organisms (SIOO), and mortality index (MI).

Described below are the corresponding formulas per index.

Condition Index = log 10 [ LC

DC + AL+OT ] Where:
DC – percent cover of Dead Coral
Mortality Index =( DC + R ¿/( LC+ DC + R) LC – percent cover of Live Coral
AL – percent cover of Algal
Development Index = OT – percent cover of Other Fauna

log 10
[ LC+ DC + AL+OT
AB ] R – percent cover of Rubble

Succession Index for Fauna = log 10 [ OT

DC + AL ] AB – percent cover Abiotic
Components

Succession Index for Algae = log 10 [ AL

DC +OT ]
Condition index (CI) describes the proportion of live coral cover relative to the cover

of dead corals, algae, and other fauna. High live coral cover with a low cumulative cover of

algae, other fauna, and the dead coral ratio will yield a high condition index while the

opposite will render a low index value. An equal proportion on the other hand of the said

categories will yield an index close to zero. This index assumed that a coral-dominated

benthic community is the most ideal condition regardless if the reef is a naturally coral-

dominated reef or not. It also indicates the degree of stress on the reef.

Mortality index (MI) describes the fraction of corals that are dead. It indicates the

value of dead coral (dead corals and dead coral with algae) relative to the combined amount

of live (hard and soft corals) and dead corals. A positive mortality index can indicate corals

are in a state of disturbance or in a vulnerable state of degradation. Note that the denominator

represents the total living space available to corals.

 Development index (DI) describes the degree of how the reef has developed. It is the

ratio of coral reef-related components to abiotic-related components. The development

potential of an area is said to be high if it has a high living component cover as there are

abundance and diversity of organisms that contribute to the improvement of the reef. A low

score on the other hand means non-living components dominated the area and do not

contribute directly to the reef development and recovery.

Succession index (Algae) describes the proportion of algae relative to dead coral and

other fauna, and the probability of algae as the first assemblage to flourish during succession.

It attempts to detect succession occurring on dead corals and is very useful in monitoring reef

recovery. A positive index means that algae have proliferated or colonized available open

spaces in the reef.

Succession index (Other fauna) describes the probability of other marine fauna

colonizing open spaces in the reef. A positive index means the succession of other marine

fauna is taking over the reef. This condition is often seen in deteriorated reefs where there are

more dead corals with marine fauna than live coral dominating the benthic cover.

Table 7 shows the scale used to describe the coral index scores adopted from

Manthachitra, 1994 and Ben-Tzvi et al., 2004.

Table 7. Scale used for the Coral Index Scores

Category Index Score

Very poor < -0.602
Poor -0.602 to -0.176
Fair -0.175 to 0.176
Good 0.176 to 0.602
Very good > 0.602
3.4.2. Fish Community Survey

Standard Fish Visual Census by English et al. (1997) will be used in the fish

community survey. Utilizing the coral transect lines, all fishes encountered within the 10m

belt (5m on the left and 5m on the right) of the transect lines will be listed and counted to

compute the species composition and density in the area. To estimate the fish biomass, fish

sizes will be estimated and then species-specific growth coefficient values (i.e. a and b) will

be obtained from the published length-width data from fishbase.org. The formula below will

be used to calculate the fish biomass:

Where:
b
Fish Biomass (W) = a L a and b - growth coefficient values
taken from published length-weight
data (e.g. fishbase.org)
L – length of the fish (cm)

All other computations will be done using the MS Excel application. Fish Category

Indices will be determined based on diversity and abundance (Hilomen et al., 2000), density

(Hilomen et al., 2000), and biomass (Nañola et al., 2006), which are presented in Table 8 –

10.

Table 8. Categories of Sites According to Fish Diversity and Abundance

Fish Species Diversity (species/1000m2) (adapted from Hilomen, Nañola, and

Dantis, 2000)
Very Poor Poor Moderate High Very High
0-26 27-47 48-74 76-100 >100
 Table 9. Categories of Sites According to Fish Density

Fish Density (ind./1,000m2) (adapted from Hilomen, Nañola, and Dantis, 2000)
Very Poor Poor Moderate High Very High
0-201 202-676 677-2,267 2,268-7,592 >7,592

Table 10. Categories of Sites According to Fish Biomass

Fish Biomass (MT/km2) (adapted from Nañola et al., 2006)

Very Low Low Medium High Very High
<5 6-10 11-20 21-40 >41

Fish species will be further categorized according to commercial value (i.e. target and

non-target species) and trophic level (i.e. corallivore, piscivore, herbivore, planktivore, and

omnivore). FishBase defines target species as species sought by the local fishery. It can

either be a primary or secondary target species harvested by fishermen. Non-target species on

the other hand are the non-commercially valued species generally not targeted by fishers.

Functional trophic group classification per fish species will also be identified based on their

trophic level values obtained from FishBase as summarized in Table 11.

Table 11. Fish trophic level classification

Trophic Level Range Trophic Group

Trophic Level II 2.00 - 2.99 Herbivores
Trophic Level III 3.00 - 3.99 Primary Carnivores
Trophic Level IV 4.00 - 4.99 Secondary Carnivores

3.4.3. Macro-invertebrate Community Survey

Standard Belt Transect Method will be used to survey the macro-invertebrate

community of the sampling site. Using the coral and fish transect lines, all macro-

invertebrates within the 5m belt (2.5m on the left and 2.5m on the right) will be recorded and
counted to obtain the species composition and density. All data computation will be done

using the MS Excel application. Identification of species will be confirmed using field

guides.

3.4.4. Fish Catch per unit Effort

Catch per unit effort (CPUE) is a commonly used metric in fisheries science to estimate

the amount of fish caught by a fishing gear over a given time period. The CPUE is calculated

by dividing the total catch of fish by the effort expended to catch that fish (e.g., the number of

hours spent fishing or the amount of fishing gear used). The basic formula for calculating

CPUE is:

CPUE = Catch / Effort

On this study, fishing methods such as hook and line and Gill netting will be used. Both

fishing gears will be used for an hour. All fishes caught will be counted and weighed and

expressed as fish abundance and biomass.

3.4.5. Physico-chemical Parameters

Physicochemical parameters such as depth, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen levels,

and total dissolved solids will be measured in situ using YSI Portable Multiparameter.

Paramaters will be read thrice per station. Seawater will also be collected in triplicates and

will be stored in a 1L PET bottles to test for TSS.

A modified drogue adapted from Sotto (2015) will be used to measure the seawater

current. Drouges will be made of crossed blades (wood), PVC pipes, buoy as floater, and

weights. Drouges will be released on the water and track its movement using Global
Positioning System (GPS) every after 10 mins. GPS Readings will be recorded thrice.

Current speed will be expressed in meters per second (m/s) and calculated using Movable

Type Script Software (Veness, n.d.)

3.4.6. KAP Survey

A survery questionnaire developed by DENR-BMB, released as Technical Bulletin No.

2017-09 and Technical Bulletin No. 2017-10, will be used to measure the knowledge,

attitude, and perception of the community towards their coastal and marine ecosystem.

Below is the questionnaire for the KAP Survey.

 Free, Prior, and Informed
Consent Form

You are being invited to participate in a research study entitled “Sedimentation Rate on the
Local Fisheries and Livelihood in the Coastal and Reef Areas in Guiuan, Eastern Samar,
Philippines”. Questions will be based on the information associated with the coastal and
marine environment. There are no right and wrong answers in this survey. All your answers
are accepted.

It is guaranteed that the information you provide will be confidential and will be used solely
for this research. Moreover, your name will not be required to be written in the survey.
Survey results will be stored securely and will abide by the Data Privacy Act of 2012. A
summary of the results will be provided by the researcher upon your request.

If you have queries about this survey, you may reach the principal researcher, Mr. John Paul
E. Paa at +63 910 119 9826 or jepaa@up.edu.ph.

If you agree to the term and participate in the study, you will be asked to complete the
survey/questionnaire.

By agreeing, you are indicating that you are at least 18 years old, have read and understood
this consent form, and agree to participate in this research study.

o I agree to the terms and conditions

o I disagree

Name and Signature of Respondent

 Date:
A. RESPONDENT’S PROFILE

1. Respondent’s Cluster
Mark only one

o Local Chief Executives and Local Government Unit key officials

o Head of local organizations
o Head of household
o Wife
o Youth/Student (age 18 and above)
o Local business owner
o School head/Teacher

2. Name of Respondent (Optional): ____________________

3. Age (provide range of years)

Mark only one

o 18 – 20 years old
o 20 – 24
o 25 – 29
o 30 – 34
o 35 – 39
o 40 – 44
o 45 – 49
o 50 – 54
o 55 – 59
o 60 and above

3. Gender
Mark only one

o Male
o Female
o Gay
o Lesbian
o Bisexual
o Transgender
o Other: ____________________
4. How many years are you residing in the area? ____________________

5. If less than five (5) years of residence, indicate place of origin. ____________________

6. Religion
Mark only one

o Roman Catholic
o Iglesia ni Cristo
o Jehovah’s Witness
o Mormon
o Protestant
o Muslim
o Seventh Day Adventist
o Baptist
o Born Again Christian
o Other: ____________________

7. Civil Status
Mark only one

o Single
o Married
o Widowed
o Separated
o Other: ____________________

8. Number of Household Member/s: ____________________

9. Highest Educational Attainment

Mark only one

o No formal schooling
o Elementary level
o Elementary graduate
o High School level
o High School graduate
o College level
 o Vocational courses
o Post Graduate level

10. Membership in Organization (if any): ____________________

Example: President, Samahang Mangingisda

B. KNOWLEDGE

11. Do you know what biodiversity is?

Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

12. If yes, what consists biodiversity?

Check all that apply

o Animals/microorganisms
o Trees/Plants/Forests
o Estuaries/Coastal Areas
o Rivers/Lakes/Streams
o Caves

13. What are the roles/importance of the coastal and marine and other ecosystems in the area?
Check all that apply

o Habitat of various species

o Provide food, livelihood, and medicinal benefits to the people
o Protect us from extreme/destructive effects of storm surges, waves, and currents
o Provide recreational, physical and mental benefits, tourism activities, and spiritual
activities
o Coastal, marine, and other ecosystems are interconnected
o Economic and environmental benefits

14. What are the different ecosystems in your area?

Check all that apply

o Mangrove forest
o Seagrass beds
o Coral reefs
 o Lowland forest
o Rivers
o Caves

15. What are the characteristics of our Mangrove Forests?

Check all that apply

o Composed of trees and shrubs in salty coastal areas

o Has soft substrate
o Prop roots, thick, and waxy leaves
o Other/s: ____________________

16. Does the condition of the Mangrove Forests affects the source of food or various species
like mollusks, crustaceans, and fishes?
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

17. What are the importance of our Mangrove Forest?

Check all that apply

o Natural breakwater
o Food source to many organisms
o Provide refuge to organisms
o Others: ____________________

18. What are the different factors/activities that affect our Mangrove Forest?
Check all that apply

o Production of charcoal
o Logging
o Fishing grounds
o Others: ____________________

19. What are the characteristics of our Seagrass Beds?

Check all that apply

o Entirely immersed in seawater

o Grow in shallow marine and brackish waters
o Depth distribution limited by the availability of light
o Others: ____________________
20. Does the condition of our Seagrass Beds directly affect fish productivity?
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

21. What are the importance of our Seagrass Beds?

Check all that apply

o Maintenance of biodiversity: provide shelter and food for marine animals

o Nursery grounds for fish and invertebrates
o Stabilize coastlines and absorb nutrients from runoff
o Others: ____________________

22. What are the different factors/activities that affect our Seagrass Beds?
Check all that apply

o Tree-planting
o Accidents resulting to oil-spills
o Boat docking
o Others: ____________________

23. What are the characteristics of our Coral Reefs?

Check all that apply

o Hard
o Soft
o Extensive
o Patchy
o Live
o Bleached or dead with algae
o Other/s: ____________________

24. Does the condition of our Coral Reefs directly affect fish productivity?
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

25. What are the importance of our Coral Reefs?

Check all that apply
 o Habitat for fishes
o Recreation
o Reduce strong wave action
o Others: ____________________

26. What are the different factors/activities that affect our Coral Reefs?
Check all that apply

o Dynamite Fishing
o Global Warming
o Poaching
o Others: ____________________

27. Do you know about Ocean/Marine Pollution?

Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware
28. What are the sources of Ocean/Marine Pollution?
Check all that apply

o Runoff from sewage, deforestation, farming, and other land use

o Sedimentation due to erosion from mining, farming, and coastal dredging
o Pathogens from sewage and livestock
o Ballast water
o Toxins (Heavy metals, Radioactive substances, etc.)
o Oil from cars, heavy machinery, industry, other land-based resources
o Plastics
o Noise produced by supertankers, other large vessels, and machinery
o Others: ____________________

29. Do people directly contribute to Ocean/Marine Pollution?

Mark only one

o Yes
o If yes, how? ____________________
o No
o Not aware

30. Do you have any idea about Climate Change?

 Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

31. For you what is Climate Change?

Check all that apply

o Global Warming
o Caused by human’s use of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the air
o Shifting weather patterns
o Coastal areas are vulnerable to sea level rise, warming of the sea/oceans,
intensified weather disturbances
o Low lying coastal communities being highly vulnerable to sea level rise
o Extreme weather conditions such as drought and flooding can compromise
terrestrial crops and pressure on coastal and marine resources
o Ocean acidification

32. Do people directly contribute to Climate Change and its catastrophic effects?
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o Not aware

C. ATTITUDE

33. I feel the need to protect the various ecosystems because it affects my source of
livelihood.
Mark only one

34. I am always willing to help protect the various ecosystems by promoting sustainable use
of biodiversity resources.
 Mark only one

35. It is every Filipino citizen’s obligation and responsibility to protect our country’s
biodiversity and I have to find ways to do so starting in my area/community.
Mark only one

36. I want to show my family, relatives and friends the ways to conserve and protect our
biodiversity.
Mark only one

37. I decided to be more conscious of my actions so that I could contribute to increase

resilience against the adverse impacts of climate change.
Mark only one

38. I will support and participate in local and national government efforts/programs in
protecting our biodiversity.
Mark only one

39. I depend on people who are more knowledgeable in protecting our biodiversity because
they know better.
Mark only one
40. I tend to disregard critical issues about our biodiversity because of lack of knowledge.
Mark only one

41. I do not want to contribute to the country’s biodiversity conservation activities because it
is not my primary concern.
Mark only one

42. I blame other people for floods and other calamities that are happening because of their
irresponsible actions.
Mark only one

43. In the past six (6) months, have you been involved in activities led by the local
government in your area?
Mark only one

o Regularly (once a month)

o Occasionally (at least once in the past six months)
o Never

44. If regularly or occasionally involved, why have you attended/participated?

Mark only one

o It is my obligation
o To learn updates and new information
o To clarify or ask questions
o Others
D. PRACTICES

45. I use tin cans, plastic straws, plastic bottles and other plastic materials.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always

46. I throw my garbage such as plastic straws, candy wrappers, plastic bottles, etc. anywhere
especially when I cannot see garbage bins nearby.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always

47. I directly harvest fish and other resources from the ocean for my family’s daily
sustenance.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always

48. If always, kindly state method/s in harvesting. ____________________

49. I have other sources of livelihood.

Check all that apply

o Poultry
o Piggery
o Carpentry
o Agriculture
o Others: ____________________

50. I cut mangroves for charcoal production.

Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always
51. I join tree planting activities and clean-up drives in my community.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always

52. I take photos of beautiful natural scenic spots and post them on social media to encourage
friends and relatives to visit.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always

53. In our home, I am contributing to the conservation and protection of biodiversity by

practicing solid waste management
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o If yes, please state how: ____________________

54. In our community, I am advocating and participating in activities involving conservation

and protection of biodiversity.
Mark only one

o Yes
o No
o If yes, please state how: ____________________

55. On illegal activities affecting the environment in our area, I immediately call the attention
of our local enforcers.
Mark only one

o Never
o Sometimes
o Always
3.5. Statistical Analysis

Data obtained will be analyzed using R statistics and the PAST statistical tool. To

determine if the sedimentation rate is affected by site and depth a T-test will be used with a p-

value set at p = 0.05.

To test the difference in particle size from the sediment straps between depth, among

sites, and between seasons, an Analysis of Group Similarities (ANOSIM) will be used.

For the coral community and associated reef organisms, the Pearson correlation will be

used to determine whether the sedimentation rate affects marine resources (Cuadrado et al.,

2016). Pearson correlation will also be used to determine the relationship of sedimentation

rate and TSS.

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