BONGA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGES of AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT of SOIL RESOURCE AND WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT SENIOR SEMINAR PROJECT
REVIEW ON INDIGENOUS SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
PRACTISE IN ETHIOPIA

PREPARED BY GROUP 4

NAME OF GROUP MEMBERS ID NO

1. ANDARGACHEW ABEBE…………………… RU/0734/13
2. DEBALO DIRIBA ……………………………. RU/1616/13
3. DEMILEW KUMIE …………………………. .RU/0561/13
4. MIRETU MULATU …………………………… RU/1935/13

MAJOR: ADVISOR: MOLLA, G,

CO: ADVISOR: BIRHANU, Y,
FEBRUARY, 2024
BONGA, ETHIOPIA
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBRIVATION

GHG Green House Gases

UNESCO United Nation Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
VI Vertical Interval

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBRIVATION.......................................................................i

TABLE OF CONTENT............................................................................................................ii

1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background.............................................................................................................................1

1.2. Objectives of Review..............................................................................................................2

1.2.1. General objective.............................................................................................................2

1.2.2. Specific objectives...........................................................................................................2

2. LITERATURE REVIEWS....................................................................................................................3

2.1. History of Soil and Water Conservation Technologies in Ethiopia.......................................3

2.2. Soil and Water Conservation Practices...................................................................................3

2.3. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Measures Practices...............................................3

2.3.1. Traditional ditches...........................................................................................................4

2.3.2. Grass strip........................................................................................................................4

2.3.3. Contour plowing..............................................................................................................5

2.3.4. Forest and Land Protection..............................................................................................5

2.3.5. Pit cultivation...................................................................................................................6

2.3.6. Ridges..............................................................................................................................6

2.3.7. Earth Bunds.....................................................................................................................6

2.3.8. Stone Bunds.....................................................................................................................7

2.4. Criteria for Selection Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Measures............................7

2.4.1. Spacing of the Bunds.......................................................................................................8

2.4.2. Length of Bund................................................................................................................8

2.4.3. Terrace Width..................................................................................................................8

2.4.4. Vertical Interval...............................................................................................................8

2.4.5. Length of Terrace.............................................................................................................8

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 2.5. Role of Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Practices...................................................9

3. CONCULUSION.............................................................................................................................10

4. REFFERENCE................................................................................................................................11

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 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Fifteen percent of the Earth's total land surface is affected by human-induced processes of
soil degradation. An estimated 6-7 million hectares of agricultural land is made
unproductive each year. because of erosion Land degradation is widespread in the world's
dry lands, affecting 5.5 million hectares or almost 70% of their area and leading to an
estimated loss of production worth US$42 billion' (IUCN/UNEPIWWF, 1991).Indigenous
knowledge in soil conservation practices is common in many indigenous peoples of the
world. Ethiopia is regarded as the roof of eastern Africa and is considered water tower of
the region. Indigenous knowledge of soil and water conservation practices is common in
many parts of the country. It is common to see slope lands brought into cultivation where
land pressures are high. In many instances in the past, soil and water conservation (SWC)
mechanisms were built without proper design. . Thus, it is common to see different forms
of soil and water conservation practices across the country (Samuel Lind Megersa, 208).

Thus, it is common to see different forms of soil and water conservation practices across
the country (Samuel Lind Megersa, 208). Indigenous technologies as a result of a gradual
learning process and emerge from a knowledge base accumulated by rural people by
observation, experimentation and a process of handing down across generation‘s peoples‘
experiences and wisdom. Apparently the technology is dynamic and not static in nature,
frozen in time or stuck in history (Hans-Machismo Kruger et al., 1996; Rein, 1996).this
reviews expected to explore scientific advisor about how was indigenous soil and water
conservation in regard of extent, trend, adaptation and its characterization in past, present
and for ongoing of which having good outcome for integrating both of traditional methods
with the current practice.

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 1.2. Objectives of Review
1.2.1. General objective
The General objective of this seminar is to review the indigenous soil and water conservation
management practice in Ethiopia

1.2.2. Specific objectives

 History of soil and water conservation practices in Ethiopia

 To review soil and water conservation practices in Ethiopia

 To review criteria for selection the indigenes soil and water conservation practices
in Ethiopia

 To review role of indigenous soil and water conservation practices in Ethiopia

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEWS
2.1. History of Soil and Water Conservation Technologies in Ethiopia

Soil and water conservation measures have been applied for centuries, most likely first
implemented during the Aksumite Kingdom (400 BC to 800 AD) (Ciampalini et al., 2012).
The traditional terraces in Konso Constitute a spectacular example of a living cultural
tradition stretching back 21 generations (more than 400 years) (Beshah, 2003).

Terracing was developed under traditional agriculture in the Tigray Highlands and in the
Chercher Highlands(Virgo and Munro, 1977) In the first half of the 20th century, Italian
(Giglioli, 1938) and British (Joyce, 1943) chroniclers noted the indigenous soil and water
conservation measures of northern Ethiopia (reviewed by Nyssen et al., 2004a). In
addition, scattered contributions have been made on bench terracing for khat (Catha edulis)
(Reij, 1991).the traditional technique of using lynchets in Tigray (Nyssen et al., 2000a), on
fallowing in the Wolyta Zone (Amede et al., 2001), ditches for seasonal surface drainage in
farmlands in the North West highlands (Monsieurs et al., 2015).

2.2. Soil and Water Conservation Practices

Soil and water conservation involves the use of biological and physical measures to
offset the effect of soil erosion. Biological or agronomic measures refer to the farming
practices while physical measures aimed at controlling and diverting the runoff in the
arable areas. Basically, physical soil and water conservation practices are categorized into
two: these are traditional and improved practices. These practices have both similarities
and differences in terms of characteristics, construction, maintenance, effectiveness and
problems and limitations. Indigenous and improved measures have similar characteristics
for the purpose of soil trapping and water harvesting. In cases, soil and/or medium to big
size stones are required for construction. However, they are different in permanency,
duration, labor source for construction and time of construction and design (Berhan Sisya,
2009).

2.3. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Measures Practices

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According to farmers, indigenous soil and water conservation measures are simple
structures of short term nature that could reshuffled each year to make better use of the soil
captured above the structures for production and also to avoid rodent hostage and
reproduction. The most common types of these practices implemented by farmers for soil
conservation activities are traditional ditches, grass strips and contour plowing (Berehane
Sisay, 2009).

2.3.1. Traditional ditches

Traditional Ditches used to drain excess water from farmlands during high rain time
especially in July and August and done most of the time by oxen with maresha. Traditional
ditches are constructed every cropping season and run diagonally over the cultivated land.
Farmers make ditches using ox plough. Depending up on the slope gradient of the farm
plots, farmers make ditches with certain interval. The distance between two consecutive
ditches decreases with slope gradient. However, the distance is not based on scientific
measurement and varies from plot to plot (Ipid). (R.M. Shetto, 1999).

The main purpose of traditional ditch is to protect the soil from erosion. Sometimes fanners
make ditches to drain water from flat fields during long growing season. The main
advantages of traditional ditches is that it takes less time and can be made by oxen, hence,
it requires less time and labor as compared to other conservation measures. Tie-ridge helps
to drain excess water from farmlands during the rainy season and now farmers in addition
to traditional ditches use it as other means of soil and water conservation tools by draining
excess water (Ipid). (R.M. Shetto, 1999).

A ditch may sometimes be dug on the upper side of the cultivated land to act as a cut off
drain to protect the field from the runoff coming from the higher land. Thus, traditional
ditches drain excess water from the field, protect the soil from being washed away by
runoff and reduce surface runoff generated within the cultivated land (R.M. Shetto, 1999).

2.3.2. Grass strip

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 Grass Strip is the other traditional mechanisms used by fanners of the study area for soil
conservation activities. It is important in order to reduce the speed of runoff during high
rain as well as for fodder production for livestock feed known as durqa in local language.
Farmers having relatively larger cultivated land leave unploughed strips within the
farmland following the horizontal contour or at the boundary of their farmland for the
purpose of decreasing flood hazard coming from up lands. (Berehane Sisay, 2009).

The trapped soil over time developed on the strip will make the soil more fertile. This is
suitable for growing of grass for their cattle. After some time, farmers plough some or all
parts of the strip and leave another strip below or above the old once. The different
parameters, length, width and distance between two strips vary from plot to plot.
Obviously, this practice demand no labor input except that farmers keep some parts of the
land out of cultivation. According to the farmers, this practice will not be experienced in
the future because of land shortage (Berehane Sisay, 2009).

2.3.3. Contour plowing

According to fanners, it is the plowing across the slope to increase the time for rain water
infiltrations and to decrease the speed of runoff during high rain period (Ipid).

2.3.4. Forest and Land Protection

Forest have been indigenous resource in ancient time due to people gives great attention
and preservation up on it has cultural and ecological values ,symbolic value and has been
linkage with indigenous religion , identity marker in some part of Ethiopia. And also trees
on a land under cultivation are conserved for two major purposes. Firstly, they protect
the land from erosion. Some Tree species planted or protected on the land under
cultivation for their conservation impacts of the land under cultivation. The upper part of
the soil is fertile and suitable for better harvest. If eroded, the farmers lost the golden part
of this soil, important for good harvest. The second reason is that there are tree species that
are protected on the land under cultivation (Melaku Getahun, 2016).

Knowledge of allocating the specific land for cultivation and sustainable utilization have
advantage on protects land, soil, and water resource. Generally, giving values for natural

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 resource are important in natural resource management, maintain harmonious and
balanced relations with the natural resources is a way of indigenous knowledge that
conserve soil, water and environment (Ipid).Different expert point out as Land has been
having holistic values and all-embraced resource the so called the ―mother of earth‖ in
their entire live. Mother Earth is believed to be the wife of in that is our Father and Earth
is our Mother. Mother Earth is believed to be the wife of in that is our Father and Earth is
our Mother. We live on, she feeds her children as mother does for her children; we all die
and lay down in; not only human beings, also plant species and animal species all laid
down in when they die. On the other hand, which parts of our lives are out of the sight of
Mother Earth? She is really the mother of all - embracing mother! (Sanbata Lamu, 2013).

2.3.5. Pit cultivation

This is essentially a soil and water conservation system as well as a fertility restoration
technique, through refuse decomposition. Grass is cut and laid out in strips forming square
grids. Soil is then dug from the center of the grid, covering the grass and leaving 30-60 cm
deep and 100 cm in diameter pits. The pits, from a distance resemble a honeycomb or
chessboard. The pits control runoff while conserving moisture simultaneously. The
rainwater collected in the pits, percolates into the soil slowly while the incorporated crop
residues improves soil fertility (R.M. Shetto, 1999). Through the application of indigenous
knowledge of landscape classification, the Noel Oromo properly utilize the resource and at
the same time conserve them. Therefore, among the Oromo, the natural resources are
viewed as a part of life and the knowledge of conserving the natural resource (Ipid).

2.3.6. Ridges

Ridges have traditionally been associated with the growing of specific crops such as beans,
ground nuts, sweet potatoes and cassava. Ordinary ridges are 20-50 cm high and are
usually spaced between 60 and 80cm. When they are laid across the slope they control
the soil erosion. Ridges also
Improve the soil fertility through in situ composting of vegetation that is buried under
during ridge formation. In some areas, broad-based ridges have evolved, furthering

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more the concept of soil fertility restoration with the incorporation of more grass, and
trash (Ipid).

2.3.7. Earth Bunds

This is indigenous essential soil and water harvesting technique. Earth bunds are used
mainly for water harvesting in rice production in the drier parts such as the lake zone in
Tanzania. Earth bunds about 0.5m high are constructed around rice fields in order to
collect runoff water from the higher slopes. In some other parts like Ethiopia, earth bunds
are used for slowing down runoff in maize and sorghum fields where they are usually
constructed along the contour after planting the crop. The bunds are constructed by
digging a trench about 25cm deep with the scooped soil forming embankments or ridges
(Ipid).

2.3.8. Stone Bunds

These are barriers of stones placed at regular intervals along the contour. They have been
used for generations in Ethiopia where they are locally known as ―dhagga‖ and in some
parts of South Africa. The size of the stone bunds varies between 0.5-2m and may be 5 to
10mapart, depending on the availability of stones and the topography. Stone bunds retain
or slow down run off and hence control erosion. They also allow the accumulation of soil,
which may be redistributed after the bunds are dismantled (R.M. Shetto, 1999).

2.4. Criteria for Selection Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation

Measures

A list of indigenous soil and water conservation measures and farmers' priorities was done
through different participatory methods which included group discussions and household
surveys (Lyamchai et al., 1998). It helps to identify the most important soil and water
conservation measures and farmer‘s preference for certain soil and water conservation
measures. Group discussion and focus groups are the ways of asking farmers to mention
different soil and water conservation that they has been use in in the field of farm and also
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 helps to select appropriate criteria for selection of indigenous soil and water conservation.
Also rank is others methods of selection of which the first rank indicates considered as the
most preferred option (Belton and Reeves, 2002; Tenge et al., 2004).

2.4.1. Spacing of the Bunds

The basic principles adopted for deciding the spacing of bunds are:
1. The bunds should check the water at a point where the water attains erosive velocity.
2. The bund should not cause inconvenience to the agricultural operations. For determining
the spacing of the bunds (Murthy, 1994) the formula used is:
The horizontal interval (spacing) can be easily measured on the land surface. For this
purpose, the relationship between horizontal and vertical spacing is important and
calculated as:

2.4.2. Length of Bund

The length of bund determined by calculating the horizontal interval of the bund formed.

2.4.3. Terrace Width

The horizontal distance between two terraces was determined based on the formula.
However, two meter depth of cut is required for ploughing using bullocks (DSCWM,
2005).

2.4.4. Vertical Interval

The spacing is the vertical interval (VI) between two terraces. The terrace spacing depends
on the soil type, slope, surface condition, gradient, depth of cut and agricultural use. The
depth of cut and fill have to be balanced, thus, the interval is equal to double the depth of
cut. The depth of cut must not be so deep as to expose the bed rock. The spacing is also
linked to the terrace width. At the same time, the width of the terrace should permit
economic agricultural operation. Therefore, the spacing of vertical interval of the terrace
was calculated using the formula (Megersa, S.L., 2018; cited in Mal, 1999).

2.4.5. Length of Terrace

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The length of the terrace is determined by several factors including the shape and size of
the land, degree of dissection of the land and permeability and erodibility of the soil.
Longer terraces are more efficient for agriculture and cost less to install, but they may
increase the velocity of surface run-off, thus, increasing erosion (DSCWM, 2005). Length
of the terrace also calculated as bund lengths and rank the qualities of their land by
using slope, soil depth, soil fertility (quality), agro climatic zones and water logging as
criteria (Bekele, 1997). In general different part of Ethiopian community has its own
traditional knowledge system to conserve biodiversity and climate condition (Yeneayehu
Fenetahun, 2018).

2.5. Role of Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Practices

Pollution (water, soil, air and noise), stream cuts, erosion, flood, rugged topography is the
potential hazards/constraints of biotic resources. Water and soil pollutions emanated from
improper disposal of urban and poorly regulated wastes from industries, unwise uses of
chemical fertilizers and locally produced wastes. Society, almost all of the generated solid
wastes are indiscriminately dumped into drainage channels, streams, open surfaces,
culverts, and residential compounds and even on the road including highway passing
through the town and this is highly cause for environmental pollution (Ajiba and Shokemi,
2003).

However, the contribution of home-garden in sustaining the environment is promising.

These Home gardens, developed and nurtured by the local farmers through generations of
innovation and experiment, are often cited as the epitome of sustainability, yet have been
long neglected by the developmental activities. Today, however, these age-old systems are
receiving increasing attention owing to their perceived potential to mitigate environmental
problems such as loss of Biodiversity and high concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide (Ipid).It is widely recognized that agro-forests play an important role in the global
carbon cycle by sequestering and storing carbon (C) (Yenenehe Fentahyn, 2018).
Homo garden plants help remove pollutants from the air in three ways:- absorption by the
leaves or the soil surface; deposition of particulates and aerosols on leaf surfaces; and
fallout of particulates on the leeward (downwind) side of area. In line with this, home-
gardens of the study area offer relevant service in mitigating the currently aggravating
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trend of climate change and in rehabilitating soil degradation. Soil erosion is minimized
because of high vegetation cover that prevented the exposure of bare ground to
heavy rainfall, improve the soil structure and increase the level of organic nutrient
through the literal fall and releasing nutrient contain fluid through their roots (Ipid).
(Yenenehe Fentahyn, 2018).

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3.CONCULUSION

According to farmers, indigenous soil and water conservation measures are simple
structures of short term nature that could reshuffled each year to make better use of the soil
captured above the structures for production and also to avoid rodent hostage and
reproduction. And also indigenous soil and water conservation practice has been null in
chance of specialists Google of which they are searching and innovating new worlds. But
now in recent time ongoing indigenous soil and water conservation practice is becoming
just two Olympic runner watch waver (have great attention on their field of study). The
practices also score very normative change on sustaining and conserving of soil, water
and become very effective on integrate with existing technological soil and water
conservation practice.

Soil and water conservation measures have been applied for centuries, most likely first
implemented during the Aksumite Kingdom (400 BC to 800 AD). Religion and cultural
practices on forest protection on behalf of their religion has been one of icon indigenous
soil and water conservation practices have contributed in the conservation of resources
through the ascription of spiritual powers to soil, water, forest and etc.

That can improve the indigenous knowledge system of soil conservation and the possibility
of integration between indigenous knowledge systems with some modern/scientific/
knowledge rather than totally dependent on the indigenous knowledge of the farmer. This
is because integrating indigenous soil and water conservations with that of the
modern/newly introduced soil conservation practice is very crucial for an improved
livelihood and sustainable land use.

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 4. REFFERENCE

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Practices in North Eastern Ethiopia.
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use changes as determined by plough marks and field evidence in the Aksum area
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036.
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Resources Management:
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impact on the environment in the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands—a state of the
art. Earth-Science Reviews 64: 273–320
Reij C., 1991. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa, Gatekeeper Series No.
Virgo and Munro, 1977; Virgo K.J. and Munro R.N., 1977. Soil and erosion features of the
Central Plateau region of Tigrai, Ethiopia. Geoderma 20: 131–157.
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Environmental Science Volume 2, Issue 1, 2018, pp. 29-36.

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 Yeshambel Mulat, 2013. Indigenous Knowledge Practices in Soil Conservation at Konso
People, South western Ethiopia, Journal of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 2, December 2013.

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