Review on Effects of soil Erosion on Socio-Economic Aspect of

Farmers in Ethiopia

By

Bacha Muleta (ID: 1306302)

Wallaga University

Gimbi Campus

A seminar paper Submitted to the Department of Soil Resource and

Watershed Management, College of Natural and Environmental

Science

March 20, 2024

Gimbi, Ethiopia
 Approval sheet

This is to certify that the seminar entitled “Review on Effects of Soil Erosion on Socio-
Economic Aspect of Farmers Ethiopia” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Bachelor
degree in Soil Resource and Watershed Management, and has been carried out by Bacha
Muleta (Id. No. 1306302).

Bacha Muleta _________________ _______________________

(Student) Signature Date

Mosisa Yadeta (MSc) __________________ _____________________

(Advisor) Signature Date

Addisu Duguma (MSc) __________________ _____________________

(Head Department) Signature Date

1
 Acknowledgement

First of all, we would like to thanks to almighty God the lord of the world for his protection,
guidance and provision of wisdom and strength during out entire education. Secondly, we
would like to give a great respect and gratitude to our family for their financial as well as
multi-directional support. Thirdly, we deepest gratitude goes to our advisor Mr. Mosisa (MSc)
for his critical, careful and valuable advice standing from topic selection till the completion
of his work. We thank him for his genuine and energetic encouragement, suggestion, insight
and guidance to complete this seminar project. Finally, we would like to thank Wallaga
university Gimbi Campus for their support by giving the required information, internet and
computer.

2
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgement.....................................................................................................................ii

Acronym....................................................................................................................................iv

Abstract......................................................................................................................................v

1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background.....................................................................................................................1

1.2 General objective............................................................................................................2

2 Literature Review............................................................................................................3

2.1 Basic Concepts and Functions of Soil.............................................................................3

2.2 The Concept of Erosion..................................................................................................3

2.3 Factors Affecting Water Erosion.....................................................................................5

2.3.1 Climate........................................................................................................................5

2.3.2 Topography..................................................................................................................5

2.3.3 Population....................................................................................................................6

2.4 Socio –Economic Effects of Soil Erosion.......................................................................6

2.5 Soil Conservation Efforts in Ethiopia.............................................................................7

2.6 Soil Erosion and Sustainability Issues in Ethiopia..........................................................8

Conclusion and Recommend......................................................................................................9

Conclusion..................................................................................................................................9

Recommendation......................................................................................................................10

References................................................................................................................................11

3
 Acronym

BOA -------------------------------------Bureau of agriculture

BOANR-------------------------------- -Bureau of agriculture and natural resource
C ---------------------------------------- Carbon
Ca ---------------------------------------Calcium
CCD -------------------------------------Convention to combat land degradation
DA --------------------------------------Development agent
EPRDF----------------------------------Ethiopian people republic democratic front
Gps--------------------------------------Geographical positioning system
Hh--------------------------------------- Household
k-----------------------------------------potassium
m.a.s.l------------------------------------meter above sea level
N------------------------------------------Nitrogen
OM-----------------------------------------organic matter
P-------------------------------------------phosphorous
SWC-------------------------------------- soil and water conservation
UN------------------------------------------United nation

4
Abstract

Soil erosion is a global environmental problem which started since the innovation of
agriculture by human kind. One third of the world’s agricultural soils, or roughly 2 billion
hectares of land, was reported as being affected by soil erosion. Water and wind erosion
account for 84% of this observed damage. Ethiopia is considered to have one of the most
serious soil degradation problems in the world. The average annual rate of soil loss in
Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 tons/ha/yr, and it can drastically exceed this on steep slopes
with soil loss rates greater than 300 tons/ha/year, where vegetation is denuded. The problem
is very much serious in the Ethiopian highlands. Recognizing the seriousness of the problem,
the Ethiopian government launched a massive soil conservation program. However, most
performance measures of soil and water conservation efforts of the country were failed.
Watershed management was implemented as a way of redressing the degradation of the
natural resource base and increasing land productivity. From its introduction up to know,
watershed management has been implementing in the country. Some success of conservation
efforts following watershed management was reduced runoff, soil erosion and associated
downstream siltation, increased vegetation cover and surface roughness, increased soil
depth, increased recharge of groundwater table, increased production area and green
environment, increased crop production and productivity and improvement in fodder
availability.

Keywords: Soil erosion, effect, Conservation, Sustainability, crop production

5
1 Introduction

1.1 Background

Soil is the loose material on the crust of the earth, which consists mainly mineral particles,
organic material, soil water and air and it is a major natural life-supporting resource. Soil
erosion specially by water is one of the main forms of land degradation, which is aggravated
by human activity and related land use change. It resulted in significant environmental impact
through reduction in crop production, retards vegetation growth (Hurni et al., 2010).

Once topsoil erosion is taken away by any agents it’s tedious to replace within a year,
decades, or century. Nature requires, on an average, about 1000 years building up 2.5 cm of
topsoil, but wrong farming methods may take place on a few years to erode it from lands of
average slope (Weil & Brady, 2016).

Soil erosion remains the world biggest environmental problem, threatening sustainability of
both plant and animal in the world Over 65 percent of the soil on earth is said to have
displayed degradation phenomena as a result of soil erosion, salinity and desertification (Okin
& Reheis, 2002).
The rapid erosion of soil by water and wind has been a problem even since land was first
cultivated. The consequence of soil erosion occurs both on and off-site effect. On site effects
are often particularly important on agricultural land where the distribution of soil with in a
field, the loss of soil from a field, the breakdown of soil structure and decline nutrient result
in a reduction of cultivable soil depth and a decline in soil fertility. Erosion also reduces
available soil moisture, resulting in more drought prone conditions. Off-site problems results
from sedimentation downstream which reduce the capacity of rivers and drainage ditches
enhance the risk of flooding, blocks irrigation canal and shortens the design life of the
reservoirs (Boardman, 1984)
Throughout Ethiopia area the land escape is subjected to water erosion under the action of
rain fall. The slope, nature of soil, erosion process by human activity and vegetation

6
influences the decisive soil erosion. As the population in Ethiopia increases the pressure on
land also increases in the form of more cultivation on steep slopes, removal of forest and over
utilization of grazing lands. Thousands of hectares are now under cultivation on slopes when
serious erosion could be prevented by terracing, soil erosion is perhaps the most serious form
of land degradation throughout the country in Ethiopia (Constable ,1985).
Taddese (2001) indicated that Ethiopia loses over 1.5 billion tons of soil each year from the
highlands by erosion resulting in the reduction of about 1.5 million tons of grain from the
country’s annual harvest. According to reports of World Bank (2007), the minimum annual
cost of soil erosion ranges between 2 and 3 per cent of the national agricultural GDP. This
clearly shows the extent to which soil erosion is a contributing factor to the country's
structural food insecurity problem (Bewuket, 2009). More recently, the government of
Ethiopia and development partners has been dedicated with considerable resources to
encourage soil and water management practices and technologies to reverse soil erosion
problems and improve rural livelihoods (Teshome et al., 2021).

Like other water erosion is visualize in the Ethiopia due to land escape configuration, human
activity and erratic rainfall characteristics. Water erosion in the form of runoff impairs
cultivated land, irrigated land and infrastructure. Due to this problem farmers loose or reduce
the production of their land which is ultimate source of their income. Therefore, the purpose
of this review is to present the extent of soil erosion effects on socio-economic aspect of
Farmers in Ethiopia.

1.2 General objective

The main objective of this review was to review the effects of soil erosion on the socio-
economic aspects of the farmers in Ethiopia.

7
Literature Review

1.3 Basic Concepts and Functions of Soil

Soil can be defined as the natural dynamic system of unconsolidated mineral and organic
material at the earth’s surface. It has been developed by physical, chemical and biological
processes including the weathering of rock and the decay of vegetation. Soil materials include
organic matter, clay, silt, sand and gravel mixed in such a way as to provide the natural
medium for the growth of land plants. Soil comprises organized profiles of layers more or
less parallel to the earth’s surface and formed by the interaction of parent material, climate,
organisms and topography over generally long periods of time. It differs markedly from its
parent material in morphology, properties and characteristics (Houghton and Charman, 1986)

Soil is the most fundamental and basic resource. Although erroneously dubbed as “dirt ” or
perceived as something of insignificant value, humans cannot survive without soil because it
is the basis of all terrestrial life. Essentiality of soil to human well-being is often not realized
until the production of food drops or is jeopardized when the soil is severely eroded or
degraded to the level that it loses its inherent resilience. Traditionally, the soil ’s main function
has been as a medium for plant growth (Blanco and Lal, 2008). However, soil provides four
main functions, including production functions, physiological functions, cultural functions
and ecological functions (Mitiku et al., 2006)

1.4 The Concept of Erosion

Erosion, as it affects man and its environment, is natural and as old as the earth itself
(OMAFRA Staff, 2003). It is seen as the gradual washing away of soil through the agents of
denudation which include, wind, water and man (Abegunde, el al 2003). These denudating
agents loose, wear away, dislodge, transport and deposit wear off soil particles and nutrients
in another location. The classification of soil erosion therefore could be based in its causative
factors mentioned above. Hence, we have wind, water and anthropogenic (man-made)
erosions.
Soil erosion is a two-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil particles

8
from the soil mass and their transport by erosive agents such as running water and wind.
When sufficient energy is no longer available to transport the particles, a third phase,
deposition, occurs (Morgan, 2005).
The process of soil erosion could be slow and continues unnoticed, or it may occur at an
alarming rate causing serious loss of top soil. soil erosion by water, its classification depends
on its level and degree of formation. This is because a combination of agents may work
together to form one type of erosion or the other.
This classification includes sheet, rill, and channel and gully erosion. Sheet erosion begins
with slow and progressive removal of a thin but fairly uniform layer of topsoil from an area
by flood or run-off. Rill erosion occurs when run-off water laden with soil particles and
debris erodes an area of land surface more than others (OMAFRA Staff, 2003). Repeated rill
erosion along a run-off path that creates a vertical bank not deeper than three meters produces
channel erosion. Gully erosion occurs when deep and large channel assuming great depths are
created by run-off water (Abegunde, et al 2003).

One third of the world’s agricultural soils, or roughly 2 billion hectares of land, was reported
as being affected by soil degradation. Water and wind erosion account for 84% of this
observed damage (Hurni, 2002). Water erosion representing about 56% of the total degraded
land and wind erosion affects about 28% of the total degraded land (Blanco and Lal, 2008).

In Ethiopia, rapid population growth, cultivation on steep slopes, clearing of vegetation and
overgrazing are the main factors that accelerate soil erosion (Hurni, 2002). Similarly, as stated
by Paulos (2001) the unique topography, type of soil, deforestation, intensive rainfall and low
level of land management and the type of land use practiced all have resulted in heavy runoff
that induced soil erosion particularly in the northern and central highlands.

Ethiopia is considered to have one of the most serious soil degradation problems in the world.
The average annual rate of soil loss in Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 tons/ha/yr, and it can
drastically exceed this on steep slopes with soil loss rates greater than 300 tons/ha/year,
where vegetation is denuded. On over 2 million hectares, the soil depth is so reduced that the
land is no longer able to support cultivation (USAID CRSPT, 2000). Soil erosion is taking

9
place all over the country but because of the effect of overpopulation on land that is already
fragile (steep and mountainous), and mismanagement of the land itself the northern and
central highlands are the worst affected (Paulos, 2001).

As soil degradation in the northern highlands of Ethiopia advanced, people moved

southwards, particularly to the Oromiya highlands. This situation is still putting pressure on
the highlands of Oromiya region. Increased demand for trees/forests for construction and
fuel, and expansion of farmlands to steep and marginal areas has also contributed to
degradation. The present extent of soil degradation which is over a very large area of the
Hararghe highlands, North and East Shewa, and Wellega, Arsi and other zones is evidence of
the unabated spread of soil degradation in the region (Bezuayehu et al., 2002). In Ethiopian
highlands on agricultural lands, degradation of soil is the most deteriorating process and it
reached to a state where the land has turned into badlands and agriculture has abandoned
even though different efforts has been undertaken (Hurni et al., 2010). Thus, soil erosion is a
serious problem in Ethiopia.

1.5 Factors Affecting Water Erosion

1.5.1 Climate
The relationship between precipitation characteristics and runoff soil loss is complex. Rill
erosion is the function of runoff rate, which depends both on rainfall intensity and soil
infiltration rates.

1.5.2 Topography
Topographical features that influence erosion are degree of slope, shape and length of slope,
and size and shape of the watershed. On steep slopes, runoff water is more erosive and can
more easily transport detached sediment down slope. On longer slopes, an increased
accumulation of over land flow tends to increase rill erosion. Concave slopes, with lower
slopes at the foot of the hill are less erosive than convex slopes (Glen o. Schwab et al, 1931).
The problem of the use of sloping land for crop production is very important for the area of
central part of the republic of Serbia, whose 87% of its total area is on a slope of more than 5-

10
10 degree. This topographic condition does not suit for crop production and creates many
problems due to sever water erosion (Boardman, 1989)

1.5.3 Population
Population food shortages are forcing landless peoples and large farmers to deforestation and
cultivate on steep slopes. The consequences are being tremendous erosion and damage to the
downstream areas, washing away the more fertile and productive soil from the area (sheng,
1982).

1.6 Socio –Economic Effects of Soil Erosion

The most serious problem of Ethiopia’s land resources is soil erosion (Paulos, 2001). Eroded
topsoil particles contain a higher percentage of clay minerals, organic matter and nutrients
than the remaining (sub-) soil itself. This means that even a seemingly minor loss of topsoil
per year can reduce soil productivity. In addition, spatial soil fertility distribution easily
changes to the worse: while fertility decreases by means of erosion on a relatively large area
(e.g. ridges and slopes), the eroded fertile material deposits in deep accumulations covering
only a relatively small area (e.g. valley bottoms) (Mitiku et al., 2006). Thus, as a result of soil
erosion, soil organic matter has declined, soil nutrients depleted, and soil depth decreased
leading to the decline in yield of crops and forages (Paulos, 2001).

A study by Shibru (2010) in Limo Woreda reported that the loss of soil productivity leads to
reduced farm income and food insecurity, particularly among the rural poor and thus
continuing or worsening poverty. In developing countries people are more dependent on
natural resources, particularly renewable natural resources, than people in developed
countries, and this dependence leads to resource depletion and degradation.

In general, soil erosion has both on-site and off-site effects. On-site effects are particularly
important on agricultural land where the redistribution of soil within a field, the loss of soil
from a field, the breakdown of soil structure and the decline in organic matter and nutrient
result in a reduction of cultivable soil depth and a decline in soil fertility. Erosion also
reduces available soil moisture, resulting in more drought-prone conditions. The net effect is

11
a loss of productivity, which restricts what can be grown and results in increased expenditure
on fertilizers to maintain yields (Morgan, 2005).

This affects about 2.6 billion people worldwide who depend directly on agriculture; the
majority of them being subsistence peasants (Mitiku et al., 2006). Off-site problems arise
from sedimentation downstream or downwind, which reduces the capacity of rivers and
drainage ditches, enhances the risk of flooding, blocks irrigation canals and shortens the
design life of reservoirs (Morgan, 2005).

the degradation of soils is one of the crucial issues of environmental damage, not only at the
local scale but also at the global scale. But until today soil degradation has been insufficiently
talked at all levels as compared with global climate change and the loss of biological
diversity (Hurni ,2002).

1.7 Soil Conservation Efforts in Ethiopia

The aim of soil conservation is to obtain the maximum sustained level of production from a
given area of land whilst maintaining soil loss below a threshold level which, theoretically,
permits the natural rate of soil formation to keep place with the rate of soil erosion. In
addition, there may be a need to reduce erosion to control the loss of nutrients from
agricultural land to prevent pollution of water bodies; to decrease rate of sedimentation in
reservoirs, rivers, canals, ditches and her bourse; and to limit crop damage by burial beneath
water. In the larger term erosion must be controlled to prevent land deteriorating in quality
until it has to be abandoned and cannot be reclaimed, thereby limiting option for future use.
Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented but it can be reduced to maximum
acceptable rate (Morgan, R.P.C 1986)

An agricultural land erosion prevents centers round the need to control surface runoff. This
can be achieved both by the adaptation of agricultural practices that helps to reduce the
generation of runoff and the prevent of that runoff from accumulating to erosion volume.
Equally adoption of farming system that maintain a vegetation cover, particularly at critical
times of a year, will do much to prevent surface runoff from eroding the soil over which it

12
flows cross-slope interceptors provide appositive approach either by encouraging infiltration
or by diverting surface runoff to a controlled structure (ditch or pipe). Such interceptors
whether grass strips, ditches or hedges become erosive (e.g., Evans and Norteliff, 1987;
Boardman, 1984). In effect they reduce the slope length by breaking it in to a series of shorter
section.

Cultivation practices can also be altered to reduce the erosion risk. Consideration of safety
and mechanical efficiency have led to the almost universal practice of performing field
operations up and down the slope, thereby minimizing the risk of overturning from
machinery (Hunter, 1981). However, in some cases, it is possible to implement cross-slope
management. Avoidance of over cultivation and over compaction also minimizes the risk of
erosion by encouragement of infiltration throughout the field. A good vegetation cover can
stabilize soil, increase the surface roughness and reduce kinetic energy of the rainfall (Evans
and Cook, 1986).

1.8 Soil Erosion and Sustainability Issues in Ethiopia

The inherent risks of soil degradation for all other natural resources, such as water, biological
diversity, and for the feeding of future generations call for a general framework of sustainable
use of soils and protection from overexploitation, pollution and destruction. Such a
framework will have to include all concerned stakeholders, all land use types including nature
conservation, and all scales from the local action on a field to internationally binding
agreements. Protective measures and actions are needed at different levels of intervention in
order to be able to ensure that local technology and regulative mechanisms complement each
other in a long-lasting and sustainable manner. The various functions of the soil resource,
ecological and economic, cultural and social, should be maintained for present and future
generations in all nations of the world (Hurni, 2002).

For these reasons sustainable land management is now receiving considerable attention from
development experts, policy makers, researchers and educators (Mitiku et al. 2006).

13
Conclusion and Recommend

Conclusion

Water erosion is a very important factor in impairing and damaging different bases for the
improvement of social and economic condition of the people. There are many factors that can
affect the distribution and level of damage of water erosion, especially, topography, human
activity, land use and rainfall characteristics are the main factors. Due to these factors water
erosion can varies its effect on different land use and vary from year to year. As the rainfall
intensity increases, soil particles can easily detach and the water have no time to infiltrate
which leads to flow as over flow that can rapidly erode the soil. From lands damaged by
water erosion as a result of dissection and formation of gully specially steep slope areas. On
the other hand, the off-site effect of water erosion is deterioration of foot slope lands, roads
distraction and sedimentation of canals and reservoirs and widening of streams. Peoples were
sacrificing their time and energy to conserve and protect water erosion. Conservation
measures are important to reduce risks of erosion and maintain the productivity of land. Due
to this reason the government plays a great role in coordination and organization of the
peoples to undertake SWC practices.

14
Recommendation
As tried to discuss in the result and discussion part soil erosion by water is every important
factor in impairing and damaging the development of the social and economic condition of
the people. It decreases the social and economic aspects of the community of since it affects
farm land, irrigated land and infrastructures. So that different conservation mechanism must
be used to increase the productivity of the land. Depending on the reflected result and
discussion the following point should be taken as recommendation.
Detail investigation of the areas and geological formation and severity of erosion must be
carried out first. Appropriate conservation measures must be planned for the investigated
areas. Community participation plan and real implementation of those plans is essentially
carried out.

For better production good SWC measures should be carried out on a wide scale. Physical
SWC measures must be takes place with biological (vegetative) measures to reduce the
detachment of the soil and to enhance the life span of the structures. The upper catchment of
water shed must be treated first to reduce the velocity and intensity of runoff that cause
erosion of Soil erosion management should be achieved by society as well as the government.
The constructed structures should be properly maintained. In association by the local
community and government.

The government policy should be implemented for the feature that aggravates soil erosion
like deforestation, over grazing, distraction of constructed structures etc. Both direct and
indirect economic incentives should be given to the society to increase the ability and
willingness of farmers to undertake SWC practices. Different government and NGOs must be
invited into the areas to support the communities in financial affairs during the construction
of structures. Both theoretical and practical training should be given to increase the awareness
of the society.

15
References

Abegunde, A.A. et al (2003):”The impact of Erosion on Rural Economy: The Case of Nanka
in Anambra State of Nigeria”. In Urban Finance and Infrastructure Development in
Nigeria.
Yomi Fawehinmi (ed.) Atlantis Books. PP227-243.
Ananda J and Herath G. (2003)”Soil Erosion in Developing Countries: a Social Economic
Appraisal.
Pub Med (www.pub med.gov.J.environ managr.2003 Ang; 68(4):343-53 ELSEVIER.
Beijing Time (People’s daily) (2002) “Soil Erosion, Biggest Global Environmental Problem”.
Tuesday, May 28, 2002 in http://english.people daily.com.cn.
Burke, Gerald (1979): Towns in the Making. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited, London.
Claassen, Roger (2004): Have conservation Compliance Incentives Reduced Soil Erosion?
Amber Waves.
The Economic of Food, Farming, Natural Resources and Rural America, June 2004.
(http://evs.usda.gov/Amwber wave / June 04/features/have Conservation htm.Dlamini,
Wisdom: “Disappearing land!-Soil Degradation” Swaziland National Trust Commission
in http//www.sntc.org.sz/eeartides/soiloleg.html
FAO Corporate Document Repository-”Aquatic plants and wetland wildlife
resourcesofNigeria....)”.Inhttp://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=//
docrep/005/t3660e/T3660E06.htm Food and Agriculture Organisation:Soil use/soil
erosion”.
In http//www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/earthscience/geology/soils,http://
www.batany.uwc.ac.za.
Hanyona Singly (2001):”Soil Erosion Threatens Farm Land of Saharan Africa ”. In The Earth
Times, January 10, 2001. (http://forests.org/archieve/african/so erthre htm Li, Y.T. and
Deng J.Y (2004):”Ecological Change & Flood and Sedimentation Disaster in Yangtze

16
 River Basin.”
In Environmental Informatics Archives. Volume 2 (2004), 471-478. ISEIS publication.
New swatch Communications Limited (1987): New swatch Report: 7, December.
Ofomata, G.E.K. (1984)”Erosion in the forest zone of Nigeria”. A Paper Presented at the 27 th
Annual Conference of Geographical Association of Nigeria, University of Nigeria,
Nssuka.Olori, Toye (2006):”Villagers flee landslides”. In
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/links/adv.asp?blurb=68
Okin, G.S. (2002): “Toward a Unified View of Biophysical Land Degradation Processes In
Arid and Semi-arid Lands”. In Global Desertification: Do Humans Cause Deserts?
Edited by J.F. Reynolds and D.M. Stafford Smith. Dahlem University Press. Pp95-97.
OMAFRA Staff (2003):”Soil Erosion, Causes and Effects”. Ridge Town and College of
Agricultural Technology, Ontario Institute of Pedagogy
http://www.search.gov.on.ca.8002/compass?view-template=simplr.
Owens, David W.et al (2000)”Soil Erosion from Two Small Construction Sites in
County,Wiscomsin”. In Third World Network (TWN ONLINE).
http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/land-ch.htm U.S. Geological Survey.USGS Fact sheet
FS-109-00 August 2000. (http://wi.water.usgs.gov).
World Resource Institute, World Resources (1998-99) “a Guide to the Global Environment
(1998)”, UNDP, UN Hurni, H. (1988). Degradation and conservation of soil resources in
the Ethiopian highlands. Mountain Research and Development, 8(2/3), 123-130. Bewket,
W. (2007). Soil and water conservation intervention with conventional technologies in
northwestern highlands of Ethiopia: Acceptance and adoption by farmers. Land
Degradation & Development, 18(3), 289-302.Alebachew, A., & Gebremedhin, B. (2010).
Economic impact of soil and water conservation measures in the Eastern Highlands of
Ethiopia: A contingent valuation analysis. Ecological Economics, 69(11), 2143-
2152.Taddese, G. (2001). Land degradation: A challenge to Ethiopia. Environmental
Management, 27(6), 815-824,Mekonnen, M. M., & K&hlin, G. (2008) Lal, R. (2015).
Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Environmental International, 81, 265-
272,Montgomery, D. R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings

17
of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(33), 13268-13272.3Boardman, J., & Poesen,
J. (2006). Soil erosion in Europe: major processes, causes and consequences. In Soil
erosion in Europe (pp. 1-27). John Wiley & Sons.4. Trimble, S. W., & Mendel, A. C.
(1995). The cow as a geomorphic agent—a critical review. Geomorphology, 13(3-4),
233-253 Walling, D. E., & Fang, D. (2003). Recent trends in the suspended sediment
loads of the world's rivers

18