FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND SURVEY

DEPARTMENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

EFFECTS OF BROKEN CLAY BRICKS IN TREATMENT OF GREY WATER TO

BE USED FOR IRRIGATION

A CASE STUDY OF NAKASONGOLA DISTRICT IN UGANDA.

BY

BAMWINE FRED NAMUBIRU GLADYS

REG. NO.: 19/2/328/W/077 REG. NO.: 19/2/328/W/1265

RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO NDEJJE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF

ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF BACHELOR’S DEGREE OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING OF
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
NOVEMBER, 2022
 APPROVAL
This research proposal has been submitted for examination purposes, supervised and
approved by:

………………………………….

Mrs. AKASIIMA LORNA KAIJUKA

DATE:

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Table of contents
APPROVAL...............................................................................................................................i

Table of contents........................................................................................................................ii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................1

1.1 Background.....................................................................................................................1

1.2 Problem Statement..........................................................................................................3

1.3 Objectives of the Study........................................................................................................5

1.3.1 Main Objective..............................................................................................................5

1.3.2 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................5

1.4 Research Questions..........................................................................................................5

1.5 Justification......................................................................................................................6

1.6 Significance of the Study.................................................................................................6

1.7 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................6

1.8 Organization of the Study.................................................................................................7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................8

2.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................8

2.1 Conceptual definitions.........................................................................................................8

2.1.1 Domestic Wastewater....................................................................................................8

2.1.2 Nature and Quality of grey water..................................................................................9

2.2 Nature of Grey water......................................................................................................10

2.2.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Grey water......................................................10

2.2.2 Microbiological characteristics of Grey water........................................................13

2.3 Classification of Grey water...........................................................................................13

2.3.1 Physical treatment systems......................................................................................13

2.3.1.1 Membrane Filtration.............................................................................................14

2.3.2 Soil Filtration...........................................................................................................14

2.3.3 Sand Filtration.........................................................................................................15

2.4 Use of clay in the treatment of Grey water....................................................................15

 2.5 Use of treated Grey water in crop irrigation...................................................................16

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY................................................................................17

3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................17

3.1 Research Design.............................................................................................................17

3.2 Description of the Study Area........................................................................................17

3.4 Research Approach.........................................................................................................18

3.5 Focus Population............................................................................................................18

3.6 Sampling design and procedures....................................................................................19

3.7 Sampling Techniques.....................................................................................................19

3.8 Grey water Samples........................................................................................................19

3.9 Variables and Measurement Procedures........................................................................20

3.10 Methods of Data Collection.........................................................................................20

3.10.1 Types of Data........................................................................................................20

3.11 Data Processing and Analysis......................................................................................22

3.12 Validity and Reliability................................................................................................22

3.13 Ethical Consideration...................................................................................................23

REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................23

APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................28

Appendix I : Proposed study Budget....................................................................................28

Appendix II: Proposed Schedule for the study.....................................................................29

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:One of the abandoned underground water tanks in Nakasongola district 3

Figure 2: Some of the boreholes in areas of Nakasongola district 4

Figure3:Non-functioning rain water harvesting tank Nakasongola district 4

Figure 4: One of the water sources (valley dam) in Nakasongola district 4

Figure 5: House with broken gutters meant to transfer rainwater to the tank 4

Figure 6: Types of wastewater 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

From the world's population, more than 1 billion people lack access to clean water, most of
who live in Africa and Asia. In consideration of the severity of the problem, the United
Nations (UN) initiated the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) action plan in the year
2000. One of the MDGs targets was, to reduce by half, in 2015, the number of people who
have no access to clean water but still 780 million people lack access to clean drinking water
currently (Habitat, 2018).
Grey water refers to wastewater from laundry, bathtubs, showers, kitchen sinks and washing
dishes (Eriksson et al., 2002). Grey water comprises 50–80% of the total residential
wastewater generated (Al-Jayyousi, 2003). Grey water usually receives the least attention
compared to other environmental aspects like solid waste and black water, particularly in
low- and medium-income countries where it is often discharged into environment untreated.
(Morel & Diener, 2006)
Globally, the use of treated wastewater and/or grey water is emerging as an integral part of
water demand management, promoting preservation of high quality fresh water as well as
reducing pollutants in the environment and overall supply costs (Lu & Leung, 2003). In the
wake of growing pressure on freshwater resources around the world coupled with
increasingly scarce, expensive, and/or politically controversial new supply schemes (Al-
Jayyousi, 2003), efforts are underway to identify new ways of meeting water needs.
The idea to reuse treated grey water is basically aimed at reducing the ever increasing
demand for use of potable water. In Jordan, water resources are characterized by scarcity,
variability, and uncertainty, creating the need to reuse/recycle greywater (Al-Jayyousi, 2003).
Greywater use is not limited to countries with a dry climate such as Jordan. In the
Mediterranean region and European countries, the use of recycled water has also increased.
The use of treated grey water is among the potential alternative sources of water. Although
previously considered unusable, use of treated grey water is becoming an attractive addition
to water-management options, for example, irrigation (Delgado et al., 2008).
The comparatively low levels of income in the average rural households necessitate a shift in
the way water is utilized as a resource. Therefore, it is imperative that the development of
sustainable water treatment systems at low cost be prioritized. This will not only enable
households to save on the money they spend on water bills but also engage in economic

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activities such as urban farming to improve on their household incomes and nutritional health
(Belisari et al., 2019).

Reuse of treated greywater ensures that our surface water bodies such as lakes and rivers will
be less polluted and in effect bring down the cost per unit of fresh water pumped by National
Water and Sewage Corporation (NWSC) (Asiimwe & Naiga, 2015). The economic,
environmental, and health dividend that accrues from the assessment of grey water treatment
systems in urban, peri-urban and water-stressed rural areas cannot be overemphasized.
However, environmental and health concerns can only be addressed considerably if the
treated greywater conforms to acceptable Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and
World Health Organisation (WHO) standards.

Treating greywater subjects to one or more physical, chemical, and biological processes to
reduce its contamination. The use of organo-clays has proven to be very viable for many
water treatment applications. Organo-clays operate via a partitioning phenomenon and have a
synergistic effect with activated carbon and other unit processes such as reverse osmosis (S.
M. N. Uddin et al., 2016).

According to Awasthi et al., (2019) clay is used in water purification primarily as a coagulant
or floc-building agent. In the coagulation process, the floc particles are brought closer
together thereby increasing their weight. In addition, colloidal suspended materials (hydrous
aluminum oxide) and some bacteria are enmeshed into a jelly-like aggregate that settles
rapidly sweeping all other suspended materials into the sludge areas of the sedimentation
unit. The resultant relatively clear supernatant water to flow on to the sand and gravel filters
for final clarification.

Beall, (2003) discussed that the application of adsorbent clay in the process of water
purification may accomplish one or more of the four essential functions in treatment plants:
These functions include; rapid settling of suspended material which is frequently attained in
conjunction with the regular coagulant (widens hydrogen-ion concentration-coagulation
range); reduction or entire elimination of substances contributing to taste and odour;
appreciable reduction of coloring matter imparted to the water from vegetable sources,
especially when used with alum coagulation and reducing the cost of water softening through
its zeolitic effects.

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Water security (be it the challenge of too little water over long periods of time or too much
water all at once) is one of the most tangible and fastest growing social, political, and
economic challenges the world faces today (Štreimikienė, 2012).

Nakasongola, a cattle corridor district, usually faces water stress challenges, and therefore,
interventions involving water harvesting and treatment will always produce results.
Occasionally, prolonged dry spells and droughts severely affect farmers leading to
unsustainable coping strategies such as; sale of household assets, indiscriminate charcoal
production (which degrades the environment) and reduction in the number of meals per day.
In extreme cases, cattle farmers migrate to faraway places in search of pastures and water for
their animals (nomadism). Sometimes, crop failure is so severe that up to 92% of yield losses
occur; in such scenarios, farm families totally become food-insecure (Kaweesi, 2015).

1.2 Problem Statement

Nakasongola is one of the districts in Uganda which faces a problem of water scarcity. The
most affected sub-counties include Lwabiyata, Nakitoma, Nabiswera, Lwampanga and
Wabinyonyi.

Subsistence farming is considered as the major source of livelihood to the residents of

Nakasongola. However, inadequate precipitation has always caused frustration to them.
Nakasongola has over 1,188 domestic water points of which 67 are non-functional and have
been abandoned for the last 5 years (Wasswa, 2019).

Figure 1: One of the abandoned underground water tanks in Nakasongola district

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As a result, people rely on valley tanks and boreholes for domestic and agricultural purposes
which often dry up over persistent droughts (Kaweesi, 2015). So, it is important to look at
treated grey water from households as an alternative water source for irrigation. This will go
a long way to alleviate some of challenges associated with water scarcity already elucidated
above.

Therefore, this research will assess the effects of broken clay bricks in treatment of grey
water to be used for irrigation, considering Nakasongola District in Uganda as a case study.

Figure 2: some of the boreholes in areas of Nakasongola Figure3:Non-functioning rain water harvesting tank Nakasongola
district district

Figure 4: One of the water sources (valley dam) in Figure 5 house with broken gutters meant to transfer rainwater to
Nakasongola district the tank

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 Main Objective

The general objective of this study is to assess the effects of broken clay bricks in treatment
of grey water to be used for irrigation in Nakasongola District.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The study intended to achieve the following specific objectives;

i. To examine the physical and chemical parameters of Greywater from households in

Nakasongola District. Physical parameters to be examined will include temperature
turbidity, odor and color. Chemical parameters to be examined will include
biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, nitrogen and phosphorous
contents.

ii. To examine the management of greywater and its associated challenges in

Nakasongola District.

iii. To analyse the effects of using clay bricks in the treatment of Grey water in
Nakasongola district.

iv. To assess the outcomes of using treated greywater during irrigation of crops in the
selected households in Nakasongola district.

1.4 Research Questions

The following Research questions will guide the study;

i) What are the physical and chemical parameters of the Grey water from households in
Nakasongola District?

ii) What are the challenges of Grey water management at Nakasongola District?

iii) What are the effects of using clay bricks in the treatment of Grey water from the
households in Nakasongola district?

iv) What are the outcomes of using treated greywater during irrigation of crops in the
selected households in Nakasongola district?

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1.5 Justification

Grey water consists of less organic matter than black water. When treated; it can be
appropriately used for irrigation of home gardens, lawns, flushing water for toilets and
various ablution purposes.

Basing on the challenges of water scarcity in Nakasongola District, there is need for a
solution to this problem. It is therefore hoped that this project will assess the situation and
suggest a household grey water management system.

This will establish the need for effective management systems to be put in place to curtail the
environmental impacts and develop grey water load reduction strategies. This will not only
benefit the resident population in the study area health-wise but also protect the natural
ecosystem in the area from the aggravating effects of grey water pollution.

1.6 Significance of the Study

It is expected that this study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge. The study
findings will assist responsible institutions in Uganda to make an informed decision on grey
water discharged in the environment. The study will further assist the individual households
to adopt sustainable grey water management systems which will minimize negative impacts
to the environment and human health. The findings from this research will further help
policymakers, environmental consultants and regulators, civil society organizations,
development partners, and other stakeholders to influence change in the proper management
of generated grey water.

In addition, the study will conform to the National Environmental Policy (1997) which
provides for use of clean technology, prevention and controlling of degradation of various
resources including water which supports life systems, controlling of pollution through
having treatment and recycling facilities, monitoring of such facilities and conduction of
environmental impact assessment (EIA) as an essential element in industrial planning and
development for taking account of potentially harmful activities on the environment.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study will assess the effects of broken clay bricks in treatment of grey water to be used
for irrigation.

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Specifically, it will examine the parameters of grey water from individual households in
Nakasongola, the effect of broken clay bricks in treatment of grey water, and will evaluate the
challenges of grey water treatment in Nakasongola. Data is to be collected from selected
homesteads in Nakasongola, environmental consultants and regulators.

1.8 Organization of the Study

The study is to be organized into five chapters. The first chapter will introduce the study and
provide the background and justification for the study, the second chapter will review the
relevant literature that will build the basis for the study. The third chapter will present the
methodology that will be used in the study. Chapter four will present the findings and chapter
five gives the conclusion and recommendations

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction

This chapter involves identifying and critically reading various works related to the research
problem under investigation. The chapter includes conceptual definitions, theoretical and
empirical reviews leading to the derivation, research gap and conceptual framework.

2.1 Conceptual definitions

2.1.1 Domestic Wastewater

Wastewater defines all used water in homes and industries including storm water and runoff from
lands, which must be treated before it is released into the environment in order to prevent any
harm or risk it may have on the environment and human health (Edokpayi, Durowoju, & Odiyo,
2017).

Historically, domestic wastewater has been split into two main categories: black water and
grey water (Delas et al., 2017). Grey water includes all wastewater generated in the home,
except toilet water which is considered as “black water” (Brain et al., 2015). The major types
of wastewater are clearly illustrated in Figure 6 below (Edokpayi, Durowoju, & Odiyo, 2017).

Figure 6 Types of wastewater

However, this study focuses on the treatment of domestic greywater from a kitchen, bathrooms
and laundry places.

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2.1.2 Nature and Quality of grey water

The physical, chemical, and microbial characteristics of grey water vary depending on a
number of factors; from sources to the household composition as well as the cleaning and
personal care habits of the residents (Marjoram et al., 2014).

According to Albalawneh & Chang, (2015), studies from developing countries like Yemen
and Amman show that 27% of grey water originates from the kitchen sinks and dishwashers,
47% originates from the wash basin, bathroom, and shower, and 26% originates from laundry
and the washing machine.

A study carried out by Kulabako et al., (2011) in Kawaala, Uganda indicated that the grey
water was characterized by high BOD5 (>30 mg/l) and COD (>100 mg COD/l) as well as
E.Coli (> 0 cfu/100 ml). These values necessitate treatment prior to disposal of the grey water
in the environment. According to Bakare et al., (2017), following a study in Durban (South
Africa) further argue that grey water generated from household kitchens and that from the
laundry is higher in organics and physical pollutants compared to bathroom and mixed grey
water.

The organics in the kitchen grey water can be attributed to the presence of food particles in it.
On the other hand, the organics in laundry grey water can be attributed to the occurrence of
organic micro pollutants (OMPs) emanating from fragrances and dyes (Mohamed et al.,
2018). The nature and quality of grey water depend on the volumes generated as well. In rural
low populated settlements, where the total amount of water used is little, low volumes of high
strength grey water are generated. On the other hand, in places where water consumption is
high (highly populated urban settlements), the volume of grey water is greater but more
diluted (Morel & Diener, 2006). However, this could also be attributed to the fact that rural
areas have a low service coverage of piped systems such that during such studies, the amount
of water captured is not accurately representative of the total amount of water utilized unlike
in urban areas where what is captured is a relatively good representation of the utilized water
due to a more comprehensive piped water system. As such, it is not impossible to find that
despite the difference in grey water volumes generated in these two settlements, the strength
of grey water is relatively similar.

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2.2 Nature of Grey water

The nature of grey water can be grouped into physico-chemical and biological qualities as
discussed in the subsequent subsections.

2.2.1 Physico-chemical Characteristics of Grey water

Oteng-Peprah et al., (2018) stated that the physical and chemical characteristics of grey water
with the parameters which describe the physical appearance of grey water and the sources of
the grey water respectively. A combination of physical and chemical characterisation gave
rise to the term physio-chemical characteristics. The parameters under this concept are
discussed below;

2.2.1.1 Temperature
The temperature of grey water is often higher than that of the water supply and varies within
a range of 18-30°C (Morel & Diener, 2006). The higher temperatures can be attributed to the
uses to which water supplied is subjected in the different grey water sources. In the bathroom
and kitchen, warm water is used for personal hygiene and cooking. Washing machines
generate heat while spinning the laundry. All this causes the resulting grey water to be of a
higher temperature than the water that was supplied. These high temperatures may favor
microbiological growth which is desirable for grey water treatment. On the other hand, they
may cause precipitation of carbonates such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and other
inorganic salts which become less soluble at high temperatures and can reduce the
permeability of the soil where the water is discharged untreated (Oteng-Peprah, De Vries, et
al., 2018).

2.2.1.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is caused by particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light making the
water appear cloudy or murky. Turbidity is also affected by several factors namely; size,
shape and composition of the particles(Robison, 2008). Left-over food and soil particles from
kitchen sinks, hair and fibres from laundry are sources of these turbidity causing particles in
greywater. These particles and colloids may even result in physical clogging of pipes, pumps
and filters used in treatment processes (Morel & Diener, 2006).

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2.2.1.3. pH
The pH indicates whether a liquid is acidic or basic. Greywater from laundry activities
exhibits a high pH due to the presence of alkaline materials in the used detergents (Oteng-
Peprah, De Vries, et al., 2018). A 2016 study by Siggins et al showed that a pH greater than
7.5 is considered to be sub-optimal for soil health and may inhibit plant growth by limiting
the availability of nutrients such as phosphorus, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum and
zinc. Kitchen greywater usually exhibits acidic conditions due to contamination with food
fractions, oils and its degradation occurs more rapidly in anoxic conditions which make it
more acidic (Bakare et al., 2017).

2.2.1.4 Odour
When greywater is stored, it turns septic, giving rise to offensive odours and providing
suitable conditions for microorganisms to multiply (WHO, 2006). Odors are usually caused
by gases such as hydrogen sulphide and other products of decomposition of organic matter in
anaerobic conditions.

2.2.1.5 Oil and Grease

This component is not as prominent in other sources of greywater as it is for the kitchen. This
is obviously attributed to the fats from the food prepared therein. As soon as the kitchen
greywater cools down, grease and fat coagulate and can cause mats on the interior of pipes
and other surfaces (Morel & Diener, 2006). This matting reduces on the carrying capacity of
pipes which consequently causes them to operate below their design hydraulic loads.

2.2.1.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand is defined as a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by
aerobic bacteria to breakdown organic matter in a wastewater sample over a 5-day period at a
temperature of 20°C (Abdalla & Hammam, 2014). BOD5 speaks to the concentration of
organic matter in the wastewater stream. The higher the concentration of organic matter, the
higher the amount of oxygen used by the bacteria to oxidise them hence a high BOD5 value
and vice versa. Its concentration is expressed in milligrams per litre of wastewater sample
used (mg/l). In a study carried out by (Albalawneh & Chang, 2015), observations that the
BOD concentrations are within the range of 481,056 mg/l for dark greywater and 20-300
mg/l for light greywater were made. This can be attributed to the difference in sources for the
two variances of greywater. Dark greywater derives its high organic content from the

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relatively large amounts of food residues washed into kitchen drains. The greywater
encountered in this study had a relatively high BOD5 values due to this.

2.2.1.7 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand is the amount of oxygen necessary to completely oxidise all of the
organic carbon in wastewater turning it into carbon dioxide and water (Gerba & Pepper,
2015). Its concentration is measured milligrams per litre. The COD concentrations are within
the ranges 50-2,568 mg/l for dark greywater and 55-633 mg/l for light greywater
(Albalawneh & Chang, 2015) Dark greywater comprises higher COD concentrations due to
the presence of surfactants from laundry powders and dishwashing liquids (Albalawneh &
Chang, 2015).

2.2.1.8 COD/BOD ratio

The COD/BOD ratio indicates the level of biodegradability of a wastewater sample ((Achour
& Olabi, 2016). Biodegradability of greywater is primarily dependent on the type of
surfactants used in detergents and on the amount of oil and fat present in the greywater
(Morel & Diener, 2006).

Achour & Olabi, (2016) highlights the following conclusions about greywater regarding
various COD/BOD ratios;

 Less than 2 – Readily biodegradable

 Between 2 and 4 moderately biodegradable although the process will be relatively

slow

 Greater than 4 hardly biodegradable since the wastewater inhibits the metabolic
activity of the aerobic bacteria

2.2.1.9 Nitrogen
Nitrogen in greywater originates from ammonia and ammonia-containing cleansing products
as well as from proteins in meats, vegetables, protein-containing shampoos, and other
household products (Morel & Diener, 2006)

According to (S. M. N. Uddin et al., 2016) the measured concentration value of total nitrogen
in kitchen greywater is approximately 13-60 milligrams per litre in developing countries.

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2.2.1.10 Phosphorus
Morel & Diener, (2006) argue that dishwashing and laundry detergents are the primary
sources of phosphorus in grey water. The measured concentration value of total phosphorus
in kitchen grey water from developing countries is 3.1-10 milligrams per litre (S. M. N.
Uddin et al., 2016). The phosphorous removal processes in natural treatment systems include
chemical precipitation, sedimentation, sorption and plant and microbial uptake (Dotro et al.,
2017).

2.2.2 Microbiological characteristics of Grey water

Contrary to popular belief, grey water has traces of some rather harmful microbial pathogens
such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and intestinal parasites (Morel & Diener, 2006). These
pathogens originate from excreta of infected persons which is disposed into the grey water by
way of hand washing after toilet use, washing of babies after defecation and also washing of
vegetables and raw meat. The pathogens pose a significant threat to soil, crops as well as
human beings who might accidentally ingest the helminths. Uddin et al., (2016) reported the
following ranges for microbiological parameters of greywater from kitchens in developing
countries;

From the greywater to be encountered in this study, such pathogens are expected to be found
in the grey water following from washing of raw meat and vegetables as well as washing of
hands.

2.3 Classification of Grey water

Often, aerobic and biological treatments are used as primary greywater treatment to remove
dissolved and suspended biological matter, followed by ultra-filtration to prevent particles,
bacteria and viruses of passing through (Oteng-Peprah, Acheampong, et al., 2018).Treatment
systems are used to reduce the level of contamination in the grey water before reuse or
disposal into the environment. The method of treatment adopted by each system ranges from
physical, chemical and biological as discussed in the subsequent subsections.

2.3.1 Physical treatment systems

Physical treatment of grey water is done by means of filtration. Filtration is often used as a
pretreatment system to remove as much TSS and COD in form of suspended solids as
possible before further treatment (Oteng-Peprah, De Vries, et al., 2018). While solid particles
get trapped within the filtration matrix, COD and BOD removal is assisted by a biofilm layer
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that eventually forms on the surface of the filtration medium (Boyjoo et al., 2013). Some of
the filtration media include membranes, sand and soil. These different filtration media yield
varying contaminant removal efficiencies when treating wastewater.

2.3.1.1 Membrane Filtration

This refers to the retention of suspended solids as the grey water passes over a porous
medium (membrane). There are various kinds of membranes which have been applied in the
physical treatment of grey water such as nylon, ultra filtration membranes and nano-filtration
membranes.

Nylon sock membrane

A low strength bath grey water was treated by a system which used a nylon sock type filter
followed by sedimentation and disinfection by hypochlorite in a hotel in Spain. The study
claimed that the reclaimed grey water could be used for toilet flushing under controlled
working conditions such as a particular residual chlorine concentration in the toilet tank (Li et
al., 2009).

Ultra Filtration Membrane

The use of an Ultra Filtration (UF) membrane entails making use of pressure and
concentration gradients to separate material from liquids. The pore sizes of the membranes
play an important role on the treatment performance by creating said difference. A report by
(Li et al., 2009) cites the usage of a 0.05 μm pore size for the treatment of laundry grey water.
The UF membrane provided a limited removal of the dissolved organics but an excellent
removal of the suspended solids, turbidity and pathogens.

Nano Filtration Membrane

Nano filtration (NF) membranes utilize nanometer sized pores to retain contaminants. The
permeate from the NF is well suited for all-purpose unrestricted reuse (Boyjoo et al., 2013).
Despite the performance efficiencies, membrane filtration is not widely used due to its high
operating and maintenance costs (Li et al., 2009). Furthermore, the membrane fouling due to
degradation of retained solids makes this method less preferred.

2.3.2 Soil Filtration

Soil filtration refers to the retention of suspended solids and other contaminants from water in
a soil medium as the water flows through the different soil layers. Due to the nitrification and

Page 14 of 35
denitrification reactions in the soil treatment system, nitrogen was eliminated effectively. Its
efficiency in removal of other contaminants of grey water was reported by Li et al., (2009).

2.3.3 Sand Filtration

Sand filters trap suspended solids in their pore spaces as water flows through them. (Friedler
et al., 2006) reported the use of a standalone filtration unit in the treatment of light greywater
from an eight storey high building with six flats per storey in Israel. This system comprised
0.7 m deep of quartz sand supported by a 0.1 m deep gravel layer (diameter 2.2 mm).

2.4 Use of clay in the treatment of Grey water

Management of greywater graduates from simple to extremely complex when the necessary
strategies and technology is not in place or not properly implemented. Many developed
countries have however implemented from simple to advanced methods of handling,
managing and treating greywater with some countries recycling the greywater for both
potable and non-potable uses.

Aside the use of chemicals in treating high turbid waters, clay ceramics, both traditional and
modified types are proven to be effective as well. Although a number are yet to be
commercialized due to economic and other factors, there are several HWTS that are available
in the market using clay minerals as main filtering element. In addition to clay ceramics,
nanomaterials with high surface-to-volume ratio and high aspect ratios have been examined
for their potential application in water treatment technologies.

Uddin, (2017) defines the term clay as materials having particle size of less than 2 µm with
chemical analysis that reveals similar compositions and common crystal structures. Clays
could also be classified as phyllosilicates that belongs to three principle groups:
montmorillonite, illite and kaolinite.

Their physico-chemical properties varies but are essentially noted for their hydrous alumina-
silicates components. Clay ceramics are also noted for their hydro-plasticity (Annan et al.,
2012; Bergaya & Lagaly, 2006; Uddin, 2017). The unique properties of nanomaterials have
made them applicable as antimicrobial agents, adsorbents and photocatalyst. The inclusion of
nanomaterials such as TiO2, carbon nanotubes, hallo-site nano clays, Fe2O3., into already
existing water treatment technologies may enhance their efficiency in decontaminating of
polluted water bodies.

Page 15 of 35
2.5 Use of treated Grey water in crop irrigation

A long term study was undertaken in Oman of a Grey water treatment system that involved
filtration and chlorination (for disinfection) for reuse in households (Wani et al., 2016). The
effluent was used to irrigate home gardens after which the performance after irrigation was
assessed. The results showed that the treated Grey water (especially when mixed kitchen
wastewater) was rich in nutrients required by plants. The analysis of the crops both
chemically and biologically revealed that there were no contaminants detrimental to the
health and safety of a consumer. The soil also seemed to contain more nutrients compared to
a sample that was treated using freshwater.

According to (Wani et al., 2016), another study was done in which different types of crops
were grown and watered using different types of water i.e. groundwater, treated wastewater
or a combination of both. The results from this study showed that plant productivity was
increased for the crops that were watered by the treated wastewater. From this, it is quite
evident how good treated water can be for plants i.e. irrigation purposes.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter will provide the description of the Research methodology which includes;
description of the study area, Research approach, Research design, variables and
measurement procedures, methods of data collection, data processing and analysis as well as
ethical consideration.

3.1 Research Design

This study will use the embedded experimental design. Embedded experimental
design/mixed-method design is one that provides a supportive secondary role in a study
based on primarily on the other data type (Kothari, 2004).

Embedded mixed method Research is suitable in cases where single research components
may not be sufficient to answer all Research questions. This research design will be
appropriate because the researcher needs to embed a qualitative component within the
quantitative design as a case of experimental design. Therefore, the design will help the
researcher to achieve the main objective of the study.

3.2 Description of the Study Area

Nakasongola District was established in 1997. Prior to that, it was part of Luweero District.it
is dominated by indigenous Bantu known as Baruuli who originated from Congo area before
occupying the present day Nakasongola District.

Nakasongola District is located in the Central region of Uganda. It is approximately

3,511.8km2 (1355.9sq mi), by land, 225.8km2 (87.2sq mi) by water and 1160m (3810ft) by
elevation. It has a population of 156,500 people according to the 2012 population estimate
(www.nakasongola.go.ug). It is bordered by Apac District to the North-West, Amolatar
District to the north-east, Kayunga District to the East, Luweero District to the South,
Nakaseke District to the south-west and Masindi District to the north-west.

The coordinates of Nakasongola are:1°18'32.0"N, 32°27'23.00"E (Latitude:1.3333;

Longitude:32.5000)

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3.4 Research Approach

The Research approach is the plan showing a strategy of investigation aimed at obtaining
relevant data that fulfill the Research objectives and provision of answers to Research
questions. It is the framework within which the study is conceptualized in terms of theory,
sampling, data collection techniques, and the administration of data collection tools. This
study will employ the mixed Research approach both quantitative and qualitative Research
approach.

A quantitative approach is based on the measurement of quantity and amount. The

quantitative approach is the mathematical method of measuring and describing the
observation of materials or characteristics (Kothari, 2004). Therefore, a quantitative approach
will be used in this study because it will enable the researcher to collect numerical data from
respondents regarding the greywater treatment strategies in rural areas of Nakasongola
district. The collected data will be quantitatively recorded.

The qualitative Research approach on the other hand is a design that is flexible and it captures
the experiences of participants in their natural settings. The qualitative research approach has
its own characteristics: First, it is flexible to enable the researcher to consider the surprising
of the field. Second, it is the approach that requires the researcher to collect information and
present the participant’s own experience and not the researcher’s perceptions, ideas,
understanding, and value judgments. Third, it is holistic, in that it seeks to answer questions
like; when, who, why, what, and by who. Lastly, the design emphasizes the in-depth study of
the phenomenon. Thus, it requires researchers to go down into the mental modules of their
participants (Patton, 2002).

The qualitative research approach will be adopted due to its characteristics because the study
intended to capture the respondent’s experience effects of broken clay bricks in the treatment
of grey water to be used for irrigation. Therefore, the mixed approach will be suitable in this
study as it will ensure the provision of all necessary information about the topic under
investigation.

3.5 Focus Population

Phrasisombath, (2009) defines population of the study as the population to which a Proposer
wants to generalize the results of the study. Population involves a larger group of people,
institution or thing that has one or more characteristics in common on which a study focuses.

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It consists of all cases of individuals or elements that fit a certain specification (Kothari,
2004). The target population for this study includes individual homesteads from the five sub-
counties of Lwabiyata, Nakitoma, Nabiswera, Lwampanga, and Wabinyonyi.

The study will also include environmental regulators (National Environmental Authority and
Ministry of water and Environment), and local leaders within Nakasongola district.

3.6 Sampling design and procedures

According to (Sõnmev et al., 2018) sampling helps a lot in research. It is one of the most
important factors which determine the accuracy of the study. Sampling involves the selection
of a number of study units from a defined study population. A Research should take as big
sample as possible. With a big sample, the Researcher is confident that if another sample of
the same size were selected, findings from the two samples would be similar to a high degree
(Sõnmev et al., 2018).

The sample size for this study will be 60 respondents where by 10 respondents will be
purposely taken due to their knowledge on the subject matter, of which 5 will be local leaders
of the 5 villages to be involved in this study, 2 officials from the Ministry of Water and
Environment and from the National Environment Management Authority. A total of 50
community members from 5 five sub counties will be selected and they will be the major
source of greywater to be used in this study. A preliminary study will be conducted to
identify the domestic unit water discharges.

3.7 Sampling Techniques

In this study, purposive sampling techniques will be used to select potential and information
rich cases individuals. It will allow the researcher to use cases that have the required
information with respect to the objectives of the study (Sõnmev et al., 2018). It will be used
to select local leaders or their representatives, NEMA and Ministry of Water and
Environment officials and the community around the selected homesteads. The researcher
will also collect the material samples from the drain pipes where effluents of all selected
households are discharged for laboratory test so as to examine physical and chemical
parameters of grey water.

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3.8 Grey water Samples

Grey water samples will be collected in the plastic bottles of different sizes ranging from 0.5
to 1.5 liters in order to serve for the kind of analysis needed for each sample. Samples will be
stored in a cool box from the site to the laboratory. Upon arrival in the laboratory the samples
will be preserved using concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (2ml per one liter of the
sample) and will be stored in the refrigerator while waiting for analysis. The Grey water
analysis will include both physical and chemical parameters. The physical parameters will
include pH, alkalinity, color, electrical conductivity (EC), total suspended solids (TSS) and
total dissolved solids (TDS). The chemical parameters that will be analyzed include
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).

3.9 Variables and Measurement Procedures

Van Blerkom, (2009), defined the term variable as a measurable characteristic that assumes
different values among the subject. Variables may be either independent or dependent. This
study will have two variables, effects of broken clay bricks as the independent variable and
the treatment of greywater as dependent variable. Validity on the other hand refers to whether
or not the test measures what it claims to measure. The validity of the instruments for data
collection will be done through expert review and pilot testing. Pilot study will be done and
corrections or adjustments will be made accordingly in relation to the topic under study. The
results of the pilot study will not be included in the final research findings. Reliability, on the
other hand, is the degree or extent to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring
whatever it is measuring.

Reliability requires the administration of the same test to the same respondents twice with a
short time interval after the first test. For the data collection tools, a correlation coefficient
between the two sets of results will be calculated. Only a reliability coefficient of 0.6 or 0.7
and above will be accepted.

3.10 Methods of Data Collection

3.10.1 Types of Data

Data refers to the facts, observations or experiences on which an argument or theory is

constructed or tested. Data may be numerical, descriptive, aural or visual. Data may be raw,
abstracted or analyzed, experimental or observational. Researchers, recognize two types of
data: primary data and secondary data. Primary data are the information a researcher obtains
Page 20 of 35
from the field. Secondary data are the information researchers obtains from research articles,
books or casual interviews (Fellous-Sigrist, 2015). This study will include both primary and
secondary data which will help to get enough information about the effects of broken clay
bricks in treatment of grey water to be used for irrigation.

3.10.2 Data Collection Techniques

Data collection techniques in this study include closed ended questionnaires, interviews,
observation and laboratory analysis of material samples. The questionnaire technique when
used in collecting data can cover a large area and a large population. Information generated
can be verified and crosschecked against the information collected using other methods. It is
easy to manage and respondents usually give reliable information because they complete the
questionnaires with utmost freedom from the pressure of the researcher (Kothari, 2004).

In this study, the questionnaire technique will make data collection easy. While still in the
field, the researcher will be able to detect gaps in the information collected. Indeed, the
information collected using the questionnaire method will give the researcher an opportunity
to clarify issues and bridge information gaps while still in the field.

Interviewing is a face-to-face interaction between the researcher and respondents. Interviews

are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant’s experiences. The
interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the topic. Interviews may be useful as
follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires. It allows collecting bulk of information
through social relationships and interactions. (Fellous-Sigrist, 2015). In this study,
interviewing will enable the researcher to personally interview respondents. Interviews allow
the development of positive social interactions and positive social relationships between the
researcher and the respondents. These in turn facilitate data collection through enhanced
cooperation.

In-depth interviews will be used to capture additional information which will supplement
laboratory analysis and secondary data as well. A set of pre-conceived questions will be
asked through face to face interviews. The researcher believes that these groups of people
will provide all the necessary information since they directly deal among other issues, with
household greywater by putting management ways such as establishment of standards for
greywater discharge, environmental impacts assessment, treatment and facilities for
treatment, compliance and enforcement.

Page 21 of 35
During the interview sessions, the researchers will note down the information given by the
interviewees. To ensure the validly and reliability of the interviews, the researcher will sort
approval of what will be jotted down by reading it aloud to the interviewee and asking
interviewees to make comments.

Observation on the other hand is probably the most common and the simplest method of data
collection. The direct observation helps the researcher to eliminate subjectivity from
respondents’ views (Kothari, 2004). This method involves taking photographs and observing
the physical environment of greywater so as to ensure that there is consistency of results.
Therefore, observing a phenomenon continuously, the researcher will get well acquainted
with the observed. The researcher will be able to know about the habits, likes, dislikes,
problems, perception, different activities and so many other things hence can easily collect
information about greywater treatment strategies in the selected villages in Nakasongola
district. Observational schedule will be prepared so as to record the information on daily or
weekly bases.

Laboratory experiment will be used to gather information about the physical and chemical
parameters of greywater discharged from the selected households. Laboratory analysis will
provide information about the content of greywater discharged from the selected households.
Semi-supervised questionnaire will be used to collect data from household members.

3.11 Data Processing and Analysis

Data from the laboratory will be analyzed using descriptive statistics in the form of
frequencies and percentages. Frequency statistics simply count the number of times that each
variable occurs and represents its occurrences in percentages, such as the number of males
and females within the sample. Measures of central tendency give one number that represents
the entire set of scores, such as the mean. Data from the laboratory analysis will be analyzed
in percentages, graphs and charts. Data from the interview questions will be analyzed using
thematic content analysis.

3.12 Validity and Reliability

According to Van Blerkom, (2009), validity refers to whether or not the test measures what it
claims to measure. The validity of the instruments for data collection in this study will be
done through expert review and pilot testing. Pilot study will be done and correction will be
made accordingly in relation to the topic under study. The results of the pilot study will not

Page 22 of 35
be included in the final research findings. Reliability on the other hand is the degree or extent
to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring whatever it is measuring. Reliability
requires the administration of the same test to the same respondents twice with a short time
interval after the first test. In this study, a correlation coefficient between the two sets of
results will be calculated. Only a reliability coefficient of 0.6 or 0.7 and above will be
accepted.

3.13 Ethical Consideration

Before data collection in the field, the researchers will seek a permission letter from Ndejje
University faculty of engineering administration. This letter will enable the researchers to
collect data in a specified period of time. After the permission is granted, the researcher will
be free to visit the selected respondents in the area for data collection. Other ethical
considerations will include confidentiality of the information collected and allow freedom of
respondents to participate in the study.

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APPENDICES

Appendix I : Proposed study Budget

ITEM Description Amount (UGX)

1 Stationery 93,000

2 Travels 300,000

3 Laboratory tests 1,000,000

4 Subsistence/maintenance 100,000

5 Secretarial services 200,000

6 Contingency 100,000

Total 1,793,000

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 Appendix II: Proposed Schedule for the study

Period/Months Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
2022 2022 2022 2022 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023 2023

Description of
works

Research Title
Submission

Proposal
development
Experiment and
observation.

Review of Literature

Proposal Submission

Questionnaire
Development

Data Collection

Analyzing and

Interpreting the
output

Draft report writing

Final report
submission

Presentation

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