WATER INSTITUTE

PROJECT PROPOSAL

ON

REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE BY FALLING WATER AERATOR

(MULTIPLE TRAY AERATORS) AND RAPID SAND FILTRATION METHOD FROM
BOREHOLE WATER AT NZASA VILLAGE IN ZINGIZIWA WARD

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023/2024

NTA LEVEL: 8 - 3YRS

DEPARTMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING.

BACHELOR DEGREE IN WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING.

STUDENT NAME: REGISTRATION NUMBER.

ZACHARIA KALIMBI BD /2020/WRIE315.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 4

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 5

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 6

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 6

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Project objectives ...................................................................................................................... 9

1.3.1 Main objectives ...................................................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................................................. 9

1.4 Project Questions ...................................................................................................................... 9

1.5 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 10

1.6 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................. 10

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 11

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 11

2.1 Introduction to groundwater ................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Introduction to Iron and Manganese Contamination .............................................................. 12

2.2 Water Treatment Technologies for the removal of iron and manganese. ............................... 12

2.3 Focus on aeration as a technique for removing iron and manganese from water. .................. 14

2.4 Application of rapid sand filtration in water treatment, specifically in the context of iron and
manganese removal ....................................................................................................................... 18

2.5 Rapid Gravity Sand Filtration ................................................................................................. 20

2.6 Comparison between Slow Sand Filters and Rapid Sand Filters ............................................ 21

2.7 Projects that have successfully implemented a combined approach of aeration and rapid sand
filtration for iron and manganese removal. ................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 24

3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 24

3.1 Description of the study area .................................................................................................. 24

3.2 Data collection ........................................................................................................................ 25

4. SCHEDULE AND BUDGET ................................................................................................... 27

4.1 SCHEDULE ............................................................................................................................ 27

4.2 BUDGET ................................................................................................................................ 28

REFERENCE................................................................................................................................ 29
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Methodological table for each specific objective ......................................................... 25
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Simplified 2-layer underground model, for infiltration, evaporation and horizontal
flow in the underground. ............................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2:2 Rapid sand filtration system ........................................................................................ 13
Figure 2.3: Diagram of a Cascade Aerator ................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.4: Diagram for Multiple-tray aerator .............................................................................. 17
Figure 2:5 Movement of water for aeration process through cascade aerator .............................. 18
Figure 2:6 Operation and maintenance for sand filter .................................................................. 20
Figure 3.1 Study area map ............................................................................................................ 24
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Water is perhaps the most precious natural resource after air. Though the surface of the earth is
mostly consists of water, only a small part of it is usable, which makes this resource very
limited(Roy, 2019). As water is required for different purposes, the suitability of it must be
checked before use(Roy, 2019). Water is the world’s most precious resource because the life of
animals and plants depends on it (Hall & Dracup, 1970). Most industries also require water for
various applications, so the global economy depends on it as well(Hall & Dracup, 1970).
Groundwater plays a vital role in sustaining ecosystems and ensuring human adaptation to
extreme and unexpected global environmental changes, particularly as surface water systems
become increasingly unsustainable in the face of rapid population growth and climate
change(Amanambu et al., 2020). Borehole well introduction can significantly alter some forms
of water usage, but social and water quality factors may limit the ability of communal wells to
reduce S. haematobium transmission(el Kholy et al., 1989).
Both the oxidation and the reduction of iron and manganese in natural environments is, to a large
extent, promoted by microbial catalysis, but abiotic transformations are also important and may
compete with the biological processes(Canfield et al., 2005). The principle of most methods used
for iron and manganese removal is that originally dissolved iron and manganese are transformed
into undissolved compounds that can be removed through single-stage or two-stage
separation(Barloková & Ilavský, 2010). Oxidation and hydrolysis of these compounds is done
under strict conditions with respect to water properties and type of equipment for iron and
manganese removal(Barloková & Ilavský, 2010).

Microbes play an important role in the oxidation of reduced iron and manganese. Dissimilatory
iron- and manganese-reducing microorganisms catalyze the reduction of Fe (III) to Fe (II), and
of Mn (III) or Mn (IV) to Mn (II)(Canfield et al., 2005). Manganese (Mn) is critical for the
proper functioning of various metabolic enzymes and cofactors, excess Mn in the brain causes
neurotoxicity(Ye et al., 2017). Manganese is one of the most common contaminants found in
both surface and groundwater, but predominantly in the latter. When present even at low
concentrations, it can be linked to the following problems: discoloration, turbidity, odor and taste
problems, or form slime manganese dioxide accumulations in pipes(Kouzbour et al., 2017). This
model was shown to be in good agreement with experimental data. Comparing with other
techniques, aeration is an efficient process because it gives us a removal efficiency of 90% in
less than 40 min at pH 9.5 and initial soluble Mn(II) and insoluble Mn(IV) concentrations
between 5 and 20 and 0–500 mg/L, respectively, while avoiding the drawbacks of strong
oxidizers and biological oxidation processes(Kouzbour et al., 2017).

Drinking water supplies are based on ground water resources all over the world. At some
localities problems with higher concentrations of iron and manganese found in ground
water(Ahmad, 2012). These higher concentration of these metals result in metallic taste of water,
effect color and flavor of food and cause staining of different products like paper, cloths, and
plastics(Ahmad, 2012). Therefore World Health Organization has approved the treatment of
water if concentrations of iron and manganese are higher than 0.3mg/L and 0.1 mg/L. Several
techniques have been applied to remove iron and manganese from groundwater. The issue of
higher concentrations of iron and manganese in groundwater wells at Grindalsmoen in Elverum
Municipality in the south eastern part of Norway has been investigated by a PHREEQC
geochemical model(Ahmad, 2012).

Combination between oxidation and filtration can be used for removing iron and manganese
from groundwater especially when the concentrations of these metals were high(Mohd Sanusi,
Adlan, Mohd Remy Rozainy, et al., 2016). This study focused on the effectiveness of the cascade
aerator and the size of the limestone filter media to remove iron and manganese from
groundwater(Mohd Sanusi, Adlan, Mohd Remy Rozainy, et al., 2016). Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM) has provided a tube well of 15 m depth and 150 mm diameter for the orphanage
home(Mohd Sanusi, Adlan, Mohd Remy Rozainy, et al., 2016). However, the water cannot be
used for domestic consumption due to high amount of iron and manganese at 6.48 and 1.9 mg/L
which exceeded the drinking water standard of 0.3 and 0.1 mg/L respectively(Mohd Sanusi,
Adlan, Mohd Remy Rozainy, et al., 2016). Using laboratory physical model, the study has shown
that the removals of iron and manganese have reduce the concentration until 0.17 and 0.2 mg/L
respectively(Mohd Sanusi, Adlan, Mohd Remy Rozainy, et al., 2016). Thus, the results from this
study which utilize cascade aerator and limestone roughing filter could be implemented on site
for the community to use the ground water for domestic purposes(Mohd Sanusi, Adlan, Rozainy,
et al., 2016). This review will initially consider the history and early development of the rapid
sand filtration process and will progress to examine the present design in some detail and will
also touch upon construction methods(Ellis & Wood, 1985). Operation and management will be
dealt with, with cleaning and resanding techniques being particularly considered(Ellis & Wood,
1985). The advantages of slow filtration will be explored, especially the simplicity of operation
and the ability of the process to remove potentially pathogenic organisms from water(Ellis &
Wood, 1985). Of the disadvantages, it will be the difficulties associated with the filtration of
appreciably turbid waters that will be given most space although the effects of algal blooms will
also be investigated(Ellis & Wood, 1985). Emphasis will be given to techniques available for the
pretreatment of turbid source waters and also, particularly, to the applicability of rapid sand
filtration to the developing world(Ellis & Wood, 1985).

1.2 Problem statement

Nzasa Village faces a critical challenge in the provision of clean and safe drinking water due to
elevated levels of iron and manganese in the borehole water. The current contamination levels
exceed the acceptable standards set for drinking water, posing serious health risks to the
community members. Preliminary analysis of water sample from borehole, indicate that the iron
and manganese concentration are above the standards established Tanzania bureau of standards
(TBS) for drinking water that is 1.25 mg/l for iron and 3.1 mg/l for manganese while TBS
standards for drinking water is 0.3 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l for iron and manganese respectively. The
presence of high concentrations of iron and manganese not only impairs the aesthetic quality of
the water but also poses potential health hazards, including adverse effects on the gastrointestinal
system and potential staining of clothes and infrastructure.

Moreover, the existing water sources are integral to the daily lives of the villagers, serving as the
primary source for domestic, agricultural, and livestock needs. The persistence of elevated iron
and manganese levels in the borehole water not only risks the health of the community but also
hinders the overall development and well-being of Nzasa Village.

Addressing this problem requires a comprehensive approach, and the proposed project aims to
employ a falling water aerator (multiple tray aerators) and rapid sand filtration method to
effectively remove iron and manganese from the borehole water. By doing so, we aim to provide
the residents of Nzasa Village with access to clean, potable water, promoting improved health
outcomes and fostering community development. Addressing these concerns is essential to
guarantee the provision of clean and safe drinking water, promoting community health, and
fostering sustainable development in Nzasa Village.

1.3 Project objectives

1.3.1 Main objectives
Removal of iron and manganese by falling water aerator (multiple tray aerators) and rapid sand
filtration method from borehole water at Nzasa village in zingiziwa ward

1.3.2 Specific objectives

i. To conduct a detailed analysis of the borehole water in Nzasa Village to determine the
existing concentrations of iron and manganese
ii. To design a falling water aerator (multiple tray aerators) and rapid sand filtration system
personalized to the specific conditions of the borehole in Nzasa Village
iii. To establish a systematic monitoring program to assess the effectiveness of the falling
water aerator (multiple tray aerators) and rapid sand filtration system in reducing iron and
manganese levels over time.

1.4 Project Questions

i. What are the current concentrations of iron and manganese in the borehole water in
Nzasa Village?
ii. How do these concentrations compare to the recommended drinking water standards?
iii. What are the optimal design parameters for a falling water aerator (multiple tray aerators)
system and rapid sand filtration system to effectively remove iron and manganese from
the borehole water in Nzasa Village?
iv. How will the performance of the falling water aerator (multiple tray aerators) and rapid
sand filtration system be monitored over time?
v. What indicators will be used to assess the effectiveness of the falling water aerator
(multiple tray aerators) and rapid sand filtration system in reducing iron and manganese
levels?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study on the removal of iron and manganese by the aeration process and rapid sand filtration
method from borehole water in Nzasa Village, Zingiziwa Ward, holds huge significance for the
community's overall well-being and development. Elevated levels of iron and manganese in
drinking water pose substantial health risks, and the implementation of aeration and filtration
system addresses this critical issue. By improving water quality, the study directly contributes to
the enhancement of the community's health, reducing the incidence of related healthcare costs.
Furthermore, the project empowers the community through educational programs, fostering
awareness about the importance of clean water and cultivating a sense of responsibility for the
maintenance of the aeration system. The sustainable maintenance plan ensures the longevity and
effectiveness of the water treatment solution, promoting the community's self-sufficiency.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study on the removal of iron and manganese by the aeration process from
borehole water in Nzasa Village, Zingiziwa Ward, encompasses various critical aspects that are
essential for the successful implementation of the project. Firstly, the study will conduct a
comprehensive water quality assessment to determine the current concentrations of iron and
manganese in the borehole water. This will involve thorough sampling and laboratory testing to
establish a baseline for the project. The scope extends to the design and implementation of an
aeration system tailored to the specific conditions of the Nzasa Village borehole. The installation
and testing of the aeration system will be closely monitored to ensure its effectiveness in
reducing iron and manganese levels over time.
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction to groundwater
Groundwater is water stored under the surface of the ground in the tiny pore spaces between
rock, sand, soil, and gravel(Fetter, 1980). It occurs in two ―zones‖: an upper, unsaturated
zone where most of the pore spaces are filled with air, and a deeper, saturated zone in which all
the pore spaces are filled with water throughout the year(Fetter, 1980). Then add enough water to
half fill the cup(Fetter, 1980). The top of the water layer represents the water table(Fetter, 1980).
The bottom of the cup forms a barrier to the water continuing to move downward. This barrier
can occur in nature as bedrock, clay, or permafrost and is called an aquitard(Fetter, 1980).

Figure 2.1: Simplified 2-layer underground model, for infiltration, evaporation and
horizontal flow in the underground.
2.2 Introduction to Iron and Manganese Contamination
Iron and manganese are two naturally occurring drinking water contaminants that can cause poor
taste and odor issues, and be associated with discoloration that leads to staining of fixtures,
dishes, and laundry(Dvorak & Schuerman, 2021). They are primarily found in Eastern Nebraska
groundwater and most people mention these issues when iron levels exceed 300 micrograms per
liter (µg/L) and manganese levels exceed 50 µg/L(Dvorak & Schuerman, 2021). Levels of iron
can be much higher and are not associated with health concerns but manganese concentrations
above 300 µg/L may pose a health issue for rice or soy formula-fed infants(Dvorak &
Schuerman, 2021). Higher levels, over 1,000µg/L, may pose a risk for all consumers. It is
important to highlight that testing and treatment options are available to detect and remove these
contaminants from drinking water(Dvorak & Schuerman, 2021).

2.2 Water Treatment Technologies for the removal of iron and manganese.
Groundwater with high concentrations of iron and manganese is harmful to the human body and
modern industries(Jin et al., 2023). Conventional methods of treating iron and manganese have
the disadvantage of high costs and complex control processes(Jin et al., 2023). A dielectric
barrier discharge (DBD) water treatment system was built to remove iron and manganese from
groundwater in this paper(Jin et al., 2023). Single-factor experiments were used to analyze the
effect of discharge power, initial iron and manganese concentrations, gas flow rate, liquid flow
rate, initial pH, flocculants and capture agent process parameters on iron and manganese removal
rates(Jin et al., 2023). It was found that Fe2þ removal rates can reach 97.31% and Mn2þ removal
rates can reach 81.42% when the initial concentrations of Fe2þ and Mn2þ are 6 and 3 mg/L,
respectively(Jin et al., 2023). The use of 10 mg/L NaHCO3 or 5 mg/L Ca (OH) 2 increased the
removal rate of Fe2þ to 99% but had no effect on the removal rate of Mn2þ. It was found that the
optimum treatment time for Mn2þ was different for different process parameters, mainly in the
range of 9–15 min, which needs to be noted in future production applications(Jin et al., 2023).
This work shows that DBD can effectively remove iron and manganese ions from ground- water
and analyzes the removal mechanism(Jin et al., 2023).
Figure 2:2 Rapid sand filtration system
Basin in Xinjiang, China, the Kashgar region and the southern part of Brazil all have excessive
iron and manganese in their groundwater due to their special geographical location or the
presence of iron ore mines (Lv et al. 2020; Yu et al. 2020; Lobo-Recio et al. 2021). Long-term
consumption of groundwater high in iron and manganese can lead to cardiovascu disease,
cirrhosis of the liver, memory loss and other symptoms (Parandhaman et al. 2019). It is now
important to treat groundwater that contains high concentrations of iron and manganese, and the
methods commonly used today are biological and adsorption methods (Zhang & Zhu 2018;
Desta et al. 2022). Zadeh et al. (2022) demonstrated the ability to remove 98.05% of Fe ions and
97.92% of Mn ions using nano-biosorbents; Earle et al. (2023) designed a biofilter to reduce Mn
concentrations to below 10 μg/L. Schöpke & Walko (2022) presented a microbial sulfate
treatment of groundwater rich in pyrite weathering products.

Utilizing activated carbon (AC) made from agro-waste materials (plantain peels and banana
stems) for iron and manganese removal from aqueous solutions was studied using isotherm and
kinetic models via batch adsorption experiment(Arkorful et al., 2023). The activated carbon,
banana stems, and ripped plantain peels (BSAC and RPPAC) were investigated using Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Brunauer-
Emmett-Teller (BET). The FTIR data showed the presence of the O-H group of phenols and
carboxylic acids, which are principally responsible for the adsorption of Fe 2+ and Mn 2+. The
RPPAC and BSAC each received two treatments(Arkorful et al., 2023). The activated carbon in
empty tea bags which are sealed and activated carbon that is not sealed (sealed BSAC or sealed
RPPAC and unsealed BSAC or unsealed RPPAC). These two different treatment samples were
utilized as an adsorbent to remove Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ from the synthetically tainted
water(Arkorful et al., 2023). A batch adsorption test was performed to determine the ability and
effectiveness of the activated carbons in removing iron and manganese from synthetically tainted
water. Adsorption capacity was calculated from adsorbent dosage, initial concentration, and
adsorbate volume(Arkorful et al., 2023). The highest removal efficiency of the unsealed BSAC
was 99.95% for a contact time of 30 minutes associated with Mn 2+. For a contact time of 30
minutes, the unsealed RPPAC adsorbent had a maximum removal efficiency of 99.95% for both
Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ reduction. The adsorption of Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ on both activated carbons
(BSAC and RPPAC) for the sealed and unsealed samples was better represented by the pseudo-
second–second-order kinetic model(Arkorful et al., 2023). The adsorption data for both
contaminants were found to be best described by Langmuir isotherm adsorption model. The
agro-waste materials were effective in removing iron and manganese from contaminated
water(Arkorful et al., 2023).

2.3 Focus on aeration as a technique for removing iron and manganese from water.
This review covers the removal of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) using aeration system for
groundwater. The review focuses on the aeration systems that used by the previous researchers
on the system in removing iron and manganese(Mohd Remy Rozainy et al., 2015). The
important aspects that will be discussed in this paper are the strength and the weaknesses that had
been implemented and the success of systems, in the critical review. There are many systems that
been used either using the oxidation or filtration(Mohd Remy Rozainy et al., 2015). The
suitability of the method is depending to study area, soil type and water characteristic. All the
systems worked as a tool to remove the iron and manganese, the differences between the systems
in removing this metal will 100% or less than 100% removal(Mohd Remy Rozainy et al., 2015).
In this review, the weaknesses between all the removal systems that would be done will be
discuss, to improve other study about this system and the suggestion from the researcher also
take as an idea to execute a research in this area(Mohd Remy Rozainy et al., 2015). The
comparation between the strategies evaluated, pilot study and simulation will be discussed. This
paper has highlighted on the appropriate system is used to remove iron and manganese from
groundwater, in addition a number of system design are also analyzed for knowing the
importance of flexibility of operations with the model produced. The best system will be
proposed to remove iron and manganese for further study depending to the weakness, advantages
and disadvantages in costing and the best treatment(Mohd Remy Rozainy et al., 2015).

Iron and manganese contaminant can be treated by aeration process before goto post-filtration
system. The aeration process as pre-treatment has done it by using Gravitational Aeration Tower
System (GATS)(Radzi et al., 2020). The aeration performance in this experiment has controlled
the airflow and water flow rate to observers iron and manganese removal from groundwater than
compare the water quality based on the guideline National Drinking Water Quality Standards by
Ministry of Health Malaysia(Radzi et al., 2020). The study has been carried out at the existing
tube well in the Research Centre for Soft Soils (RECESS), Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM). The system started from pumping out the groundwater from the tube well and flows it
through GATS with a different flow rate of 5.0 L/min and 10.0 L/min, and an airflow rate 0.5
L/min and 1.5 L/min(Radzi et al., 2020).

The sampling of groundwater was taken at before and after the aeration process through GATS
and analyze the parameter such as pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), iron and manganese(Radzi et al.,
2020). The results show that pH was in the range of 6.90 to 7.01 and the DO value before GATS
maximum is 3.64 mg/L but after aerated with GATS is 6.67 mg/L. Hence, the maximum iron
removal efficiency is 10.63%, and the maximum manganese removal efficiency is 14.25%.
Aeration process by GATS shows that suitable for DO value increasing than can remove iron
and manganese in groundwater(Radzi et al., 2020).The Cascade Aerators are the simplest type of
free-fall aerators and will take large quantities of water in a comparatively small area and at low
head(Ministry of Water, 2011). They are simple to keep clean and can be made of robust durable
material such as reinforced concrete and are best in the open air. Turbulence is secured by
allowing the water to pass through a series of steps or baffles (3rd Edition Design Manual, 2009)
Figure 2.3: Diagram of a Cascade Aerator
(Source: Water Supply Design Manual, 2013, Uganda)

Multiple Tray Aerators consist of a series of trays with perforated bottoms. The trays are filled
with coke, stone or ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials having a catalytic effect on iron
removal(Ministry of Water, 2011). The primary purpose of the materials is providing additional
surface contact area between the air and water. Through perforated pipes, the water is divided
evenly over the upper tray, from which it trickles down, the droplets being dispersed and re-
collected at each successive tray. Appendix B.5 (iii) illustrates the Multiple Tray
Aerators(Ministry of Water, 2011).
Figure 2.4: Diagram for Multiple-tray aerator
Figure 2:5 Movement of water for aeration process through cascade aerator

2.4 Application of rapid sand filtration in water treatment, specifically in the context of
iron and manganese removal
A Slow Sand Filter (SSF) is basically a large tank containing the sand bed. A distinguishing
feature of a slow sand filter is the presence of a thin layer, called the schmutzdecke, which forms
on the surface of the sand bed and includes a large variety of biologically active micro-
organisms(Ministry of Water, 2011). Water is introduced at the top and trickles down through
the sand bed to the under-drains and goes to the storage tank. The impurities in the water are
retained at the upper layers of the sand bed(Ministry of Water, 2011). The schmutzdecke
removes the organic matter and most of the pathogenic micro-organisms in water which might be
smaller than the pores of the sand(Ministry of Water, 2011).

The most common system used in Egypt for iron and manganese removal is based on oxidizing
of them with chemical agents followed by rapid filtration(Fadel & Fadel, 2010). The
performance of rapid sand filtration technology as a biological treatment process for removal of
iron and manganese was investigated(Fadel & Fadel, 2010). A pilot-scale rapid sand filter was
tested using iron and manganese rich groundwater. The pilot was operated with different rates as
well as different influent concentrations of iron and manganese. The mean values of iron and
manganese removal efficiencies were 94 % and 99 % for manganese and iron respectively(Fadel
& Fadel, 2010). Bacterial and algal biomass development within the top layer of the sand and
Shmutzdecke are the key factors for removal of iron and manganese. Gallionella, Bacillus and
Pseudomonas were the dominant bacteria as well as Nitzschia and Stigeoclonim were the
dominant algae found in the system. Pre-aeration is a primary important step, assist oxygen
production and enhance the aerobic mechanisms involved in the bioremoval of iron and
manganese(Fadel & Fadel, 2010).

In 1990, El‐Mansoura University (Egypt) signed a contract with the International Development
Research Center to conduct an integrated research to field test the process of rapid sand filtration.
One of the many purposes of this project was to demonstrate the efficiency of rapid sand
filtration in removing cercariae(Fadel, 1993). A pilot plant was constructed and installed in
Sandoop Compact Water Treatment Plant in El‐Mansoura City. The pilot plant consisted of an
intake, up flow roughing filter and four rapid sand filters. The raw water source was El‐Bahr El‐
Saghier Canal, a branch of the River Nile. A slug of 10000 cercariae units in 11 was dropped on
the water surface at each of three filters, no presence of cercariae at the final effluent of the SSF
was detected(Fadel, 1993). At some depths across the sand layer positive samples were
identified. During these study 20 samples from the effluent of the tested rapid sand filters; the
URF and the compact treatment plant were collected. Out of the 20 positive samples after the
rapid sand filtration, five after the up flow roughing filtration and three after the compact unit.
These results indicated the efficiency of the rapid sand filtration in removing cercariae(Fadel,
1993)
Figure 2:6 Operation and maintenance for sand filter

2.5 Rapid Gravity Sand Filtration

This is a process in which water flows onto the top of the filter media and is driven through it by
gravity. In passing through the small spaces between the filter sand grains, impurities are
removed. The water continues its way through the support gravel, enters the under-drain system,
and then flows to the reservoir. It is the filter media which actually removes the particles from
the water(Ministry of Water, 2011). The filter media is routinely cleaned by means of a
backwashing process. Rapid Sand Filtration (RSF) is a technique commonly used for treating
large quantities of drinking water. It is a relatively sophisticated process usually requiring power
operated pumps for backwashing or cleaning the filter bed, and some designs require flow
control of the filter outlet(Ministry of Water, 2011). A continuously operating filter will usually
require backwashing about every two days or so when raw water is of relatively low turbidity
and at least daily during periods of high turbidity. Because of the higher filtration rates, the area
requirement for a rapid gravity filtration plant is about 20% of that required for slow sand filters.
Surface loading should be between 4 and 7 m3/h.m2, and the filter structure should be designed
with a minimum height between the top of the filter media and the bottom of the wash water
channel of at least 30% of the height of the filter media as this expands during
backwashing(Ministry of Water, 2011). It may be necessary to include for air-scour as well as
backwashing, or both combined in a single operation. Normally a sufficient distribution of the
wash water will be achieved if the: z Ratio of area of orifice to area of bed served is (1.5 to 5) ×
(103): 1 z Ratio of area of the main to laterals served is (1.5 to 3): 1 z Diameter of orifices is 5 -
20 mm z Spacing of orifices is between 100 - 300 mm center to center z Spacing of laterals
approximates to the spacing of orifices. The filter bed should be approximately 1.0 m thick and
preferably consist of well-rounded quartz sand with an effect size of 0.7 - 1.0 mm and uniformity
coefficient in the range of 1.3 - 1. 5. The available hydraulic head above the top of the filter bed
should be 1.3 - 1.5 m. The following stratification of the sub structure should be used to support
a filter of an effective grain size as suggested earlier (finest strata at the top). z 0.15 m of grain
size 2 - 2.8 mm z 0.10 m of grain size 5.6 - 8 mm z 0.10 m of grain size 10 - 20 mm z 0.10 m of
grain size 20 - 40 mm z 0.10 m of grain size 40 - 60 mm The washing velocity should be in the
range of 35 – 55 m3/m2/hour. However, care must be taken to ensure that sand carry over into
the wash-water channel does not occur and the actual wash-water rate is adjusted accordingly. In
order to achieve proper washing of the filter, a storage volume sufficient for continuous washing
for an 8 to 10 minute period should be made available(Ministry of Water, 2011).

2.6 Comparison between Slow Sand Filters and Rapid Sand Filters
(a) Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while for
RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm. (b)
Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity coefficient
between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity
coefficient between 1.2 and 1.8. (c) Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200
L/h/sq. of filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area. (d)
Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite flexible
for meeting reasonable variations in demand. (e) Post treatment required: Almost pure water is
obtained from SSF. However, water may be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe.
Disinfection is a must after RSF. (f) Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5
to 3cm thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or
without compressed air(Ministry of Water, 2011).
2.7 Projects that have successfully implemented a combined approach of aeration and
rapid sand filtration for iron and manganese removal.
Providing safe drinking water to people in developing countries is an urgent worldwide water
problem and a main issue in the UN Sustainable Development Goals. One of the most efficient
and cheapest methods to attain these goals is to promote the use of rapid sand filters. This review
shows that rapid sand filtration can efficiently provide safe drinking water to people living in
rural communities not served by a central water supply(Abdiyev et al., 2023). Probably, the most
important aspect of SSF for developing and less-developed countries is its function as a
biological filter(Abdiyev et al., 2023).

WASH problems mainly relate to the spread of viruses, bacteria, and parasites. The surface and
shallow groundwater in developing countries around urban areas and settlements are often
polluted by domestic wastewater containing these microbes and nutrients(Abdiyev et al., 2023).
Thus, SSF’s function is to treat raw water in the form of diluted wastewater where high
temperature and access to nutrients probably mean a high growth rate of microbes and algae but
probably also high predation and high efficiency of the SSF(Abdiyev et al., 2023). However,
factors that may adversely affect the removal of microbiological constituents are mainly low
temperature, high and intermittent flow rates, reduced sand depth, filter immaturity, and various
filter amendments(Abdiyev et al., 2023)

Anaerobic groundwater is an excellent drinking water source due to its microbiological safety,
stable temperature and composition (Giordano, 2009; Katsanou and Karapanagioti, 2019; de Vet,
2011). Rapid sand filters (RSFs), proceeded by an aeration step, and is the most commonly
applied technology for groundwater treatment. The main groundwater contaminants – soluble
iron (Fe2+), ammonium (NH4 +) and manganese (Mn2+) - are sequentially removed in a
combination of interdependent biological and physical-chemical reactions (Bourgine et al.,
1994). While the latter have been the subject of decades of research, our understanding of the
microbiology involved in the removal of groundwater contaminants is still limited. According to
recent research, Fe2+ is oxidized through a combination of chemical and biological processes
(Van Beek et al., 2012), Mn2+ is mainly removed through chemical autocatalytic oxidation and
to some extent biologically (Breda et al., 2019), and NH4 + removal is exclusively biological
(Tekerlekopoulou et al., 2013). However, not only the impact of microbial activity on the
removal processes and their stratification along the height of RSFs is largely unknown, but also
the individual physiologies of the involved microorganisms remain elusive (Gülay et al., 2016).

Over the past decades, metaproteomics has been successfully applied to characterize
microbiomes from different environments, including wastewater (Kleikamp et al., 2022) and
freshwater (Hanson and Madsen, 2015) ecosystems. Moreover, differential protein expression
has been used to characterize microbiomes’ physiological responses to rapid environmental
changes (Chirania et al., 2022; Wilmes et al., 2015), making metaproteomics particularly
relevant to study dynamic environments such as RSF systems. RSFs are regularly backwashed to
remove particles that have been trapped during operation. As a result, biomass-colonized filter
media grains are displaced along the filter height and exposed to different substrate loads at
every cycle (Ramsay et al., 2021). Consistently, metagenome-based studies commonly report
even distributions of core taxa along filter heights (Bai et al., 2013; Tatari et al., 2017), and
conventional RSFs models consider them as homogeneous systems (Uhl and Gimbel, 2000). In
contrast, and irrespective of the backwash, contaminant removal stratification along the filter is
commonly reported (Gude et al., 2016; Tatari et al., 2016). Within this framework, we
hypothesize that genetically homogeneous RSFs’ microbial communities hold the ability to
rapidly modify their pool of expressed proteins to metabolically respond to the environmental
conditions encountered at a given filter height.
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the study area
Nzasa village is located in Zingiziwa Ward, Ilala in Dar es Salaam region is found in latitude -
7.04233° or 7° 2' 32" south and longitude 39.08215° or 39° 4' 56" east with postcode number
12125. The population of zingiziwa ward is 73,334 according to census of 2022 from National
Bureau of statistics.

Figure 3.1 Study area map

3.2 Data collection
Table 3.1 Methodological table for each specific objective

Data Collection methods Analysis Method Output

required

Water Water sample collection Laboratory Analysis  Current

Quality concentration
 Grab sample  Compare
Data s of iron and
results with
manganese in
Tanzania
the borehole
Bureau of
water will be
Standards
obtained
(TBS) of
water quality
standards to
assess
compliance
Water Site Survey Design,  Design
Treatment Construction, Specifications
 To gather information about
System Supervision,  Flow
the borehole location,
Design Operation & Diagrams
including its depth,
Data Maintenance  Numerical
surrounding topography, and
(DCOM) Manual Simulations
geological features.
and Modeling
 Identify potential sources of Results
contamination and factors
that may affect system
design.

Design Parameters

 Determine design
parameters,
 including the
required water flow
rate for the
community,
treatment efficiency
and the desired water
quality standards.

Monitoring Instruments Performance Performance Reports

Monitorin Analysis
 Install appropriate  Regular
g program
monitoring instruments,  Regularly reports
data)
such as flow meters, analyze detailing the
pressure gauges, and sensors performance system's
for water quality parameters performance
 Compare
(iron, manganese, and pH) at metrics,
actual
strategic points within the including iron
performance
system. and
with design
manganese
Regular Inspections: expectations
removal
and water
 Conduct regular visual efficiency,
quality
inspections of the system water flow
standards.
components to identify signs rates, and any
of wear, corrosion, or any other relevant
physical damage. operational
indicators.
4. SCHEDULE AND BUDGET
4.1 SCHEDULE
2023 2024

ACTIVITY MONTHS MONTHS

NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN

Development of project
proposal

Literature Review

Proposal presentation and

submission

Field visit

Water Sample collection

Data analysis and Result

interpreting

Project report writing

Presentation and submission

of final report
4.2 BUDGET
S/N Description Amount

01 Transport 200,000

02 Laboratory Analysis 200,000

03 Accommodation and facilities 80,000

04 Stationary 50,000

05 Hiring Tools/Equipment’s 150,000

06 Emergency 30,000

TOTAL 710,000/=
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