Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Paul Simedrea
i
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to my friends and family who have been of great support throughout
my undergraduate years. Especially, I would like to thank my colleagues: Mr. Chris
Snow, Mr. Carlos O’Donell and Mr. Derek Hunter for their assistance during this
project. Much credit for the ideas presented in this project report is due to Dr.
Serguei Primak, my project advisor. Working with him for the past two years has
been a unforgettable learning experience. In addition, a special thanks to the staff of
the ECE Electronics Shop staff who did a marvelous job at producing the antenna
prototype PCB boards whose design is presented in this report.
ii
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Brief Technical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Outline of the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Literature Review 4
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Fractal Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Iterated Function Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.2 The Sierpinski Gasket Fractal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.3 The Koch Fractal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Microstrip Patch Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Fractal Microstrip Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 The Sierpinski Gasket Monopole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.2 The Koch Fractal Monopole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Antenna Performance Simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
iii
4.3 Fractal Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4 Hardware Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.1 Dielectric Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4.2 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.3 Ground Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.4 Signal Feed System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Software Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.6 Final Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Conclusions 34
7.1 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
B Antenna Schematics 37
C Antenna Illustrations 40
iv
List of Figures
v
List of Tables
vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.2 Motivation
As already mentioned in the previous section, fractal antenna technology could be
applied to cellular handsets. Because fractal antennas are more compact, they would
more easily fit in the receiver package. Currently, many cellular handsets use quarter-
wavelength monopoles which are essentially sections of radiating wires cut to a deter-
mined length. Although simple, they have excellent radiation properties. However,
for systems operating at 900 MHz such as GSM, the length of these monopoles is often
1
longer than the handset itself, posing a nuissance to the user. It would be highly bene-
ficial to design an antenna with similar radiation properties as the quarter-wavelength
monopole while retaining its radiation properties.
Other prevailing trends in wireless communications technology could also benefit.
More and more systems are introduced which integrate many technologies. They are
often required to operate at multiple frequency bands and so they require antenna
systems which accomodate that requirement. Examples of systems using a multi-band
antenna are varieties of common wireless networking cards used in laptop computers.
These can communicate on 802.11b networks at 2.4 GHz and 802.11g networks at 5
GHz.
Using fractal patterns in antenna design can help solve the problems mentioned
above.
• Given the academic nature of the design project, the monetary budget is limited.
The design must thus employ technology that is low in cost. This is a good
design rule in any case, as cheaper is always better.
• To show the potential for application to common technology, the antennas must
be designed for operating at useful frequency bands. In addition, an effort
should be made to design for radiation properties similar to those of common
systems.
2
potential technologies for physical construction, and reviews the concepts behind ap-
plying fractal theory to antenna research.
Chapter 3 elaborates on the design methodology mentioned in the previous sec-
tion. Design requirements are presented there and a general strategy for design is
discussed. Chapters 4 and 5 then detail the actual design of the antennas that was
performed and Chapter 6 presents and discusses the complete design’s simulated and
experimental test results. Finally, some recommendations on further work as well as
a concluding statement are given in Chapter 7.
3
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a literature review of the theory of fractal antennas. An in-
troduction to fractal theory is first discussed by giving examples of two fractals of
interest: the Sierpinski Gasket and the Koch fractal. Microstrip patch antenna tech-
nology is then presented to outline its application to fractal antennas. Finally, a
review of current research work on specific fractal antennas and numerical simulation
techniques is given.
4
Figure 2.1: A 4-iteration Sierpinski gasket.
transformation w(x, y), comprising rotation, scaling and translation, is given by:
a b e x
w(x, y) =
c d f · y
(2.1)
0 0 1 1
The set of affine transforms W (A), known as the Hutchinson operator is given by:
N
[
W (A) = wn (A) = w1 (A) ∪ w2 (A) ∪ w3 (A) . . . ∪ wN (A) (2.2)
n=1
The fractal can then be generated by applying the operator W to the previous geom-
etry for k iterations. Thus:
5
2.2.3 The Koch Fractal
The Koch fractal curve is one of the most well-known fractal shapes. It consists
of repeated application of the series of IFS affine transformations [2] given in (2.4).
Multiple iterations of the Koch fractal are shown in Figure 2.2. To form the first
iteration (n = 1 in Figure 2.2), the affine transform w1 scales a straight line to one-
third of its original length. The transform w2 scales to one-third and rotates by 60◦ .
The third transform, w3 is similar to w2 but rotating by −60◦ . Finally the fourth
transform, w4 , is simply another scaling to one-third and a translation. It can be
seen in Figure 2.2 how this set of transforms are applied to each previous iteration to
obtain the next.
1 1
3
0 0 3
cos 60 − 13 sin 60 1
3
w1 = 1 w2 = sin 60 1 cos 60 0
1
0 3
0 3 3
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
cos 60 sin 60 0 0
3 3 √3 3
1 1 3
w3 = − 3 sin 60 3 cos 60 2 w4 = 1 2 (2.4)
3 3 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
An important characteristic of the Koch fractal worthy of note is that the un-
folded length of the fractal approaches infinity as the number of iterations approach
infinity. However, the area which bounds the fractal remains constant [2]. This
property can be used to minimize the space use of a simple wire monopole or dipole
antenna [4, 5]. The length ln of the Koch fractal at each iteration n increases expo-
nentially with respect to the n = 0 length l0 , as given by:
n
4
ln = l 0 · (2.5)
3
6
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
crostrip patches are resonant-type antennas, meaning that in order for the antenna
to radiate, one of the dimensions of the radiating patch must be approximately half
the wavelength of the electrical excitation signal being fed to the patch.
An advantage of microstrip and printed antennas is that they can be easily and
inexpensively built using commonly available printed circuit board (PCB) technology.
Microstrip patches can thus also be produced at small size and profile, allowing easy
integration into the skins of various systems such as airplanes or cellular handsets [6].
Because they are resonant-type antennas, microstrip patches are efficient radiators.
The efficiency of microstrip patches is generally between 95% and 99% [6].
Microstrip patches also have some disadvantages, most important of which is
their limited impedance bandwidth. Because microstrip patches are resonators, its
impedance will inherently be largely real over only a small percentage around the
operating frequency for which it was designed. This characteristic prevents the use of
microstrip patches to a number of very wide-band applications. However impedance
bandwidths of up to 10% can commonly be achieved using microstrip patches, a value
sufficient for many applications.
7
2.4 Fractal Microstrip Antennas
8
The space-filling properties of the Koch fractal, as shown by (2.5), can be used
to create a smaller λ/4 monopole while preserving the radiation characteristics of a
straight-wire monopole [5]. The rough, uneven shape of the fractal facilitates radia-
tion. Although (2.5) suggests that it is theoretically possible to fit an infinitely long
fractal curve in an arbitrarily small space, it is discussed in [5] that the electrical
length of a Koch monopole does not increase at the same pace as its physical length.
Thus, increasing the number of iterations to minimize the size of the monopole will
eventually no longer increase its electrical length. However, the greater limitation on
the physical length is the minimum physical trace thickness that can be produced
by the PCB printing process. The pattern can simply not be photo-etched correctly
using a line thickness relatively large compared to its length. Even if very small thick-
nesses were possible, resistive losses due to reduced conductor area would adversely
affect radiation efficiency [5, 6].
Since the Koch fractal has very complex geometry, it can most reliably be im-
plemented by using printed antenna techniques similar to those used in microstrip
patches. Thus, instead of using a wire to form the fractal, the pattern is printed on
a dielectric substrate and mounted on a reflective ground plane. At relatively low
frequencies dielectric losses are marginal and thus special dielectrics are not needed
to maintain high antenna efficiency [5, 6]. Materials commonly in use for PCB man-
ufacturing, such as FR-4 (see datasheet in Appendix D), can be used.
9
Chapter 3
10
3. Physical implementation: undertake physical construction of the antennas
based on simulation-confirmed parameters.
Details of these design phases are discussed in the remaining sections of this
chapter.
• Input Impedance: Should be resistive and large in value, although the first
resonance usually has low impedance and a noticeable reactive component [12].
• Radiation Pattern: As both antennas are most suitable for use in low power
applications such as mobile receivers, their radiation patterns should be suitable
for such use. This should be achieveable since both the Sierpinski and Koch
antennas are monopoles, inherently having a very uniform radiation pattern in
all directions [12, 13].
11
• Radiation Efficiency: Microstrip antennas have high radiation efficiency, be-
tween 90—99.9%. The thickness and relative dielectric constant r of the dielec-
tric substrate used affect radiation efficiency. For higher efficiency, substrates
with low dielectric constants should be used [6].
• Gain: The gain of the fractal antennas should be comparable to that of tradi-
tional antennas with similar radiation properties. This would allow the fractal
antennas to be used in similar applications.
12
Techniques of feeding the signal to the antenna must also be considered. The
position of the feeding point and connector on the radiating element may affect input
impedance or could introduce spurious radiation. Many connector types are avail-
able, with varying frequency responses. Popular connector types for high-frequency
applications include BNC, Type-N, SMA and SMB.
13
Network Analyzer
Antenna
14
3.6.1 Antenna Resonance Testing
To measure the location of the resonant bands of an antenna, a simple setup as
described by Figure 3.1 can be used. Simply, the antenna is connected by a cable
to one port of a network analyzer. Measuring the power of the reflected signal while
varying the frequency of the input signal gives a good indication at what frequency
the antenna radiates. At the resonant frequencies, the reflected signal’s power should
be much smaller than that of the input signal. In this way the input impedance and
impedance bandwidth can also be measured. Measurements should be conducted
in an environment isolated from external radiation because antennas are inherently
susceptible to interference.
15
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the design of the Sierpinski gasket monopole. The purpose
of building this monopole is to produce an antenna that can operate at multiple
frequencies while retaining the compactness property.
16
given in Table 4.1. The initial estimation of the fractal geometry is obtained by using
(2.6), presented again below:
c
fn = k cos(α/2)δ n
h
We begin by calculating the similarity factor, δ, from the ratio of the resonant
frequencies desired: f2 = 2.4 GHz and f3 = 5.0 GHz. We obtain δ = 2.08 ≈ 2,
which will allow for a very simple and symmetric fractal pattern. Each triangular
structure of the gasket is twice as large as its sub-structure and thus it is very simple
to manually define the pattern in the software simulator. Since the height of the
triangular structure resonating at f2 is h2 = λ2 /2 = 3.05 cm, the height of the
monopole is calculated to be h = 2h2 = 6.1 cm.
The number of iterations needed to generate the required fractal is nmax = 4. It
should be noted that although the complete fractal structure will resonate at two other
frequencies, f1 and f4 , they are simply included in the pattern to provide continuity
so that truncation effects do not affect the resonant bands of interest. Because of
this, it is mentioned in [10] that f1 ≈ f2 /3.5.
The triangle flare angle, α, was chosen to be 60◦ as a starting point. Since the
similarity factor δ = 2, all triangular elements should be equilateral. The constant k
is given in [10] as ∼ 0.15, however it is dependent on the dielectric substrate type and
thickness used. It is only used as a first guess for this design and final parameters are
fully confirmed through simulation.
17
G10-FR4. The dielectric substrate G10-FR4 is essentially an epoxy and glass fabric
laminate, with a dielectric constant r = 4.8 at low frequencies. A data sheet is
provided in Appendix D. The thickness of the dielectric available is 1.6 mm. Thus,
there is no flexibility in the type and thickness of material we can use. However,
an examination the efficiency plots in [6], p.33, reveals that FR4 at the available
thickness should still have an efficiency of approximately 95% at 2.4 GHz and 90% at
5.0 GHz. These values are acceptable for the purposes of this proof-of-concept design.
4.4.2 Connectors
To connect the antenna to transmission lines for testing, a BNC connector was first
considered. Some testing using an HP7853D network analyzer concluded that BNC
connectors do not have very good frequency response in the gigahertz range. Thus,
50Ω SMA connectors were chosen as an alternative. SMA connectors have excellent
frequency response up to 18 GHz (see data sheet in Appendix D), although adapters
are required to connect with test equipment and transmission lines which generally
employ Type-N connectors. Type-N connectors were considered since they also have
good frequency response, but they are too large to properly attach to an antenna of
the size required in this design.
18
Patch Top
Patch
Connector Bottom
Feed line
Edge Feeding
The edge feeding technique shown in Figure 4.1(a) simply consists of printing a trace
from and edge of the patch to the edge of the dielectric substrate. This makes
the attachment of a connector very simple and can change the impedance of the
antenna, allowing some matching to be performed. However, it has the disadvantage
of introducing spurious radiation, since the trace will inevitably radiate.
Probe Feeding
Probe feeding, depicted in Figure 4.1(b) consists of drilling a hole through the ground
plane and dielectric substrate then connecting the transmission line or connector
directly to the patch. Since the signal source is essentially behind the ground plane,
this eliminates spurious radiation. In addition, it allows the signal to be fed at any
location on the radiating patch. The disadvantage of this technique is that it is more
difficult to implement since care must be made that the hole through the dielectric is
drilled properly and that the signal probe does not short-circuit to the ground plane.
To minimize chances of error in measurement, the probe feeding technique is
chosen. An SMA PCB-mount connector is thus connected through the dielectric
substrate to a corner of the triangular fractal.
19
Figure 4.2: General depiction of the Sierpinski monopole.
20
Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the design of the Koch fractal monopole. The purpose of
building this monopole is to produce a more space-efficient quarter-wave monopole
design while maintaining the radiation properties of the traditional quarter-wave,
straight-wire monopole.
21
Section 2.2.1 was implemented using the set of transforms specific to the Koch fractal
given by (2.4). The script outputs the line vertex coordinates of Koch fractal of any
given iteration. A scaling factor can also be given as a parameter to the script in
order to generate coordinates for any physical size needed.
A 3-iteration Koch fractal was generated to provide maximum height reduction.
Although a 4- or higher-iteration fractal would be a further improvement, it is dis-
cussed in Section 2.4.2 that this would cause problems in printing the pattern on the
dielectric substrate and that only very small increments in electrical lengths would
be added.
The Koch fractal was then scaled to have an equivalent unfolded length identical
to the height of the straight-wire λ/4 monopole. At 900 MHz, a straight-wire λ/4
monopole has a height of h = 8.33 cm in free space. According to expression (2.5),
the equivalent Koch monopole would have a height of only 3.51 cm. However it was
determined in simulations that the electrical length was longer. This height is further
reduced by the high dielectric constant of the substrate, as described in the next
section.
1
v=√ , (5.1)
µ
where = r 0 . Since λ = v/f , the wavelength inside of the dielectric can then be
expressed by:
1
λ= √ (5.2)
µr 0 f
This relationship is used to determine the required height of the monopole in
22
order to radiate at 900 MHz while comlpletely immersed in the FR-4 dielectric. This
scaling effect is modeled using software simulations. Since the fractal pattern is essen-
tially printed at the boundary between air and the dielectric substrate, the calculation
of the required physical height of the Koch fractal is not as simple as indicated by
(5.2). Some numerical simulations are required to simulate the effects on electrical
length.
23
The monopole is fed at one end through a 50Ω SMA connector, which has
good frequency response. The connector was secured using two washers, allowing
the monopole to stand rigidly and perpendicular onto the ground plane.
24
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
The Sierpinski gasket and Koch fractal monopoles discussed in Chapters 4 and 5,
respectively, have been built and tested. The experimental and simulation results
for each of the antennas are presented in Section 6.2, then analyzed and discussed in
Section 6.3.
6.2 Results
Software simulations and experimental tests were used in order to evaluate the per-
formance of the antenna designs. Experimental results are compared with simulation
performance estimates in order to verify that the designs perform as intended.
Determining the value of the input reflection coefficient of the antenna is necessary
to determine the location of the resonant bands. The input reflection coefficient, Γin ,
is obtained from the expression:
Zin − Z0
Γin = , (6.1)
Zin + Z0
where Zin is the input impedance of the antenna and Z0 is the characteristic impedance
used in the transmission line, used here as a reference. The absolute value of the re-
25
flection coefficient can also be expressed as the ratio of the reflected power from the
antenna input, Pref and the power delivered to the antenna, Pin , as given in expres-
sion (6.2). It is clear that the reflection coefficient will be low at frequencies where
the reflected power is small, indicating that power was radiated. In addition, from
examining (6.1), we can obtain the input impedance of the antenna and hence how
well we can match it to the transmission line.
Pref
|Γin | = (6.2)
Pin
The reflection coefficient of the Sierpinski Gasket monopole was simulated using
SONNET. A simulated sinusoidal signal was fed through the corner of the monopole,
as was discussed in Chapter 4. The port parameter S11 , which is equivalent to the
reflection coefficient was then calculated as a function of frequency and plotted, as
shown in Figure 6.1. The frequency range used spans from 0 to 6 GHz to match the
capabilities of the available experimental hardware.
−5
−10
S11 (dB)
−15
−20
−25
Measurement
Sonnet simulation
−30
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency (MHz)
26
The physical measurement of the reflection coefficient was performed in a shielded
chamber using a network analyzer. The Sierpinski gasket was connected directly to
one port of a 6 GHz HP8753D network without using any transmission lines, to
avoid introducing experimental errors from losses in the coaxial lines. An SMA to
Type-N adapter was used, however, because only a 50Ω Type-N calibration kit for
the HP8753D analyzer was available. Using a reference characteristic impedance of
Z0 = 50Ω, the variation of reflection coefficient with frequency was measured in the
range of 0—6 GHz. It can be seen from the deep valleys in plot of the data in Figure
6.1 that the monopole has resonant frequencies at both 2.4 and 5.0 GHz.
From examining Figure 6.1, we can see that both the simulation and measured
values are approximately in agreement, although some noticeable discrepancies occur
above 3 GHz. The simulation curve deviates from the measurement curve, although
still indicates radiation at around 5 GHz. This deviation was caused by the memory
limitation of 16 MB in SONNET. As a result, a comparably coarse mesh had to be
used to simulate the structure. The accuracy of the simulation is directly related to
the mesh element size (smaller is better, resulting in a larger mesh) [11].
Another interesting feature in Figure 6.1 to note is the location of the first res-
onant frequency band, f1 (see Section 4.3). The simulation shows this location quite
accurately at 700 MHz, although the measurement curve shows a number of reso-
nances in the region of the expected f1 .
Input Impedance
The input impedance of the Sierpinski gasket monopole is approximately Zin = 50Ω
at both the 2.4 and 5.0 GHz resonant bands, as indicated by the very low values
of the measured and simulated reflection coefficients. This property appears to be
inherent of the antenna structure [10] and can be useful in matching, as discussed in
Section 6.3.
Impedance bandwidths of 8.3% and 4.4% were calculated at the 2.4 and 5.0 GHz
bands, respectively. This is similar to what is expected of microstrip patches.
In order to verify visually that the antennas function as expected, we can simulate
and plot the charge density on the Sierpinski monopole’s surface [10]. Since charge
density indicates the presence of surface currents, we can easily see what regions of
27
(a) 2.4 GHz (b) 5.0 GHz
the fractals radiate more than others. A plot of the surface charge density is shown
in Figure 6.2. In Figure 6.2(a) we can see that most of the charge is distributed over
the second fractal iteration at the resonant frequency f2 = 2.4 GHz. As expected,
examining Figure 6.2(b) indicates that most of the charge is distributed over the third
iteration at the next resonant frequency f3 = 5.0 GHz.
The reflection coefficient variation with frequency was measured and simulated using
the same procedures as outlined in Section 6.2.1. NEC2, instead of SONNET, was used
28
Z
5.0 dBi
X Y
to simulate the antenna parameters. The results of the simulation and experiment
are given in Figure 6.4. As can be seen, the experiment and simulation values are
highly in agreement. The Koch monopole is observed to resonate at 900 MHz and to
have harmonic resonances at 2.6, 4 and 5.7 GHz. A close-up of the 900 MHz band is
shown in Figure 6.4(b).
The impedance bandwidth of the Koch monopole at 900 MHz was calculated
to be approximately 14.4%, which is higher than the expected maximum of 10% for
microstrip antennas.
Radiation Patterns
Although not measured due to the complexity of the experiment required, the radi-
ation patterns of the Koch monopole were only simulated using NEC2. A 900 MHz
sinusoidal signal source was simulated at one end of the antenna, where the feed point
is located in the physical design. The Koch fractal structure was discretized to () el-
ements in the NEC2 simulation for high accuracy. An infinite, perfectly conducting
ground plane was introduced in order to simulate the ground plane used in the design.
The polar plot of the variation of gain in 3D is given in Figure 6.3. The radiation
pattern is very uniform in all directions. It is consistent with the classic doughnut
29
S vs. Frequency for a 3−Iteration, 900 MHz Koch Monopole
11
5
−5
−10
−15
(dB)
−20
11
S
−25
−30
−35
−40
NEC2 simulation
Measurement
−45
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Frequency (MHz)
−1
−2
−3
(dB)
−4
11
S
−5
−6
−7
−8 NEC2 simulation
Measurement
Figure 6.4: Reflection coefficient measurements for the 3-iteration 900 MHz Koch
monopole. (Z0 = 50Ω)
30
Performance Parameter Value
Resonant frequency: 915 MHz
Impedance bandwidth: 14.4%
Input impedance (simulated): 22.5 + j12.6 Ω
Gain in horizontal plane (simulated): 5.0 dBi
Radiation efficiency (simulated): 98.8 %
Front-to-back ratio (simulated): 1
Compactness: 4.1/8.33 = 49 %
Table 6.2: Koch monopole performance parameters.
shape characteristic of the straight wire λ/4 monopole, and consequently that of the
λ/2 dipole.
It is noted that the maximum directivity gain of the Koch monopole is 5.0 dBm,
in the horizontal plane. This is comparable to the simulation of a straight-wire
monopole which resulted in a gain of 5.18 dBm in the same direction.
The antenna performance parameters are summarized in Table 6.2. Simulated and
measured parameters are included.
6.3 Discussion
Since every design has benefits and disadvantages, it is useful to discuss the most rel-
evant points of each. The advantages and disadvantages are evaluated in the sections
below.
The largest advantage of this design is that by using the self-similar structure of the
Sierpinski fractal, we can essentially create two antennas which operate at a desired
pair of frequencies in the same space as one. This multi-band behaviour and efficient
space usage is beneficial in many applications where space is at a premium, such as
receivers for wireless networking in laptop computers or wireless PDAs.
The design has good impedance bandwidth, and its impedance is 50Ω at both
resonant frequencies. This is quite fortunate since no matching networks would be
31
required in order to connect this antenna to a standard 50Ω transmission line. In
addition, since the impedance is identical at both resonant bands, the rather difficult
problem of matching the antennas at two different frequencies is eliminated.
Disadvantages
Because continuity is required in the fractal structure to obtain the desired location
and separation of the design resonant frequencies, a superfluous larger iteration of
the fractal structure is used. The height of the Sierpinski monopole thus is twice that
of the iteration which produces its first resonant band of interest at 2.4 GHz. This
extra iteration increases the physical profile of the antenna.
The attentive reader will have noticed that 2.4 and 5.0 GHz are nearly harmonics
of each other. A dual-band antenna is not necessary to operate at these frequencies,
since a simple monopole or half-wave dipole could be used. While this is true, the
purpose of this design was to prove that the concept can be used to formulate useful
antennas. It is simple to see how the design procedure outlined in this report could be
used to generate antennas with band-spacings different than 2, where the harmonics
of a monopole would not exist.
The greatest advantage of the Koch monopole design is its initial purpose: compact-
ness. A size reduction of 51% was achieved over the straight-wire, λ/4, free-space
monopole. This is highly significant for applications such as GSM cellular phones
which regularly employ λ/4 monopoles. Since it is half the size of the traditional
monopole, it could easily be completely integrated within the case of the phone,
eliminating the protruding monopoles commonly seen on many cellular phones.
The Koch monopole design has excellent impedance bandwidth, allowing some
flexibility in the types of applications where it could be used. Since the radiation
pattern is highly uniform and identical to that of a traditional λ/4 monopole, it could
be used in nearly any type of wireless communications receiver. The very similar
gain to the traditional λ/4 monopole is another benefit of the design. Thus the Koch
monopole presents an excellent, compact solution to the traditional straight-wire
monopole.
32
Disadvantages
33
Chapter 7
Conclusions
7.2 Conclusions
The compact, multi-band Sierpinski gasket monopole and the compact Koch fractal
monopole designs presented in this report are an excellent alternative to traditional
34
antenna systems in mobile wireless receivers. The Sierpinski gasket monopole per-
forms adequately at both the 2.4 and 5.0 GHz frequency bands and demonstrates
space-efficiency through its self-similar fractal structure. The Koch monopole ex-
hibits excellent performance at 900 MHz and has radiation properties nearly identical
to that of traditional, straight-wire monopoles at that frequency.
The goals of this design project were thus successfully accomplished.
35
Appendix A
36
Appendix B
Antenna Schematics
37
105 mm
1,6 mm
mm
30
DET AIL A
m
0 m
0
40
40
A
Antenna Illustrations
40
Figure C.1: Photo of the Sierpinski Monopole.
41
Appendix D
42
Figure D.1: Datasheet for FR-4 (page 1 of 2)
http://www.injectorall.com/techsheetFR4.htm
43
Figure D.2: Datasheet for FR-4 (page 2 of 3)
http://www.injectorall.com/techsheetFR4.htm
44
Figure D.3: Datasheet for FR-4 (page 3 of 3)
http://www.injectorall.com/techsheetFR4.htm
45
Figure D.4: Datasheet for an SMA flange connector (page 1 of 3).
46
Figure D.5: Datasheet for an SMA flange connector (page 2 of 3).
47
Figure D.6: Datasheet for an SMA flange connector (page 3 of 3).
48
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Vita
51