Electronics 09 00318 v2

electronics
Article
Pneumatic ABS Modeling and Failure Mode Analysis
of Electromagnetic and Control Valves for
Commercial Vehicles
Xiaohan Li 1, *, Leilei Zhao 1, *, Changcheng Zhou 1, *, Xue Li 1 and Hongyan Li 2
1 School of Transportation and Vehicle Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, 12 Zhangzhou Road,
Zibo 255049, China; 15552671715@163.com
2 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China;
shanligongdaxue@126.com
* Correspondence: xhan_lee@163.com (X.L.); zhaoleilei611571@163.com (L.Z.); greatwall@sdut.edu.cn (C.Z.);
Tel.: +86-1358-958-9324 (X.L.)

Received: 30 December 2019; Accepted: 6 February 2020; Published: 12 February 2020
Abstract: A failure of the pneumatic ABS (anti-lock braking system) weakens the braking performance
of commercial vehicles. It affects the driving safety of vehicles. There are four typical failure modes
that include: the failure of the pilot inlet solenoid valve and pilot exhaust solenoid valve of the
pressure regulator, the failure of the series dual-chamber brake valve, and the failure of the relay
valve. In order to study the braking performance and the rule of vehicles under the failure modes of
the pneumatic ABS, the co-simulation model of the pneumatic ABS of the commercial vehicle was
established based on AMESim and Simulink softwares. The gas path subsystem of the pneumatic
ABS and the vehicle model were built based on AMESim. The controller was established based on
Simulink/Stateflow. The data were transmitted between the AMESim and Simulink software by using
the data interface block. The co-simulation model was validated by tests. The results showed that the
maximum error of the braking deceleration is 13.51%. The model can simulate the braking process of
the vehicle well. Based on this, the four typical failure modes of the pneumatic ABS were simulated,
and the influences of different failure modes on the braking ability were analyzed. The influence
of failure ratio on braking distance in four modes was obtained. It can be seen from the simulation
results that the failure of the pilot inlet solenoid valve and the pilot exhaust solenoid valve of the
pressure regulator cause the wheel lock. The failure of the lower chamber of the brake valve and the
failure of the relay valve have a great influence on the braking distance.
Keywords: commercial vehicles; pneumatic ABS; solenoid valve; co-simulation; test; failure mode;
braking process
1. Introduction
The pneumatic ABS (anti-lock braking system) is widely used in trucks, buses, and other
commercial vehicles. It can prevent wheels from locking, make full use of the ground adhesion,
and maintain steering ability in emergency braking to avoid danger. ABS have become a standard on
commercial vehicles. The power transmission medium of the pneumatic ABS is air. Air has a strong
compressibility. The pressure response of the brake chamber has a strong hysteresis. The failure of the
pneumatic ABS parts weakens the braking performance of vehicles.
In references [1,2], the modeling and the simulation of the ABS were carried out based on
MATLAB/Simulink. Ma et al. established the model of the pressure regulator of the pneumatic ABS [3].
Qingnian Wang et al. established the simulation model of ABS of an electric vehicle driven by the
hub motor, and designed the control strategy [4]. Zhao et al. analyzed the response characteristics
Electronics 2020, 9, 318; doi:10.3390/electronics9020318 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2020, 9, 318 2 of 21
of the braking pressure of the ABS hydraulic subsystem based on AMESim [5]. Wang established
a co-simulation model of the four-channel hydraulic ABS based on AMESim and Simulink softwares.
The simulation was carried out on a low-adhesion road [6,7]. Lu et al. studied the pressure
characteristics of the proportional relay valve of the EBS (Electronically Controlled Brake System) [8].
Kong built a pneumatic ABS model in Simulink, designed the controller with finite state machine, built
a test bed, verified the model [9]. Lin et al. designed a fuzzy controller of the electric vehicle ABS.
The co-simulation model was established in Simulink and AMESim [10].
Liu et al. established an ABS simulation model by using MATLAB/Simulink, including the tire
model, the brake model. The PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control strategy was designed [11].
Chen established a co-simulation model of pneumatic ABS based on TruckSim, Simulink, and AMESim.
The control input variable was the air pressure of the brake chamber, and the output was the
displacement of the brake pedal. The control strategy does not conform to the reality. No research on
the ABS braking effect was performed [12]. Zheng established the CARIMA (Controlled Autoregressive
Integrated Moving Average) model of the pneumatic ABS. The reference trajectory equation and the
objective function equation were established with the wheel slip ratio as the control objective [13].
Zhao et al. established a sliding mode control model of the regenerative braking system equipped
with the pneumatic ABS for buses [14]. Minh built the ABS test-bed, designed a fuzzy controller and
a PID controller, and compared the two control strategies through experiments [15]. Naderi et al.
designed ASR and ABS controllers based on fuzzy control strategy and sliding mode control strategy in
MATLAB, and verified their effectiveness [16]. Majid Mokarram et al. used the CMOS circuit and the
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system to optimize the ABS fuzzy controller [17]. Dang built a fuzzy
control model and a PID control model of single-wheel ABS based on Simulink, and compared the two
strategies [18].
Gu et al. studied the air pressure response characteristics of the brake pipe through experiments [19].
Chu et al. simulated the dynamic characteristics of the pneumatic ABS pressure regulator using
Matlab/Simulink, and carried out a hardware-in-the-loop experiment [20]. Tao proposed a dynamic
logic threshold control strategy with good performance [21]. Natarajan et al. established a mathematical
model of the relay valve of the pneumatic brake system and conducted experimental verification [22].
Zhang built a total model including air tanks, brake valves, relay valve, ABS pressure regulators,
and brake chambers in simulation software MWworks based on Modelica programming language [23].
Meng et al. built a pneumatic ABS pressure regulator model in AMESim, and carried out static dynamic
analysis. The model has been tested and verified to have high reliability [24,25].
Hu improved the traditional threshold logic control algorithm, and designed a pneumatic ABS
controller based on Stateflow. The correctness of the control algorithm was verified by the xPC Target
platform that was built based on Matlab/Simulink [26]. Jung et al. established a prediction model of the
braking system by using the programming and the database. The parameters of the load-sensing valve
were able to be changed. The design efficiency of the braking system was improved [27]. Tao et al.
established a model of the metro relay valve in AMESim and simulated the failure conditions [28].
Ji et al. studied basic principles and methods of automobile ABS fault analysis based on fuzzy diagnosis
technology [29]. Yang et al. studied the failure causes of the pneumatic ABS pressure regulator of
electric buses, and extended its service life by optimizing the structural design of the solenoid valve [30].
At present, there is no research by scholars and researchers on the braking performance of commercial
vehicles under the failure conditions such as failure of pilot solenoid valves of ABS pressure regulators,
the brake valve, and the relay valve. Therefore, further research on the above failure modes has
engineering significance.
The first part of this paper introduces the structure and working principle of the pneumatic ABS.
In the second part, the submodels and the total model are built based on AMESim and Simulink.
The third part carries out the simulation verification of submodels and the total model. In the fourth
part, four failure modes including the failure of the pilot inlet solenoid valve and pilot exhaust solenoid
third part carries out the simulation verification of submodels and the total model. In the fourth part,
four failure modes including the failure of the pilot inlet solenoid valve and pilot exhaust solenoid
valve of the ABS pressure regulator, the failure of the series dual‐chamber brake valve, and the
failure of the relay valve, are analyzed.
valve of the ABS pressure regulator, the failure of the series dual-chamber brake valve, and the failure
of the relay valve, are analyzed.
2. Working Principle of the Pneumatic Anti‐Lock Braking System (ABS)
2. Working Principle of the Pneumatic Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)
A pneumatic ABS of commercial vehicles usually includes pneumatic parts, electronic parts and
mechanical parts, etc.
A pneumatic ABS The
of basic structure
commercial of the usually
vehicles pneumatic ABS pneumatic
includes is shown in Figure
parts, 1. The parts
electronic air
compressor, 1, is powered by the engine. The high‐pressure air is fed into the primary air reservoir
and mechanical parts, etc. The basic structure of the pneumatic ABS is shown in Figure 1. The air
from the compressor.
compressor, 1, is poweredThe by
front
the and rear
engine. brake
The devices are
high-pressure air supplied
is fed intowith high‐pressure
the primary air
air reservoir
respectively by the series dual‐chamber air brake valve, 10, from two independent air reservoirs, 8
from the compressor. The front and rear brake devices are supplied with high-pressure air respectively
and 9 [31]. dual-chamber air brake valve, 10, from two independent air reservoirs, 8 and 9 [31].
by the series
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the pneumatic anti-lock braking system (ABS). 1-air compressor;
2-pressure limiting valve; 3-air dryer; 4-primary air reservoir; 5-drainage valve; 6-one-way valve;
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the pneumatic anti‐lock braking system (ABS). 1‐air compressor;
7-relief valve; 8-air reservoir for rear brake; 9-air reservoir for front brake; 10-series dual-chamber brake
2‐pressure limiting
valve; 11-relay valve;
valve; 3‐air dryer;
12-front pressure4‐primary
regulator; air reservoir;
13-front 5‐drainage
brake; valve; 6‐one‐way
14-rear pressure regulator;valve;
15-rear
7‐relief valve; 8‐air reservoir for rear brake; 9‐air reservoir for front brake;
brake; 16-wheel rotary speed sensor; 17-power supply; 18-ECU (Electronic Control Unit). 10‐series dual‐chamber
brake valve; 11‐relay valve; 12‐front pressure regulator; 13‐front brake; 14‐rear pressure regulator;
15‐rear brake; 16‐wheel rotary speed sensor; 17‐power supply; 18‐ECU (Electronic Control Unit).
When the brake pedal is depressed, the high-pressure air in the front brake air reservoir 9 enters
the front ABS pressure regulator 12 through the lower chamber of the brake valve 10, and then enters
theWhen the brake pedal is depressed, the high‐pressure air in the front brake air reservoir 9 enters
front brake chamber 13. The high-pressure air in the air reservoir 8 is divided into two parts,
the front
one entersABS
thepressure
inlet portregulator 12 valve
of the relay through the lower
11 directly, andchamber
the otherof the brake
passes valve
through 10, and
the upper then
chamber
enters the front brake chamber 13. The high‐pressure air in the air reservoir 8 is divided into two
of the brake valve 10 to enter the control port of the relay valve 11, so that the relay valve is turned on.
parts, one enters the inlet port of the relay valve 11 directly, and the other passes through the upper
Then the high-pressure air enters the rear brake chamber 15 through the rear ABS regulator 14 from the
chamber of the brake valve 10 to enter the control port of the relay valve 11, so that the relay valve is
relay valve. The ECU calculates the wheel angular speed, the wheel angular acceleration, the slip ratio,
turned
and theon. Then the
velocity high‐pressure
of vehicle accordingair
to enters the of
the signal rear brake
wheel chamber
speed sensor.15 through
Then, the rear
it outputs ABS
the control
regulator
signals of14 from the relay valve.
ABS pressure regulator of The
theECU calculates the wheel angular speed, the wheel angular
corresponding wheel. By the control of the ECU, the pressures
acceleration, the slip ratio, and the velocity of vehicle according to the signal of wheel speed sensor.
of brake chambers can be adjusted to prevent wheels from locking [23].
Then, it outputs the control signals of ABS pressure regulator of the corresponding wheel. By the
3. Model Establishment
control of the ECU, the pressures of brake chambers can be adjusted to prevent wheels from locking
[23].
The submodels of a pneumatic system and the vehicle were built in AMESim software.
The controller submodel was established in Simulink. The control strategy was designed based
3. Model Establishment
on Stateflow. The data interaction was realized by simulation interface modules in AMESim and
The submodels
Simulink. The totalof a pneumatic
model system by
was established and the vehicle
connecting thewere built in AMESim software. The
submodels.
controller submodel was established in Simulink. The control strategy was designed based on
3.1. Modeling
Stateflow. The ofdata
Submodels
interaction was realized by simulation interface modules in AMESim and
Simulink. The total model was established by connecting the submodels.
Components of the pneumatic ABS are from different physical fields [23]. AMESim is
a multidisciplinary and complex field simulation platform that is widely used in modeling and
simulation of complex systems [32,33]. The pneumatic submodels were built using components of the
3.1. Modeling of Submodels
Components of the pneumatic ABS are from different physical fields [23]. AMESim is a
multidisciplinary and complex field simulation platform that is widely used in modeling and
simulation of complex systems [32,33]. The pneumatic submodels were built using components of
the mechanical library, the pneumatic library, and the signal control library of AMESim. The system
is mechanical
a composition library, of the
several basic library,
pneumatic typical components,
and and each
the signal control component
library has
of AMESim. Therelatively
system is
independent dynamic characteristics [23]. Next, the modeling of three valves that will be studied are
a composition of several basic typical components, and each component has relatively independent
introduced.
dynamic characteristics [23]. Next, the modeling of three valves that will be studied are introduced.
3.1.1. Modeling of the Series Dual-Chamber Air Brake Valve

3.1.1. Modeling of the Series Dual‐Chamber Air Brake Valve
The series dual-chamber air brake valve makes the front and rear brake lines independent
The series dual‐chamber air brake valve makes the front and rear brake lines independent of of
each other to ensure braking safety [12]. The piston motion clearance is simulated by the component
each other to ensure braking safety [12]. The piston motion clearance is simulated by the component
LSTP00A. The piston mass and the limit stroke are simulated by the component MAS005RT. The upper
LSTP00A. The piston mass and the limit stroke are simulated by the component MAS005RT. The
chamber, the lower chamber, and the return spring are simulated by the component PNPA003. The inlet
upper chamber, the lower chamber, and the return spring are simulated by the component PNPA003.
and outlet are simulated by the component PNAO001. The appearance, structure, and submodel of the
The inlet
series and outlet are
dual-chamber air simulated
brake valveby
arethe component
shown in FigurePNAO001.
2. The appearance, structure, and
submodel of the series dual‐chamber air brake valve are shown in Figure 2.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Series dual-chamber air brake valve. (a) Appearance. (b) Schematic diagram. (c) Submodel in
Figure 2. Series dual‐chamber air brake valve. (a) Appearance. (b) Schematic diagram. (c) Submodel
AMESim. In the schematic diagram: a-tappet seat; b-rubber spring; c-upper chamber piston; d-upper
in AMESim. In the schematic diagram: a‐tappet seat; b‐rubber spring; c‐upper chamber piston;
chamber exhaust port; e-valve stem; f-lower chamber piston; g-lower chamber inlet; h-lower chamber
d‐upper chamber exhaust port; e‐valve stem; f‐lower chamber piston; g‐lower chamber inlet; h‐lower
exhaust port; i-upper chamber inlet; A,B,C-chamber; D-flow hole; 11-upper chamber inlet port; 21-upper
chamber exhaust port; i‐upper chamber inlet; A,B,C‐chamber; D‐flow hole; 11‐upper chamber inlet
chamber outlet port; 12-lower chamber inlet port; 22-lower chamber outlet port; 3-exhaust port.
port; 21‐upper chamber outlet port; 12‐lower chamber inlet port; 22‐lower chamber outlet port;
3‐exhaust port.
3.1.2. Modeling of the Relay Valve
The relay valve can make air enter the rear brake chamber from the rear brake air reservoir through
3.1.2. Modeling of the Relay Valve
the relay valve and the ABS pressure regulator without passing through the series dual-chamber air
brakeThe valve,
relay thereby
valve can make air
reducing rearenter
brakethe rear brake
response time.chamber from the structure,
The appearance, rear brake
andair reservoir of
submodel
through
the relay the relay
valve arevalve
shownand the ABS
in Figure pressure regulator without passing through the series
3 [22].
dual‐chamber air brake valve, thereby reducing rear brake response time. The appearance, structure,
and submodel of the relay valve are shown in Figure 3 [22].

(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure3. 3.Relay
Relayvalve.
valve.(a)
(a)Appearance.
Appearance.(b)
(b)Schematic
Schematicdiagram.
diagram.(c)
(c)Submodel
Submodelin inAMESim.
AMESim.In Inthe
the
Schematic diagram: 1‐air inlet port; 2‐air outlet port; 3‐air exhaust port; 4‐control port; a‐valve body;
Schematic diagram: 1-air inlet port; 2-air outlet port; 3-air exhaust port; 4-control port; a-valve body;
b‐piston;
b-piston;c‐valve stem; d-inlet;
c-valve stem; d‐inlet; e‐exhaust
e-exhaust valve;
valve; A‐inlet
A-inlet chamber;
chamber; B‐control
B-control chamber;chamber;
C-outletC‐outlet
chamber.
chamber.
The port 4 connects to the air outlet port 21 of the upper chamber of the brake valve. The port 1
connects to the air reservoir 8. The port 2 connects to the rear pressure regulators. The chamber B
and C are simulated by the component PNPA002. The inlet and outlet are simulated by the

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Relay valve. (a) Appearance. (b) Schematic diagram. (c) Submodel in AMESim. In the
Schematic diagram: 1‐air inlet port; 2‐air outlet port; 3‐air exhaust port; 4‐control port; a‐valve body;
b‐piston; c‐valve stem; d‐inlet; e‐exhaust valve; A‐inlet chamber; B‐control chamber; C‐outlet
chamber.
connects to the air reservoir 8. The port 2 connects to the rear pressure regulators. The chamber B
connects to the air reservoir 8. The port 2 connects to the rear pressure regulators. The chamber B and
and
C areC simulated
are simulated
by theby the component
component PNPA002.PNPA002. The
The inlet andinlet and
outlet areoutlet are simulated
simulated by the
by the component
component PNAP031. The piston mass and the limit stroke are simulated by the
PNAP031. The piston mass and the limit stroke are simulated by the component MAS005RT. The piston component
MAS005RT. The piston
motion clearance motion
is simulated clearance
by the is simulated
component LSTP00A.by the the
When component
air entersLSTP00A. When
the chamber B, thethe air
piston
enters the chamber B, the piston b moves downward, and the inlet d is opened. Then the air enters
b moves downward, and the inlet d is opened. Then the air enters the rear pressure regulators through
the rear pressure regulators through the chamber A, inlet d, chamber C, and port 2.
the chamber A, inlet d, chamber C, and port 2.
3.1.3. Modeling of the Pneumatic ABS Pressure Regulator
3.1.3. Modeling of the Pneumatic ABS Pressure Regulator
Thepneumatic
The pneumaticABS ABSpressure
pressureregulator
regulatoruses
usessolenoid
solenoidvalves
valvesas
aspilot
pilotvalves
valvesand
andis
isa a kind
kind of
of
direct-controlled gas pressure regulator. There are two solenoid valves inside the ABS pressure
direct‐controlled gas pressure regulator. There are two solenoid valves inside the ABS pressure
regulator. By controlling the on-off combination of the two pilot solenoid valves, the working states of
regulator. By controlling the on‐off combination of the two pilot solenoid valves, the working states
ABS pressure regulator can be in rapid charging, rapid releasing, step charging, step releasing and
of ABS pressure regulator can be in rapid charging, rapid releasing, step charging, step releasing and
pressure holding. The appearance, structure, and submodel of the ABS pressure regulator are shown
pressure holding. The appearance, structure, and submodel of the ABS pressure regulator are shown
in Figure 4. [25]. The working principle of ABS pressure regulator is shown in Table 1.
in Figure 4. [25]. The working principle of ABS pressure regulator is shown in Table 1.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Pneumatic
Pneumatic ABS ABS solenoid
solenoid valve.
valve. (a)
(a) Appearance.
Appearance. (b)
(b) Schematic
Schematic diagram.
diagram. (c)
(c) AMESim
AMESim
submodel. In the schematic diagram: 1‐from braking valve; 2‐to braking chamber; 3‐to atmosphere;
submodel. In the schematic diagram: 1-from braking valve; 2-to braking chamber; 3-to atmosphere;
a‐pilot chamber(inlet valve); b‐inlet valve diaphragm; c‐inlet valve seat; d‐air pilot passage; e‐exhaust
a-pilot chamber(inlet valve); b-inlet valve diaphragm; c-inlet valve seat; d-air pilot passage; e-exhaust
valve
valveseat;
seat; f‐exhaust
f-exhaustvalve
valve diaphragm;
diaphragm;g‐pilot
g-pilot chamber(exhausted
chamber(exhaustedvalve);
valve);h‐pilot
h-pilotexhaust
exhaustsolenoid
solenoid
valve spool; i‐pilot inlet solenoid valve spool; k‐inlet valve spring; l‐exhaust valve spring;
valve spool; i-pilot inlet solenoid valve spool; k-inlet valve spring; l-exhaust valve spring; I,II-solenoid;
Ⅰ ,Ⅱ‐solenoid; A‐inlet chamber; B‐outlet chamber.
A-inlet chamber; B-outlet chamber.
Table 1. Working states of the pneumatic ABS pressure regulator.

Coil of Inlet Solenoid Valve/ Coil of Exhaust Solenoid
Brake Chamber Pressure
State of Inlet Valve Valve/State of Exhaust Valve
power off/open power off/close rapid charging
power on/close power on/open rapid releasing
power on/close power off/close pressure holding
pause power on/cycle open and
power off/close step charging
close
pause power on/cycle open and
power on/close step releasing
close
The chamber a is simulated by the component PNCH012. The pilot solenoid valve is simulated by
the component PNSV231_05. The inlet valve and the exhaust valve are simulated by the component
PNAO011. In the submodel, gain modules are input control signals of pilot solenoid valves.
3.1.4. Modeling of the Controller

The Stateflow product is an interactive graphical design tool that works with Simulink software
to model and simulate event-driven systems, also called reactive systems. Event-driven systems
transition from one operating mode to another in response to events and conditions [34]. The controller
3.1.4. Modeling of the Controller
The Stateflow product is an interactive graphical design tool that works with Simulink software
to model and simulate event‐driven systems, also called reactive systems. Event‐driven systems
transition
Electronics from
2020, 9, 318one operating mode to another in response to events and conditions [34]. The
6 of 21
controller submodel includes a slip ratio calculation module and a control signal calculation module,
as shown in Figure 5. The slip ratio, angular velocity, and angular acceleration are input to the
submodel includes a slip ratio calculation module and a control signal calculation module, as shown in
Stateflow. Stateflow outputs control signals of the pilot inlet solenoid valves and the pilot exhaust
Figure 5. The slip ratio, angular velocity, and angular acceleration are input to the Stateflow. Stateflow
solenoid valves. Stateflow is triggered by a pulse signal.
outputs control signals of the pilot inlet solenoid valves and the pilot exhaust solenoid valves. Stateflow
The controller adopts a logic threshold control strategy. In this strategy, the threshold is set by
is triggered by a pulse signal.
two factors: slip ratio and wheel angular acceleration. The control logic is shown in Figure 6 [35,36].

Figure 5. Controller submodel of the pneumatic ABS in Simulink.
Figure 5. Controller submodel of the pneumatic ABS in Simulink.
The controller adopts a logic threshold control strategy. In this strategy, the threshold is set by
two factors: slip ratio and wheel angular acceleration. The control logic is shown in Figure 6 [35,36].

Figure 6. ABS logic threshold method control logic. s1 -slip ratio threshold, aw -angular acceleration,
Figure 6. ABS logic threshold method control logic. s1‐slip ratio threshold,
a1 -first threshold of angular acceleration, a2 -second threshold aw‐angular acceleration,
of angular acceleration, Ak -third threshold
aof
1‐first
angularthreshold of angular acceleration, a2‐second threshold of angular acceleration, Ak‐third
acceleration.
threshold of angular acceleration.
3.2. Establishment of the Total Model
3.2. Establishment of the Total Model
The submodels in AMESim and Simulink are connected according to the topology as shown in
Figure 7. [6]. The total model is shown in Figure 8. For the convenience of modeling, super components
or subsystems are created
Figure 7. [6]. The for some
total model complex
is shown submodels.
in Figure The
8. For the vehicle model uses
convenience the component
of modeling, super
TR3DCARB01. The wheel model uses the component TR3DTIRE01. The tire pavement
components or subsystems are created for some complex submodels. The vehicle model modeluses
uses the
the
component VDROAD00. And the tire pavement contact model uses the component VDADHER00.
component TR3DCARB01. The wheel model uses the component TR3DTIRE01. The tire pavement
The properties of the air is defined by the component PNGD_AIR.
model uses the component VDROAD00. And the tire pavement contact model uses the component
VDADHER00. The properties of the air is defined by the component PNGD_AIR.
Figure 7. [6]. The total model is shown in Figure 8. For the convenience of modeling, super
components or subsystems are created for some complex submodels. The vehicle model uses the
component TR3DCARB01. The wheel model uses the component TR3DTIRE01. The tire pavement
model uses the component VDROAD00. And the tire pavement contact model uses the component
VDADHER00. The properties of the air is defined by the component PNGD_AIR.
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 Figure 7. Simulation model topology. 8 of 22
Figure 7. Simulation model topology.

Figure 8. Total model of simulation.
In In
thethe
co-simulation, there
co‐simulation, areare
there many
many data exchanges
data exchanges and transmission
and transmission among
among different
different
In the
softwares co‐simulation,
[27]. The data there are
transfer many
module in data exchanges
Simulink is the and transmission
Simcenter AMESim among
co-Sim different
module.
softwares [27]. The data transfer module in Simulink is the Simcenter AMESim co‐Sim module. In
softwares [27]. The data transfer module in Simulink is the Simcenter AMESim co‐Sim module. In
In AMESim, is the interface block of SimuCosim module. The data are the vehicle speed, wheel angular
AMESim, is the interface block of SimuCosim module. The data are the vehicle speed, wheel angular
AMESim, is the interface block of SimuCosim module. The data are the vehicle speed, wheel angular
velocity, wheel angular acceleration, and and
control signals of theof
inlet
velocity, wheel angular acceleration, control signals the and outlet
inlet and solenoid valves of
outlet solenoid each of
valves
velocity,
ABS wheel
pressure angular The
regulator. acceleration, and data
co-simulation control signals are
interfaces of the
showninlet
in and outlet
Figure 9. solenoid valves of
each ABS pressure regulator. The co‐simulation data interfaces are shown in Figure 9.
each ABS pressure regulator. The co‐simulation data interfaces are shown in Figure 9.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure Interface
9. 9.
Figure Interface block
block ofof co-simulation. (a) Simcenter
co‐simulation. (a) Simcenter Amesim
Amesim co‐Sim
co-Sim Module
Modulein inSimulink;
Simulink;(b)
Figure
(b) 9. Interface
Interface block ofblock of co‐simulation.
SimuCosim in AMESim.(a) Simcenter Amesim co‐Sim Module in Simulink; (b)
Interface block of SimuCosim in AMESim.
Interface block of SimuCosim in AMESim.
4. Model Verification
In this section, submodels are simulated and verified by comparing the simulation and
experimental results. Then the total model is simulated and verified by comparing the simulation
experimental results. Then the total model is simulated and verified by comparing the simulation
and the hardware‐in‐the‐loop test data.
and the hardware‐in‐the‐loop test data.
experimental results. Then the total model is simulated and verified by comparing the simulation and
the hardware-in-the-loop test data.
4.1. Verification of the Pneumatic ABS Pressure Regulator Model

The pressure of the air source was set to 0.64 MPa, the brake chamber volume to 2 L, the temperature
to 293.15 K. The simulation step was set to 0.01 s, simulation time to 5 s. Firstly, kept the process of
rapid charging going for 2 s. Then, held the pressure for 1s. Finally, the process of rapid releasing was
kept going for 2 s. The curves of electrical control signals of pilot solenoid valves and the pressure
response of brake chamber are shown in Figure 10.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 10. Curves of ABS pressure regulator control signal and pressure response of brake chamber.
Figure 10. Curves of ABS pressure regulator control signal and pressure response of brake chamber.
(a) Control signal of the pilot inlet solenoid valve; (b) control signal of the pilot exhaust solenoid valve;
(a) Control signal of the pilot inlet solenoid valve; (b) control signal of the pilot exhaust solenoid
(c) pressure of the brake chamber under control signals of (a,b).
valve; (c) pressure of the brake chamber under control signals of (a) and (b).
The pressure of air source of the test bench was set to 0.64 MPa. When the brake chamber reached
a steady pressure
The state value of of
air 0.64
source
MPa, of athe test bench
venting was
test was set to 0.64 Then
performed. MPa. the
When
datathe
of brake chamber
brake chamber
pressure were obtained [12]. The results of the simulation and the test are shown in Tablesof
reached a steady state value of 0.64 MPa, a venting test was performed. Then the data brake
2 and 3.
chamber pressure were obtained [12]. The results of the simulation and the test are shown in Table 2
The test data was extracted from curves in reference [12]. In order to facilitate the comparison of the
and Table the
test data, 3. The
thirdtest data inwas
second theextracted
simulation from
wascurves
marked in as
reference
the start[12].
timeIn
as order to facilitate
the releasing the
process.
comparison of the test data, the third second in the simulation was marked as the start time as the
According to the comparison results, the simulation data are basically consistent with the trend of the
releasing process. According to the comparison results, the simulation data are basically consistent
test data. The maximum relative error was 16.0%. The steady values of pressure were almost equal.
with the trend of the test data. The maximum relative error was 16.0%. The steady values of pressure
Therefore, the model is considered to be reliable.
were almost equal. Therefore, the model is considered to be reliable.
Table 2. Comparison of the simulation and test of rapid charging process.
Table 2. Comparison of the simulation and test of rapid charging process.
Time(s) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Time(s)
Simulation (MPa) 0.05 0.169
0.087 0.1 0.15
0.249 0.2 0.25
0.328 0.403 0.3 0.35
0.470 0.527 0.4 0.45
0.571 0.604 0.5
0.623 0.55
0.633 0.6
0.639
Test (MPa) 0.090 0.180 0.270 0.340 0.420 0.480 0.540 0.580 0.610 0.630 0.640 0.640
Simulation (MPa) 0.087
Relative error(%) 3.3 0.169
6.1 0.249
7.8 0.328
3.5 0.403
4.0 0.470
2.1 0.527
2.4 0.571
1.5 0.604
1.0 0.623
1.1 0.633
1.1 0.639
0.2
Test (MPa) Table0.090 0.180 0.270

3. Comparison of the0.340 0.420and
simulation 0.480 0.540
test of rapid0.580 0.610
releasing 0.630 0.640 0.640
process.
Relative errorTime(s)
(%) 3.3 6.1 0 7.8 0.05
3.5 4.0
0.1 2.1
0.15 2.4 0.2 1.5 0.25
1.0 1.1
0.3 1.1
0.35 0.2
Simulation (MPa) 0.639 0.472 0.295 0.187 0.116 0.068 0.035 0.011
Test (MPa) 0.640 0.460 0.270 0.170 0.100 0.060 0.030 0.010
Table 3. Comparison of the simulation and test of rapid releasing process.
Relative error(%) 0.2 2.6 9.3 10.0 16.0 13.0 16.7 10.0
Time(s) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

The duty cycle of the signal was set from 0 to 100% with the interval 10%. Then the dynamic
Simulation
curves (MPa)
of pressure 0.639 duty
at different 0.472 0.295
cycles was 0.187
obtained, 0.116in Figure
as shown 0.068
11. It 0.035 0.011
can be seen from the
Test (MPa) 0.640 0.460 0.270 0.170 0.100 0.060 0.030 0.010
Relative error (%) 0.2 2.6 9.3 10.0 16.0 13.0 16.7 10.0
simulation results, pressure charging and releasing rates can be obtained by changing the PWM (Pulse
Width Modulation) duty cycle of pulse energization [25]. The model can simulate the process of rapid
charging, rapid releasing, pressure holding, step charging, and step releasing.
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(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Pressure response of brake chamber under the control of step charging and step releasing of ABS
Figure 11. Pressure response of brake chamber under the control of step charging and step releasing of
Figure 11. Pressure response of brake chamber under the control of step charging and step releasing of ABS
pressure regulator. (a) Pressure response of step charging; (b) pressure response of step releasing.
ABS pressure regulator. (a) Pressure response of step charging; (b) pressure response of step releasing.
pressure regulator. (a) Pressure response of step charging; (b) pressure response of step releasing.
4.2. Verification of the Series Dual-Chamber Air Brake Valve Model
4.2. Verification of the Series Dual‐Chamber Air Brake Valve Model
4.2. Verification of the Series Dual‐Chamber Air Brake Valve Model
The input variable of the series dual-chamber air brake valve can be force or displacement of the
The input variable of the series dual‐chamber air brake valve can be force or displacement of the
brake The input variable of the series dual‐chamber air brake valve can be force or displacement of the
pedal. The air supply pressure was set to 1.0 MPa. The input signal was set to a displacement
brake pedal. The air supply pressure was set to 1.0 MPa. The input signal was set to a displacement
brake pedal. The air supply pressure was set to 1.0 MPa. The input signal was set to a displacement
of 20 mm in the brake pedal within 0.5 s. Then kept the displacement for 1s. Finally, removed the
displacement within 0.5 s [12]. The dynamic curves of the pressure of the outlet ports are shown
displacement within 0.5 s [12]. The dynamic curves of the pressure of the outlet ports are shown in
displacement within 0.5 s [12]. The dynamic curves of the pressure of the outlet ports are shown in
in Figure 12. The pressure increase has a certain lag, but within an acceptable range. Since there
Figure 12. The pressure increase has a certain lag, but within an acceptable range. Since there is a
Figure 12. The pressure increase has a certain lag, but within an acceptable range. Since there is a
is a long distance between the series dual-chamber air brake valve and the rear brake air chamber,
long distance between the series dual‐chamber air brake valve and the rear brake air chamber, the
long distance between the series dual‐chamber air brake valve and the rear brake air chamber, the
the pressure increase of the rear brake chamber has a certain lag compared with the front brake chamber.
pressure increase of the rear brake chamber has a certain lag compared with the front brake chamber.
pressure increase of the rear brake chamber has a certain lag compared with the front brake chamber.
The submodel can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the series dual-chamber air brake valve.
The submodel can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the series dual‐chamber air brake valve.
The submodel can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the series dual‐chamber air brake valve.

Figure 12. Characteristic curves of series dual-chamber air brake valve. The port 21 is connected to the
Figure 12. Characteristic curves of series dual‐chamber air brake valve. The port 21 is connected to
Figure 12. Characteristic curves of series dual‐chamber air brake valve. The port 21 is connected to
relay valve control port. The port 22 is connected to the front ABS pressure regulators’ inlets.
the relay valve control port. The port 22 is connected to the front ABS pressure regulators’ inlets.
the relay valve control port. The port 22 is connected to the front ABS pressure regulators’ inlets.
4.3. Verification of the Relay Valve Model
The pressure of air source was set to 1.0 MPa. The high-pressure air was input as a control signal
The
at theThe pressure
control of the
port of air source was The
set to 1.0 MPa. The high‐pressure air was input as in a control
pressure of air relay valve.
source was set pressure characteristics
to 1.0 MPa. The were obtained
high‐pressure as shown
air was input as Figure 13.
a control
signal at the control port of the relay valve. The pressure characteristics were obtained as shown in
The relationship between control pressure and outlet pressure is approximately linear. Before the
signal at the control port of the relay valve. The pressure characteristics were obtained as shown in
Figure
control 13. The relationship
pressure reaches 1.0 between
MPa, thecontrol pressure has
outlet pressure and outlet pressure
reached 1.0 MPa, is approximately
thereby achievinglinear.
a fast
Figure 13. The relationship between control pressure and outlet pressure is approximately linear.
Before
inflation the control
function andpressure reaches
reducingreaches 1.0
the pressure MPa, the
hysteresis outlet pressure
of the pressure has
rear brakehas reached
chamber. 1.0
The1.0 MPa,
trends thereby
ofthereby
control
Before the control pressure 1.0 MPa, the outlet reached MPa,
achieving a fast inflation function and reducing the pressure hysteresis of the rear brake chamber.
pressure and outlet pressure are consistent with the actual situation. The simulation results show that
achieving a fast inflation function and reducing the pressure hysteresis of the rear brake chamber.
The
the trends of can
control pressure and outlet ofpressure
the relayare consistent with the actual situation. The
The submodel reflect
trends of control the characteristics
pressure and outlet pressure valve.
are The reliability
consistent of the
with the relay
actual valve model
situation. The
simulation
can results
be verified show
by the that the
reliability of submodel
the can reflect the characteristics of the relay valve. The
total model.
simulation results show that the submodel can reflect the characteristics of the relay valve. The
reliability of the relay valve model can be verified by the reliability of the total model.
reliability of the relay valve model can be verified by the reliability of the total model.
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(a) (b)
Figure 13. Characteristic curves of the relay valve. (a) Pressure of the control port and the outlet port;
Figure 13. Characteristic curves of the relay valve. (a) Pressure of the control port and the outlet port;
(b) relationship of the outlet pressure and control pressure. Port 2 is the outlet port. Port 4 is the
(b) relationship of the outlet pressure and control pressure. Port 2 is the outlet port. Port 4 is the
control port.
control port.
4.4. Verification of the Total Model
4.4. Verification of the Total Model
In reference [9], a hardware-in-the-loop test bench was built, and the pneumatic ABS control
In reference
strategy [9], a hardware‐in‐the‐loop
was introduced into the rapid prototype test controller
bench was built, and the The
MicroAutoBox. pneumatic
vehicle ABS
model control
built
strategy was introduced into the rapid prototype controller MicroAutoBox. The vehicle model built
in the veDYNA software was imported into the Simulator that is a real-time simulation platform
in the veDYNA
developed software
by dsSPACE. was
The imported
built-in into the
pneumatic Simulator
ABS that MicroAutoBox,
test bench, is a real‐time simulation
and Simulator platform
were
developed by dsSPACE. The built‐in pneumatic ABS test bench, MicroAutoBox, and Simulator were
connected through corresponding signal lines. The Simulator transmitted the real-time simulated
connected
vehicle through
speed corresponding
and wheel speed tosignal lines. The Simulator
the MicroAutoBox throughtransmitted
the signal the line.real‐time simulated
The controller in
vehicle speed and wheel speed to the MicroAutoBox through the signal
MicroAutoBox sent control signals to the ABS electromagnetic regulator in the pneumatic ABS test line. The controller in
MicroAutoBox sent control signals to the ABS electromagnetic regulator in the pneumatic ABS test
bench based on the real-time driving signal. Consequently, the pressure in the brake chamber was
bench based on the real‐time driving signal. Consequently, the pressure in the brake chamber was
controlled. The pressure sensor on the pneumatic ABS test bench transmitted the pressure signal of the
controlled. The pressure sensor on the pneumatic ABS test bench transmitted the pressure signal of
brake chamber to the Simulator. The vehicle model in the Simulator converted the pressure signal into
the brake chamber
a braking torque to the
signal. Simulator.
It was then addedThe tovehicle model
the vehicle in the
model forSimulator converted the
real-time simulation. The pressure
detailed
signal into a braking torque signal. It was then added to the vehicle model for real‐time simulation.
test method can be found in reference [9].
The detailed test method can be found in reference [9].
The simulation parameters were set the same value in reference [9]. The initial parameters of the
The simulation parameters were set the same value in reference [9]. The initial parameters of
simulation are shown in Table 4 and Figure 14. The simulation step in AMESim and Simulink were all
the simulation are shown in Table 4 and Figure 14.
set to 1ms. Moreover, the communication interval between The simulation step in AMESim and Simulink
AMESim and Simulink was the same as
were all set to 1ms. Moreover, the communication interval between AMESim and Simulink was the
the step size, set to 1 ms. The Stateflow was triggered by both rising and falling edges of a pulse signal
same as the step size, set to 1 ms. The Stateflow was triggered by both rising and falling edges of a
with the period 2 ms.
pulse signal with the period 2 ms.
The simulation and test results of the high- and low-adhesion roads are shown in Table 5.
The simulation and test results of the high‐ and low‐adhesion roads are shown in Table 5. The
The relative error between simulation and test for braking deceleration on the high-adhesion road
surface iserror
relative 7.74%,between
and that simulation and test road
for the low-adhesion for braking
surface isdeceleration
13.51%. The on main the high‐adhesion
cause of the error isroad
the
surface is 7.74%, and that for the low‐adhesion road surface is 13.51%. The main cause of the error is
simplification of the model, such as the establishment of the suspensions and wheels. The reason for
the error
the simplification
may be also of related
the model,
to the such as the
difference establishment
of the of the
threshold values insuspensions and wheels.
the control strategy. The
Moreover,
reason for the error may be also related to the difference of the threshold
some parameters of the ABS are not given in reference [9], so we use the real parameters of a pneumaticvalues in the control
strategy. Moreover, some parameters of the ABS are not given in reference [9], so we use the real
ABS. The difference of the parameters can also cause errors. The errors are within an acceptable range,
parameters of a pneumatic ABS. The difference of the parameters can also cause errors. The errors
so the total model can be considered effective. It is further verified that each submodel is also workable.
are within an acceptable range, so the total model can be considered effective. It is further verified
In order to investigate whether the control strategy is effective, emergency braking condition
that each submodel is also workable.
simulations were performed on the road surface with adhesion coefficients 0.8, 0.6, and 0.2. The values
In order to investigate whether the control strategy is effective, emergency braking condition
of initial vehicle speed were set to 80 km/h, 80 km/h, and 60 km/h, respectively. The simulation results
are shown inwere
simulations Figuresperformed
15–17. on the road surface with adhesion coefficients 0.8, 0.6, and 0.2. The
values of initial vehicle speed were set to 80 km/h, 80 km/h, and 60 km/h, respectively. The
simulation results are shown in Figures 15–17.

Truck body mass m kg 8830
Free tire radius r mm 522
Height of mass center hg mm 915

Electronics 2020, 9, 318 11 of 21
x-position of truck body

a mm 1542
COG (Center of Gravity) Table 4. Initial parameters of simulation.
Wheel base Parameter L mm

Symbol Unit 3880
Value
Truck body mass m kg 8830
Front wheel inertia I kg∙m2 20
Free tire radiuswf r mm 522
Height of mass center hg2 mm 915
rearx-position
wheel inertia Iwr
of truck body COG (Center of Gravity)
kg∙ma mm
25
1542
Wheel base L mm 3880
maximum pressure Front wheel inertiaPmax MPa
Iwf kg·m2 1.0
20
rear wheel inertia Iwr kg·m2 25
maximum pressure Pmax MPa 1.0

Figure 14. Force diagram of the vehicle braking condition.
Figure 14. Force diagram of the vehicle braking condition.
Table 5. Comparison of deceleration of simulation and experiment.
Table 5. Comparison of deceleration of simulation and experiment.
Deceleration
Adhesion Coefficient
Simulation (m/s2 ) Experiment (m/s2 )
Deceleration Error (%)
0.8
Adhesion Coefficient 7.50 6.98 7.74
0.2 Simulation (m/s2)
1.48 1.71 (m/s2)
Experiment Error (%)
13.51
0.8 7.50 6.98 7.74
0.2 1.48 1.71 13.51

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(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure 15. Braking characteristics on the road with the adhesion coefficient 0.8. (a) Pressure of brake
chamber; (b) velocity of truck body and wheels; (c) deceleration of truck body with ABS and without
ABS; (d) velocity-displacement curves of truck body with ABS and without ABS.
ABS; (d) velocity‐displacement curves of truck body with ABS and without ABS.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure 16. Braking characteristics on the road with adhesion coefficient 0.6. (a) Pressure of brake
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Braking
Braking characteristics on
on the road
road with
with adhesion
adhesion coefficient 0.6.
0.6. (a)
(a) Pressure
Pressure of brake
brake
chamber; (b) velocitycharacteristics
of truck body andthe wheels; (c) deceleration coefficient
of truck body with ABS and of
without
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(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 17. Braking characteristics on the road with adhesion coefficient 0.2. (a) Pressure of brake
Figure 17.
chamber; (b)Braking
velocity characteristics
of truck body andon the road (c)
wheels; with adhesion of
deceleration coefficient
truck body 0.2.
with(a) ABS
Pressure of brake
and without
The braking performance of the truck can be evaluated by MFDD (Mean Fully Developed
The braking
Deceleration). performance
The MFDD of the as:
is expressed truck can be evaluated by MFDD (Mean Fully Developed
Deceleration). The MFDD is expressed as:
(u2b − u2e )
MFDD = (1)
(sb2e 
25.92(u −usbe2))
MFDD  (1)
where, ub = 0.8u0 , ue = 0.1u0 , sb is the distance the25 truck se  sb )from
.92(passes u 0 to u ,
b es is the distance the
truck passes from u 0 to u e , u 0 is the initial velocity.
where, ub = 0.8u0, ue = 0.1u0, sb is the distance the truck passes from u0 to ub, se is the distance the truck
The values0 to u
passes from u of the MFDD are shown in Table 6. φ is the adhesion coefficient of the road.
e, u0 is the initial velocity.
The values of the MFDD are shown in Table 6. φ is the adhesion coefficient of the road.
Table 6. The MFDD of the truck on the roads with different adhesion coefficients.
φ Table 6. The MFDD of the truck on the roads with different adhesion coefficients.
u0 (km/h) ub (km/h) ue (km/h) sb (m) se (m) MFDD(m/s2 )
0.8 80
u0(km/h) 64
ub(km/h) 8
ue(km/h) 16.01
sb(m) se(m) 37.50 MFDD(m/s
7.272)
φ
0.6 80 64 8 19.86 49.33 5.28
0.20.8 60
80 48
64 8 6 31.54
16.01 37.50 84.54 7.27 1.65
0.6 80 64 8 19.86 49.33 5.28

As can be seen from Figures 15–17 and Table 6, on the road surface with φ 0.8, 0.6, and 0.2,
the values are 7.27 m/s2 ,48
0.2 of MFDD 60 5.28 m/s2 , and6 1.65 m/s2 respectively.
31.54 84.54
The 1.65 strength
values of braking
are 0.742, 0.54, and 0.17 respectively. The adhesion coefficient utilization rates are 92.8%, 90.0%,
and 84.0%. The braking distances are reduced by 2.684 m, 3.106 m, and 1.796 m respectively. All the
As can be seen from Figures 15–17 and Table 6, on the road surface with φ 0.8, 0.6, and 0.2, the
adhesion coefficient utilization rates are greater than 75% and meet the requirements [26]. In the high-,
values of MFDD are 7.27 m/s2, 5.28 m/s2, and 1.65 m/s2 respectively. The values of braking strength
medium-, and low-adhesion roads, the controller can adjust the brake pressure to prevent wheels from
are 0.742, 0.54, and 0.17 respectively. The adhesion coefficient utilization rates are 92.8%, 90.0%, and
locking. The average deceleration of the vehicle with ABS is greater than that without ABS. The model
84.0%. The braking distances are reduced by 2.684 m, 3.106 m, and 1.796 m respectively. All the
can be considered reliable and can be used in the analysis of failure conditions.
adhesion coefficient utilization rates are greater than 75% and meet the requirements [26]. In the
high‐, medium‐, and low‐adhesion roads, the controller can adjust the brake pressure to prevent
wheels from locking. The average deceleration of the vehicle with ABS is greater than that without
ABS. The model can be considered reliable and can be used in the analysis of failure conditions.
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5. Analysis of Failure Conditions
5. 5. Analysis of Failure Conditions
Analysis of Failure Conditions
The simulations of different failure ratios were performed based on the reliability of the verified
model. The simulations of different failure ratios were performed based on the reliability of the verified
The simulations
First, of different
we selected failure ratios
the component as were performed
the analysis based
object, on the
then we reliability of the
set different verified
parameter
model.
model. First,
First, wewe selected
selected the the component
component as theas analysis
the analysis
object,object,
then we then we set different
set different
values of the selected components to simulate the different failure ratios. Finally, we ran the model parameter parameter
values
values of the selected components to simulate the different failure ratios. Finally, we ran the model
of the selected components to simulate the different failure ratios. Finally, we ran the model and the
and the simulation data were collected and analyzed.
and the simulation data were collected and analyzed.
simulation data were collected and analyzed.
5.1. Parameters Setting of Failure Modes
The reduction of the flow area causing by the stuck of the lower chamber piston of the series
The reduction of thevalve
flow was
areamarked
causingas bymode1.
the stuck ofreduction
the lower of
chamber piston
The reduction of the flow area causing by the stuck of the lower chamber piston of the series
dual‐chamber air brake The the flow area of
of the
the series
relay
dual-chamber
dual‐chamber air brake
air valve
brake valve was
was marked
marked as mode1.
as mode1. The
The reduction
reduction of the
of flow
the flow
valve was marked as mode2. The rising of the solenoid resistance of the pilot inlet solenoid valve area
area of the
of relay
the relay
valve was marked as mode2.
valve was marked as mode2. The rising of the solenoid resistance of the pilot inlet solenoid valve
The rising of the solenoid resistance of the pilot inlet solenoid valve
and the pilot exhaust solenoid valve of the ABS pressure regulator were marked as mode3 and and
the pilot
and the exhaust solenoid
pilot exhaust valve ofvalve
solenoid the ABS pressure
of the regulatorregulator
ABS pressure were markedwere as
mode4, respectively. For the mode3 and mode4, the FL(Front‐Left) pressure regulator was taken to mode3as
marked and mode4,
mode3 and
respectively. For the mode3 and mode4, the FL(Front-Left) pressure regulator was
mode4, respectively. For the mode3 and mode4, the FL(Front‐Left) pressure regulator was taken to
analyzed. The normal mode was marked as mode0. taken to analyzed.
The normal mode was marked as mode0.
analyzed. The normal mode was marked as mode0.
①
O Parameters setting of mode1
1 Parameters setting of mode1
① Parameters setting of mode1
In the mode1, the pressure of the front brake pipelines increases slowly, and the pressure of rear
brake pipelines increases normally. The failure ratio was simulated by setting the flow area of the
component PNAO001 of the lower chamber. The flow area can be expressed as A = π∙ds∙x, as shown
component PNAO001 of the lower chamber. The flow area can be expressed as A = π·ds·x, as shown in
component PNAO001 of the lower chamber. The flow area can be expressed as A = π∙ds∙x, as shown
in Figure 18. The value of x was changed to obtain a different flow area.
Figure 18. The value of x was changed to obtain a different flow area.
in Figure 18. The value of x was changed to obtain a different flow area.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 18. AMESim submodel and structure diagram of the lower chamber of series dual‐chamber
Figure 18. AMESim submodel and structure diagram of the lower chamber of series dual-chamber air
Figure 18. AMESim submodel and structure diagram of the lower chamber of series dual‐chamber
air brake valve. (a) Submodel
brake valve. (a) Submodel of theof the chamber
lower lower chamber
of seriesof series dual‐chamber
dual-chamber air brake
air brake valve; valve; (b)
(b) diagram of
air brake valve. (a) Submodel of the lower chamber of series dual‐chamber air brake valve; (b)
spool valve with annular orifice of PNAO001. PNAO001.
diagram of spool valve with annular orifice of
diagram of spool valve with annular orifice of PNAO001.
② Parameters setting of mode2
O2 Parameters setting of mode2
② Parameters setting of mode2
In the failure mode2, the air cannot enter the rear brake pipeline through the relay valve fluently,
InIn the failure mode2, the air cannot enter the rear brake pipeline through the relay valve fluently,
the failure mode2, the air cannot enter the rear brake pipeline through the relay valve fluently,
so the rear brake cannot work normally, but the front brake works normally. The different failure
soso the rear brake cannot work normally, but the front brake works normally.
the rear brake cannot work normally, but the front brake works normally. The different failure ratios
The different failure
ratios were simulated by setting the flow area of the relay valve port. The flow area can be expressed
were simulated by setting the flow area of the relay valve port. The flow area can be expressed
ratios were simulated by setting the flow area of the relay valve port. The flow area can be expressed as
as A = π(di 2−dr2)/4, as shown in Figure 19. The values of di and dr were changed to get different flow
= π(di −dr 2−dr
2
A as A = π(di 2 )/4,2as shown in Figure 19. The values of di and dr were changed to get different flow area.
)/4, as shown in Figure 19. The values of di and dr were changed to get different flow
area.
area.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 19. AMESim submodel of relay valve and structure diagram of the component PNAP031.
Figure 19. AMESim submodel of relay valve and structure diagram of the component PNAP031. (a)
(a) Submodel of the relay valve; (b) structure diagram of the component PNAP031.
Figure 19. AMESim submodel of relay valve and structure diagram of the component PNAP031. (a)
Submodel of the relay valve; (b) structure diagram of the component PNAP031.
Submodel of the relay valve; (b) structure diagram of the component PNAP031.
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OParameters setting of mode3 and mode4

3
③ Parameters setting of mode3 and mode4
③Parameters setting of mode3 and mode4
The working voltage of the solenoid valve is 24~28 V, and the normal resistance of the solenoid coil
The working voltage of the solenoid valve is 24~28 V, and the normal resistance of the solenoid
is 16 Ω.The working voltage of the solenoid valve is 24~28 V, and the normal resistance of the solenoid
As can be seen from Table 1, the solenoid valves are energized for a long time, and overheating
coil is
coil 16
is Ω.
16 Ω. As
As can be
can ofbe seen
seen from
from Table
Table 1,
1, the solenoid valves
valves are energized for
for a a long
long time, and
will cause the aging the solenoid. When itthe solenoid
ages, the resistance are energized
value will become largertime,
than and
16
overheating will cause the aging of the solenoid. When it ages, the resistance value will become
Ωoverheating
[30]. This makeswill cause the aging of the
the electromagnetic solenoid.
force When it ages,
fail to completely overcomethe resistance
the elastic value
force ofwill
thebecome
return
larger than 16 Ω [30]. This makes the electromagnetic force fail to completely overcome the elastic
larger than 16 Ω [30]. This makes the electromagnetic force fail to completely overcome the elastic
spring, so that the solenoid valve cannot be fully opened. The solenoid valve input signal is the current
force of the return spring, so
so that the solenoid valve cannot be fully opened. The solenoid valve
value. Thethe
force of return failure
different spring,
ratios that
werethe solenoid
simulated byvalve cannot
changing the be
valuefully
k ofopened.
the gainThe solenoid
module, valve
as shown
input signal is the current value. The different failure ratios were simulated by changing the value k
ininput signal is the current value. The different failure ratios were simulated by changing the value k
Figure 20.
of the gain module, as shown in Figure 20.
of the gain module, as shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. AMESim submodel and structure diagram of pilot inlet and exhaust solenoid valves.
The above
The four failure modes are common failure modes. Taking
Taking the initial
initial condition of of the
The above
above four
four failure
failure modes
modes are
are common
common failure
failure modes.
modes. Taking the
the initial condition
condition of the
the
adhesion coefficient 0.6 and the initial velocity 80 km/h as an example, the failure mode simulations
adhesion coefficient 0.6 and the initial velocity 80 km/h as an example, the failure mode simulations were
adhesion coefficient 0.6 and the initial velocity 80 km/h as an example, the failure mode simulations
carriedcarried
were out. Failure modes were compared with the mode0, and the braking dynamic characteristics of
were carried out.
out. Failure
Failure modes
modes were
were compared
compared with
with the
the mode0,
mode0, and
and the
the braking
braking dynamic
dynamic
the truck in the above failure modes were studied.
characteristics of the truck in the above failure modes were studied.
characteristics of the truck in the above failure modes were studied.
5.2. Comparison of the Complete Failure Condition of the Four Failure Modes
The flow area of the component PNAO001 of mode1 was set to 0, that is, the front brake system
did not work. The PNAP031 flow area of mode2 was set to 0, that is, the rear brake system did not
work. The value k of the gain module of mode3 was set to 0, that is, the pilot inlet solenoid valve did
not work. The value k of the gain module of mode4 was set to 0, that is, the pilot exhaust solenoid
not work.
not work. The value k of the gain module of mode4 was set to 0, that is, the pilot exhaust solenoid
The value k of the gain module of mode4 was set to 0, that is, the pilot exhaust solenoid
valve did not work. The deceleration and velocity-displacement are shown in Figure 21.
valve did not work. The deceleration and velocity‐displacement are shown in Figure 21.
valve did not work. The deceleration and velocity‐displacement are shown in Figure 21.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 21.
Figure Braking efficiency
efficiency of mode0 and complete failure of mode1~4. (a) Deceleration
Deceleration of truck
truck
Figure 21.
21. Braking
Braking efficiency of
of mode0 and
mode0 and complete
complete failure
failure of
of mode1~4.
mode1~4. (a)
(a) Deceleration of
of truck
body; (b) velocity-displacement curves of truck body.
body; (b) velocity‐displacement curves of truck body.
body; (b) velocity‐displacement curves of truck body.
It can be seen from the Figure 21, the braking efficiency of mode1 and mode2 was weakened more
It can be seen from the Figure 21, the braking efficiency of mode1 and mode2 was weakened
It can be seen from the Figure 21, the braking efficiency of mode1 and mode2 was weakened
compared with mode3 and mode4. Taking the transferring of the axle load into consideration in the
more compared with mode3 and mode4. Taking the transferring of the axle load into consideration
more compared with mode3 and mode4. Taking the transferring of the axle load into consideration
design of the braking system, the ground normal reaction force of the front wheel is greater than that
in the design of the braking system, the ground normal reaction force of the front wheel is greater
ofin the design of the braking system, the ground normal reaction force of the front wheel is greater
the rear wheel. The distributive coefficient of the braking force must be set, β = Fµ1 /(Fµ2μ1+/(F
than that of the rear wheel. The distributive coefficient of the braking force must be set, β = F Fμ2 ).
µ1 +
than that of the rear wheel. The distributive coefficient of the braking force must be set, β = F
The value of β is generally 0.5~0.7. Where, F is the braking force of the front brake, where μ1/(Fμ2 +
F is
FFμ1μ1). The value of β is generally 0.5~0.7. Where, F µ1 μ1 is the braking force of the front brake, where Fµ2 μ2 is
the
). The value of β is generally 0.5~0.7. Where, F
braking force of rear brake. The braking
μ1 is the braking force of the front brake, where Fμ2 is
factor of the front brake is greater than that of the rear
the braking force of rear brake. The braking factor of the front brake is greater than that of the rear
the braking force of rear brake. The braking factor of the front brake is greater than that of the rear
brake. The
brake. The failure failure of
of the
the lower
lower chamber
chamber of
of the
the series
series dual‐chamber
dual‐chamber air
air brake
brake valve
valve is
is a a more
more
dangerous condition, causing a significant increase in the braking distance.
dangerous condition, causing a significant increase in the braking distance.
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 16 of 21
brake. The failure of the lower chamber of the series dual-chamber air brake valve is a more dangerous
condition, causing a significant increase in the braking distance.
In the complete failure mode3 and mode4, the brake chamber pressures, the velocities of the truck
body, and wheel speeds are shown in the Figure 22. It can be seen that the complete failure of the pilot
inlet and exhaust solenoid valves of the ABS pressure regulator led the wheel to be locked. The wheel
was locked earlier under mode3 than under mode4, and the advance time was about 0.2s.
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 17 of 22

(a) (b)
Figure 22. (a) Pressure of brake chamber at mode0, mode3, and mode4; (b) velocity of the truck body
Figure 22. (a) Pressure of brake chamber at mode0, mode3, and mode4; (b) velocity of the truck body
and wheels at mode0, mode3, and mode4.
and wheels at mode0, mode3, and mode4.
5.3. Effect of Different Failure Ratios on the ABS Performance
In the complete failure mode3 and mode4, the brake chamber pressures, the velocities of the
Simulations were performed at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% failure ratios for the four failure
truck body, and wheel speeds are shown in the Figure 22. It can be seen that the complete failure of
modes. The inlet
the pilot simulation results corresponding
and exhaust to of
solenoid valves thethe
different failure ratios
ABS pressure of the led
regulator fourthe
failure modes
wheel to be
shown in Table 7. The Displacement is the braking distance. The values of MFDD were calculated
arelocked. The wheel was locked earlier under mode3 than under mode4, and the advance time was
Equation (1). The symbol t is the time of the braking process. 0% means mode0; 100% means
byabout 0.2s.
completely failure. Three groups of simulations were added to mode1 and mode2 from 80% to 100%,
which were omitted in the table.
5.3. Effect of Different Failure Ratios on the ABS Performance
Simulations were performed at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% failure ratios for the four failure
Table 7. Simulation result at different failure ratios.
modes. The simulation results corresponding to the different failure ratios of the four failure modes
Failure Ratio (%) 0 20 40 60 80 100
are shown in Table 7. The Displacement is the braking distance. The values of MFDD were calculated
Displacement
by Equation (1). The symbol (m)
t is the time of 49.80 50.35 process.
the braking 50.47 0%
50.82
means 51.58
mode0; 105.57
100% means
Failure mode1 MFDD (m/s2 ) 5.30 5.298 5.298 5.290 5.284 2.40
completely failure. Three groups of simulations were added to mode1 and mode2 from 80% to 100%,
t (s) 3.910 3.940 3.946 3.970 4.012 8.419
which were omitted in the table.
Displacement (m) 49.80 50.15 50.23 50.35 50.83 79.66
Table 7. Simulation result at different failure ratios.
t (s) 3.910 3.931 3.952 3.947 3.976 6.334
Displacement (m) 49.80 50.97 50.96 50.95 50.95 50.94
Failure mode3 MFDD (m/s2 )
Failure Ratio (%) 5.30 0 5.17020 5.16840 5.167 60 5.16980 5.168100
t (s) 3.910 4.010 3.991 3.996 3.996 3.992
Displacement (m)
Displacement (m) 49.80 50.93
49.80 50.35 50.94
50.47 50.94 50.82 50.93
51.58 50.93
105.57
Failure mode1 MFDD (m/s
t (s) 2)
3.9105.30 4.010
5.298 4.010
5.298 4.010 5.290 4.010
5.284 4.0102.40
t (s) 3.910 3.940 3.946 3.970 4.012 8.419

In order to more intuitively show the influence of the failure ratios on the braking performance,
the simulation result of the Displacement (m) 49.80 and
relationships of vehicle velocity 50.15 50.23
braking 50.35
distance 50.83 in Figure
are shown 79.66 23.
Brake pressure curves of different failure2ratios are shown in Figure 24.
Failure mode2 MFDD (m/s ) 5.30 5.29 5.28 5.28 5.28 3.23
t (s) 3.910 3.931 3.952 3.947 3.976 6.334
Displacement (m) 49.80 50.97 50.96 50.95 50.95 50.94
Failure mode3 MFDD (m/s2) 5.30 5.170 5.168 5.167 5.169 5.168
t (s) 3.910 4.010 3.991 3.996 3.996 3.992
Displacement (m) 49.80 50.93 50.94 50.94 50.93 50.93
Failure mode4 MFDD (m/s2) 5.30 5.167 5.167 5.167 5.167 5.167

Electronics 2020, 9, 318 18 of 22
In order to more intuitively show the influence of the failure ratios on the braking performance,
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 17 of 21
the simulation result of the relationships of vehicle velocity and braking distance are shown in
Figure 23. Brake pressure curves of different failure ratios are shown in Figure 24.

(a)

(b)
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 (c) 19 of 22

(d)
Figure 23. Velocity-displacement curves of different failure ratios. (a) mode1; (b) mode2; (c) mode3;
Figure 23. Velocity‐displacement curves of different failure ratios. (a) mode1; (b) mode2; (c) mode3;
(d) mode4.
(d) mode4.

(d)
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 18 of 21

Figure 23. Velocity‐displacement curves of different failure ratios. (a) mode1; (b) mode2; (c) mode3;
(d) mode4.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 24. Pressure of brake chamber of different failure ratios. (a) mode1(FL); (b) mode2(RL);
Figure 24. Pressure of brake chamber of different failure ratios. (a) mode1(FL); (b) mode2(RL); (c)
(c) mode3(FL); (d) mode4(FL).
mode3(FL); (d) mode4(FL).
Mode1 mainly affects the ability of the front brakes. The FL wheel was taken as an example for
Mode1 mainly affects the ability of the front brakes. The FL wheel was taken as an example for
analysis. From curves as shown in Figures 23a and 24a, it can be seen that the relationship between
analysis. From curves as shown in Figures 23a and 24a, it can be seen that the relationship between
the braking distance and the failure ratio is nonlinear. When the failure ratio reaches over about
the
80%,braking distance
the braking and the
distance failure ratio
increases is nonlinear.
quickly. From the When
curvesthe failure ratio
of pressure, reaches
it can over
be seen about
that the
80%, the braking distance increases quickly. From the curves of pressure, it can be seen
greater the failure ratio, the more obvious the throttling effect of the pipeline, the slower the pressure that the
greater the failure ratio, the more obvious the throttling effect of the pipeline, the slower the pressure
increase, and the more the ABS intervention time lags. The peak adhesion coefficient can not be utilized
increase,
effectively,and the braking
so the more the ABS isintervention
ability reduced. In time lags.
mode0, theThe
ABSpeak adhesion
intervention coefficient
time can s.not
is about 0.3 Whenbe
utilized effectively, so the braking ability is reduced. In mode0, the ABS intervention time is about
the failure ratio reaches 90%, the ABS intervention time is about 0.9 s. In case of complete failure,
0.3
the s.
airWhen the failure
flow becomes zeroratio reaches
and the front 90%,
brakethe ABS intervention
completely time
loses braking is about 0.9 s. In case of
capacity.
complete failure, the air flow becomes zero and the front brake completely loses braking capacity.
Mode2 mainly affects the ability of rear brakes. The RL wheel was taken as an example for analysis.
From the curves shown in Figures 23b and 24b, it can be seen that the characteristics of the influence on
braking distance of failure ratio are similar to mode1. With the decrease of the flow area, the pressure
hysteresis of the rear brake chamber becomes more obvious. In mode0, the ABS intervention time is
about 0.3 s. When the failure ratio of mode2 reaches 80%, the ABS controller starts to intervene at 1.01s.
When the relay valve fails completely, the flow rate becomes 0, and the rear brake chamber pressure is
maintained at atmospheric pressure. The rear brake completely loses braking ability.
Mode3 weakens the braking ability of the single wheel. The FL wheel was taken as an example
for analysis. From Figure 23c, it can be seen that the increase of braking distances are almost equal at
different failure ratios. The pressure of the brake chamber is shown in Figure 24c. When the solenoid
fails, the electromagnetic force of the spool cannot overcome the spring force of the return spring,
which causes the inlet valve not close normally, thus the ABS pressure regulator lose the ability of
pressure holding and the pressure releasing. The pressure of the chamber rises to a maximum value in
a short time and fluctuates slightly around the maximum value. The braking torque of the brake is
kept near the maximum value that is greater than the road-braking torque, and the wheel is locked.
Mode4 was analyzed by taking the FL wheel as an example. Figure 23d shows the increase of
braking distances are almost equal at different failure ratios. The pressure of brake chamber at different
Electronics 2020, 9, 318 19 of 21
failure ratios is shown in Figure 24d. When the pilot exhausted solenoid valve fails, under the action of
the return spring, the exhaust valve was normally closed. The ABS pressure regulator loses the ability
of pressure releasing. Under the action of the controller, the pilot inlet solenoid valve opened and the
inlet valve closed. The ABS pressure regulator remained in the state of pressure holding. The brake
chamber pressure increases to the maximum value of the first cycle, and then the pressure remains
constant. The wheel eventually locked.
6. Conclusions
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the dynamic response characteristics and failure
characteristics of typical ABS failure modes, and to analyze the effects of failure modes on vehicle
braking performance. Modeling, analysis, and experimental verification were carried out. The main
conclusions are as follows:
(1) a pneumatic ABS co-simulation model of trucks based on AMESim and Simulink was
established. The model considered the influence of pipeline length, resistance, temperature, and air
pressure hysteresis caused by each valve orifice. The test proves that the model is workable.
(2) Submodels can reflect their real pressure dynamic characteristics. The interface module can
perform data interaction. The controller can effectively adjust the braking force to prevent the wheel
from locking. The mean errors between the simulation and the experiment are not more than 13.51%.
(3) Four failure modes were simulated and analyzed. In the mode1 and mode2, when the
failure ratio reaches over about 80%, the throttle effect of the pipeline begins to play a significant role,
the pressure increase hysteresis becomes obvious, and the ABS intervention time delays, resulting in
a significant increase in the braking distance. In the mode3 and mode4, the failure of different ratios of
pilot inlet and exhaust solenoid valves results in the corresponding wheel lock. The effect of failure
ratios on the braking distance is not obvious.
The modeling and simulation can be referred to fault diagnosis of pneumatic ABS.
The co-simulation method can be used in fluid-solid coupling simulation. Moreover, the model can
also be applied to steering stability simulation and ABS control strategy development of commercial
vehicles. The ABS co-simulation model based on the 3D vehicle model will be established. More effects
of failure modes such as the failure of a single ABS pressure regulator on the driving direction of the
vehicle during braking will be further studied. In the follow-up study, more tests will be carried out to
further verify the model and improve the accuracy of the model.
Author Contributions: Data curation, X.L. (Xiaohan Li); Formal analysis, X.L. (Xiaohan Li); Funding acquisition,
L.Z. and C.Z.; Investigation, L.Z.; Methodology, C.Z.; Software, H.L.; Supervision, L.Z.; Writing – original draft,
X.L. (Xiaohan Li); Writing – review and editing, X.L. (Xue Li) All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Scientific Research Starting Foundation for Doctors (419067), National
Natural Science Foundation of China (51575325), and School-Enterprise Cooperation Project(2018-KJ-4).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Electronics 2020, 9, 318; doi:10.3390/electronics9020318 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

3.1.1. Modeling of the Series Dual-Chamber Air Brake Valve

Table 1. Working states of the pneumatic ABS pressure regulator.

3.1.4. Modeling of the Controller

4.1. Verification of the Pneumatic ABS Pressure Regulator Model

Test (MPa) Table0.090 0.180 0.270

Time(s) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Free tire radius r mm 522

Height of mass center hg mm 915

x-position of truck body

Wheel base Parameter L mm

0.8 7.50 6.98 7.74

0.2 1.48 1.71 13.51

0.6 80 64 8 19.86 49.33 5.28

OParameters setting of mode3 and mode4

t (s) 3.910 3.940 3.946 3.970 4.012 8.419

t (s) 3.910 3.931 3.952 3.947 3.976 6.334

Displacement (m) 49.80 50.97 50.96 50.95 50.95 50.94

Failure mode3 MFDD (m/s2) 5.30 5.170 5.168 5.167 5.169 5.168

t (s) 3.910 4.010 3.991 3.996 3.996 3.992

Displacement (m) 49.80 50.93 50.94 50.94 50.93 50.93

Failure mode4 MFDD (m/s2) 5.30 5.167 5.167 5.167 5.167 5.167

Electronics 2020, 9, 318 (c) 19 of 22

Electronics 2020, 9, 318 18 of 21

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