Microteaching

Author(s): Dwight W. Allen and Arthur W. Eve

Source: Theory Into Practice, Vol. 7, No. 5, Workshop in the Analysis of Teaching (Dec.,
1968), pp. 181-185
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1475985
Accessed: 28-06-2017 13:32 UTC

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skills . . .

Many institutions are using the

microteaching model to raise the
level of the teachers competencies
to develop teaching skill.
Microteaching is a system of
controlled practice that makes it
possible to focus on specific
teaching behaviors and to practice
teaching under controlled conditions.
Competence in one skill is
developed before proceeding to
another skill.

Dwight W. Allen
Dean, School of Education
University of Massachusetts

Arthur W. Eve
Associate Professor
School of Education
Microteaching University of Massachusetts

Microteaching is a scaled down teaching en- including the number of students, the
ation,
counter. In microteaching, however, the com-
scope of the presentation, and the length of class
plexities of the normal teaching encountertime,
have are deliberately reduced.
been reduced and the level of feedback to the 3. The focus of teacher training is reduced
teacher has been greatly increased. Further- in order to accomplish a specific task, such as
more, the objectives of a given microteachingthe practice of instructional skills or techniques
lesson are neither inadvertent, as is often the of teaching, the mastery of specific curriculum
case with traditional practice teaching, nor are materials, or the. demonstration of a particular
the appraisals of the experience purely subjec-teaching methodology.
tive and arbitrary. 4. A high degree of control over such diverse
From a purely descriptive point of view, micro- elements as time, the use of students, and the
teaching is quite simple. Its basic elements are methods of feedback and supervision is struc-
a teacher, the microclass (usually four or fivetured into the training situation.
pupils), a short lesson of five to twenty minutes, 5. The typical feedback dimension in teaching
and predetermined objectives which have beenis greatly expanded through an immediate fol-
stated for the particular microteaching occasion. low-up critique utilizing sources such as the
These seemingly limited parameters can be ap- trainee's own analysis, students' reactions, and
plied to purposes ranging from training, to diag-video tape, with the assistance of a colleague or
nostic evaluation, to experiment with innovation.a supervisor. Generally, the evaluation focuses
The advantages of flexibility offered by micro-on one particular aspect of the teacher trainee's
teaching are matched and indeed at some pointsperformance, and an attempt is made immedi-
derived from concomitant advantages in econ- ately to translate the suggested improvements
omy. If the objectives that are dealt with in the into actual practice during a second microteach-
microteaching setting were attempted within theing session shortly after the critique conference.
traditional teacher-training environment, the re-
quired educational resources would make such
an experience prohibitively expensive.
In creating a microteaching setting, five essen-
tial conditions are combined:
Microteaching has evolved as one part of an
1. Actual teaching takes place, even though the
experimental teacher-education program sup-
teacher and students are brought together spe- ported by the Kettering and Ford foundations
cifically for practice. over the past several years. This program in-
2. The complexity of the normal teaching situ-
cluded research which identified specific teach-
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ing behaviors that can be isolated as observable microteaching setting can provide both begin-
skills as well as the development and testing of ning and experienced teachers with a safe prac-
appraisal instruments that measured attainment tice environment for the development of com-
of these skills. Microteaching itself was a by- petencies in the techniques and skills of the
product of this research, and continuing attempts profession. Practice is an essential prerequisite
are being made to identify new teaching skills for many learning activities; a significant portion
and discover further experimental applications of the typical teaching day is made up of activ-
for microteaching. ities that are learned and can be improved upon
During the past seven years, both the impact through practice. However, virtually all of the
of microteaching and the evaluation instruments actual practice which occurs under the tradi-
developed for assessing teacher trainee progress tional preservice and inservice structure consists
have been validated. For example, during one of on-the-job practice.
period of experimentation, teacher interns train- On-the-job practice in a normal classroom set-
ing ten hours per week in the microteaching ting has severe limitations: (1) students are
clinic demonstrated a higher level of teaching there to be taught, not practiced on, (2) practice
competence at the end of eight weeks than did of a specific skill or technique must fit well with-
a similar group receiving separate instructions in a longer lesson specified for that particular
and experiences as teaching aides for an aver- day, and (3) there is only limited opportunity
age of 20 to 25 hours per week. to receive feedback on the skill which is prac-
In the six teaching skills subjected to experi- ticed. Teachers can utilize the practice setting
mental treatment within the microteaching set- of microteaching not only for skill training but
ting, there were positive changes in intern per- also to try out new curriculum materials and
formance. Teacher candidates in the microteach- instructional techniques.
ing clinic recorded a high acceptance of the As an instrument which focuses on specific
microteaching technique and credited it with teaching skills, the second major advantage of
greatly increasing their perceptions of weak- microteaching is its potential use as a means
nesses and strengths in their own teaching per- of providing improvement in the teacher's class-
formances. Significantly, performance in the room performance. In the past, one of the major
microteaching situation accurately predicted sub- barriers to improvement has been the vagueness
sequent success in classroom teaching. and mystique surrounding the teaching act. The
When the defects of traditional teacher-train- fact that there is an artistic quality in an ex-
ing programs are considered, the economycellent of teacher's performance does not preclude
microteaching as a method of teacher training the need for a more precise way of describing
becomes more than apparent. In traditional and improving specific aspects of the teaching
pro-
grams, the teacher trainee must travel far and act. Teaching has been analyzed into various
at too frequent intervals to get practice teaching types of activities (for example: explaining,
experience, usually under spotty supervision questioning, demonstrating), and the behaviors
with no student feedback. Microteaching offers involved in certain teaching skills can be iso-
the advantages of both the controlled laboratory lated and made the focus of training. After an
environment and the reality of bona fide teach- individual teacher has identified a teaching activ-
ing. It is not a substitute for practice in teach- ity or cluster of activities for improvement,
ing (for example, problems of discipline and microteaching provides a practice environment.
classroom control cannot at present be dealt By eliminating irrelevant concerns and provid-
with in microteaching settings) but, certainly, iting immediate feedback from several sources,
supplies some impressive alternatives such as the microteaching setting allows the teacher to
close supervision, manageable objectives estab-concentrate and thus make great progress in
lished according to individual training needs andacquiring improved teaching proficiency in a
progress, continuous diagnostic feedback, unpre-very short period of time.
cedented opportunity for self-evaluation, im- A third major contribution of microteaching
mediate guidance in areas of demonstrated de- is the development of a wide variety of readily
ficiency, and an opportunity to repeat a lesson available instructional skills models. Although
conveniently as often as desirable. there are many model teachers within the school
setting, their influence on other teachers is
diminished by their relative isolation within
their classrooms and by the difficulty that a neo-
0-

phyte teacher has in separating an excellent

Microteaching has many unique contributionsteacher's performance into smaller, more digest-
it can make to education. First, the use of a ible parts. A combination of video tapes focus-
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ing on a model teacher's performance in the uate them. In the process, microteaching can
classroom and a series of specifically designed serve as a catalytic element for bringing teach-
microteaching video tapes demonstrating his in- ers together to discuss professional issues in
dividual technical skills would serve as excellent light of a shared experience. It can be used as
models for the beginning teacher. an effective neutral ground upon which to bring
Opportunities for new approaches to super- diverse elements within a faculty together to
vision is a fourth area in which microteaching focus on the teaching-learning process.
contributes unique relevance. In schools today,
no one really knows what teacher supervision
has accomplished. Teachers are evaluated by
principals during randomly selected class periods
followed months later by other observations From its inception as a simple device for the
that usually involve entirely different circum- training of secondary school teachers in a few
stances-different instructional settings, differ- selected teaching skills, microteaching has grown
ent lessons, and perhaps even different classes, to the point where multiple specific applications
different grade levels, or different subject areas. are being made at all levels of education, from
Teachers have no real basis for perceiving, let the elementary school to the university. Pre-
alone changing, ineffective teaching patterns. service as well as inservice microteaching clin-
A microteaching clinic can provide a less ics and workshops have been established in many
threatening setting for supervision than tradi- universities and public school systems through-
tional approaches to evaluation. Although mostout the country. Microteaching techniques and
teachers are rather sensitive about having super-
research have also been implemented with in-
visors observe them in their classrooms, a micro-
creasing frequency in new and different ways
teaching clinic is considered neutral territory-outside of teacher training, as in medical edu-
the emphasis is on instructional help for the
cation.
teacher. Whatever the specific goals of the micro-There are numerous examples of usage within
teaching lesson, both the teacher and the super-the field of education. At the University of Mas-
visor have a clear picture of those goals ahead sachusetts, the regular preservice microteaching
of time. As a result, the critique period follow-
clinic is supplemented by an intensive summer
ing the microlesson enables both the teacher andworkshop to train school personnel who can
the supervisor to talk realistically about growth
then return to their systems and establish micro-
within the narrow range of mutual concern. teaching clinics and practices on a local basis.
Microteaching supervision tends to be highly
At the University of Illinois, Arye Perlberg
specific, and the teacher can immediately apply utilized microteaching in the preparation of vo-
a supervisor's suggestion in a reteach session. cational education personnel and in the refine-
Microteaching could be applied to obtain con- ment of teaching skills among university pro-
sistent and constructive supervision and to train fessors.' At the University of Maryland, David
supervisors in helping teachers to improve their B. Young has used microteaching in teacher edu-
classroom performance.
cation centers to (1) train center faculty mem-
A fifth use of a microteaching clinic within bers to work with student teachers within the
a school system is to test new instructional ma- centers, and (2) to develop the teaching skills of
terials and techniques before their introduction student teachers. Young and his associates have
to the classroom. Even the most experienced also used microteaching and selected self-analy-
teacher can make serious misjudgments about sis techniques at Johns Hopkins University to
the student experience or maturity required to individualize preservice training and internships
learn a given set of materials or to function ef- for prospective teachers.2
fectively under a new organizational structure. The use of microteaching to train Peace Corps
The microteaching clinic would provide an op-volunteers is an excellent example of its flex-
portunity for quick judgments of student re- ibility with unique teacher-training objectives.
ceptivity toward new curricular materials or in-
The microteaching clinic was adapted specifically
structional techniques. Teachers would also have to the preparation of the Peace Corps volunteers
the opportunity to gain mastery over materials for the Philippines and has since become a
before actual tryout in the classroom. To facili-
tate transition from self-contained classrooms to 1 Arye Perlberg, Professor of Education at Tech-
nion Institute in Haifa, Israel, was a Visiting Re-
team teaching settings, microteaching provides search Professor at the University of Illinois during
opportunities for fledgling teaching teams to the 1967-68 academic year.
develop new materials and to test new modes of 2 For a detailed discussion of the work performed
presentation while the other team members eval-
by Young and his associates, see pp. 186-89 of this
issue of Theory Into Practice.
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model for other Peace Corps training programs. istrators to improve presentation skills, particu-
Objectives for the Philippine Peace Corps clinic larly in the area of administrator-parent com-
were (1) to equip the volunteers with teaching munications. Such prior practice, combined with
skills directly related to English as a second an effective supervisory critique of the admin-
language, (2) to acquaint them with special ma-istrator's micro-presentation, might result in a
terials for teaching English as a second language, significant improvement in the administrator's
and (3) to provide a reality test during which ability to communicate with his community and
the volunteers could decide if they really wanted might also result in an increase in the number
to become elementary school teachers in the of bond issues which are subsequently approved.
Philippines for the next two years. Since the Another example of the possible application
microclasses were made up of Philippine stu- of microteaching is the training of personnel
dents who had been in the United States less such as secretaries or receptionists. They might
than six months, the microteaching sessions were
be trained in specific interpersonal relations
much more directly related to the reality skillstotobe
become more effective in dealing with
faced by the Peace Corps volunteers than wouldTeacher aides who would be working
the public.
have been possible in a regular classroom situa-with students (e.g., in open labora-
primarily
tion. tories, resource centers, or cafeteria duty) could
An example of how microteaching concepts also receive such training.
and techniques have been utilized in counseling Potential areas outside of education would in-
and guidance has been provided by Allen Ivey. clude those service areas where information is
He and his associates3 developed the concept of obtained by a specialist from individual clients
microcounseling, which is a video method of or from groups of clients such as social workers
training counselors in the basic skills of counsel-psychiatrists, and police officers. Inservice teach
ing. Microcounseling training procedures focus ers in diverse preparation institutions (hospitals
on these skills: attending behavior, reflection of police academies, the military, and schools pre-
feeling, and summarization of feeling. paring social workers) could increase their com-
Microteaching techniques and principles have petence through the use of microteaching proce
been used with some effectiveness in the area dures. Microteaching can also help to train peo
of medical education. Hilliard Jason, director ple in ofthe techniques of oratory and debate.
the Office of Medical Education Research and Law school students could practice the skills of
Development in the College of Human Medi- set induction, closure, and probing questions
cine at Michigan State University, has utilized before a small audience. High school students,
microteaching techniques in assisting medical politicians, and ministers could improve speak-
students to acquire the skills of relating to pa-ing skills in a microteaching setting in which
tients. He is developing a series of process skillsthey could practice specific speaking skills on a
utilizing patient simulation, video taped patient- small audience.
doctor relationships, immediate video playback,
and supervisor-doctor critique and analysis.
Additional areas exist, both within and out-
side of education, where microteaching tech-
niques and principles appear to be useful. For The normal classroom setting contains so
example, microteaching could be useful within many variables that precise research is virtually
education for preemployment prediction as a precluded. A major attraction of the microteach-
framework for selection or rating of experienced ing format is that it simplifies the teaching act
teachers seeking employment within a school and provides an opportunity for real experi-
district. This concept could also be extended to mental control and manipulation of variables.
include the evaluation of current employees for As a teacher training technique, microteaching
possible promotion; however, it would be neces- is in its infancy, and many issues related to its
sary to indicate clearly to teachers those occa- most effective use have not as yet been resolved
sions when their microteaching sessions would There is no convincing research evidence re-
be utilized as the basis for evaluating their garding the optimal number of students for
competency. microteaching sessions. It would be useful to ex-
Microteaching principles and techniques might amine the impact of student characteristics upon
be effectively applied in the training of admin- the success or failure of the teacher training
session and the impact of a variety of different
3 The original research was conducted while Ivey timing and sequencing arrangements within the
was the Director of the Counseling Center at Colo-
rado State University. He is currently at the Uni- microteaching setting. Finally, how to increase
versity of Massachusetts. the effectiveness of the self-confrontation cri-
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tique and the feedback that it supplies in train- gin to face the problems of determining the
ing teachers to acquire specific teaching skills relationships between teacher performance and
must be determined. The important point here student performance so that they can build
is that microteaching as a teacher training tech- empirically based justification for the objectives
nique should proceed in light of a careful in- of their training programs. Video tapes on which
vestigation of the contributions of each of its the students and the teacher are recorded simul-
components. taneously will make it possible to do this. In
The microteaching situation suggests that a addition to observing the immediate effect upon
second major category for research experimenta-student behavior of a particular teaching skill,
tion might focus upon the process of learning appropriate achievement measures could be
itself. Some of the learning situations which given to the microclass students to determine
might be investigated relate to the use of modelsthe long range impact of the teaching skill upon
in the training of specific teaching skills. As student learning. As researchers begin to gather
noted in Allen and Ryan,4 the key issues which evidence in this area, we can begin to utilize
might be examined are as follows. ( 1 ) Is a model teacher training programs where the skills, at-
of a skill a more efficient aid to learning if it titudes, and understandings required by pro-
contains the positive and negative instances of spective teachers are supported by the empirical
the skill or if it contains only the positive in- evidence of their efficacy in producing learning.
stances? (2) To what extent does extreme exag- Microteaching can and should be used as a
geration of teaching techniques in a model add research tool to investigate which training strate-
to or detract from its usefulness in a training gies are most effective for teacher trainees with
situation? (3) Is transfer of the skill to the real different backgrounds and aptitudes. At the same
classroom by the teacher trainee improved by time, it can be used as a training strategy to give
the use of models in several different contextual individual teachers the kind of teaching most
situations (e.g., one in a microteaching situa- suited to their particular abilities. Such research
tion, one in a regular classroom, and one in a into alternate training routes should provide
large group lecture hall)? (4) Are modeling educators with a means of approaching the prob-
procedures more effective in producing learning lem of individualizing instruction within teacher
if they contain segments which show the model education. There is a strong probability that
being reinforced for performing the desired teachers who are prepared in such an individual-
skill? ized program will subsequently be much more
The supervisory sessions within microteach- able to develop and implement individualized
ing also provide an opportunity for investi- instructional approaches with their students.
gating some basic learning phenomena related to While the four specific microteaching research
self-confrontation situations. Examples of the categories which have been discussed are only
kinds of issues involved are: (1) the effective- those areas which today appear to be most fruit-
ness of various schedules of reinforcement in ful, the most promising thing about microteach-
training particular skills; (2) the effectiveness ing as a research device is the extent to which it
of different verbal and nonverbal reinforcers is open to new implementation and as yet un-
in training particular skills; (3) the relative conceived experimental issues.
training effectiveness of pointing out positive
and/or negative instances of a training use of
a particular skill in a self-confrontation situa-
tion; (4) the effects of training on different at-
titudinal sets and expectancy on the part of a
supervisor; and (5) the investigation of super- Microteaching stands today as one of the few
visory techniques and cueing devices which can experimental techniques which by its very struc-
eventually eliminate the role of the supervisor ture encourages a combination of theory and
and can make the trainee himself an adequate practice, research and training, innovation and
critic of his own teaching behavior. implementation. The phenomenal growth and
A third major category of microteaching re- diversity of microteaching should not obscure
search would focus on the interactions between the fact that the technique is still in its infancy.
students and teachers. Teacher trainers must be- The ultimate potential of this most promising
tool for both research and training depends en-
tirely upon our imagination and our ingenuity
4Allen, Dwight W., and Ryan, Kevin. Micro-
in developing and testing new ways of applying
teaching. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley microteaching principles and techniques to the
Publishing Co. (in press). problems of education.
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