Republic of the Philippines

Batangas State University

College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

EE 517 Power System Analysis and Design

GROWTH OF POWER SYSTEM

Submitted By:
Aguillon, Alexis D.
EE-5204

Submitted To:
Engr. Marjorie G. Marcaida
Instructor

January 31, 2020

I. Evolution of Power System Structure
The commercial use of electricity began in the late 1870s when arc lamps
were used for lighthouse illumination and street lighting.
First Complete Electric Power System – 1882
The first complete electric power system (comprising a generator, cable,
fuse, meter, and loads) was built by Thomas Alva Edison as shown in figure 1.0
– the historic Pearl Street Station in New York City which began operation in
September 1882.
This was a dc system consisting of a steam-engine-driven dc generator
supplying power to 59 customers within an area roughly 1.5 km in radius. The
load, which consisted entirely of incandescent lamps, was supplied at 110 V
through an underground cable system.

Figure 1.0 The dynamo room of the first Edison electric lighting station\

Within a few years similar systems were in operation in most large cities
throughout the world. With the development of motors by Frank Sprague in 1884,
motor loads were added to such systems. This was the beginning of what would
develop into one of the largest industries in the world.
Introduction of AC Systems – 1886
In spite of the initial widespread use of dc systems, they were almost
completely superseded by ac systems. By 1886, the limitations of dc systems
were becoming increasingly apparent. They could deliver power only a short
distance from the generators.
To keep transmission power losses and voltage drops to acceptable
levels, voltage levels had to be high for long-distance power transmission. Such
high voltages were not acceptable for generation and consumption of power;
therefore, a convenient means for voltage transformation became a necessity.

The development of the transformer and ac transmission by L. Gaulard

and J.D. Gibbs of Paris, France, led to ac electric power systems. George
Westinghouse secured rights to these developments in the United States.
In 1886, William Stanley, an associate of Westinghouse, developed and
tested a commercially practical transformer and ac distribution system for 150
lamps at Great Barrington, Massachusetts.
With the development of polyphase systems by Nikola Tesla, the ac
system became even more attractive.
By 1888, Tesla held several patents on ac motors, generators,
transformers, and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents to
these early inventions, and they formed the basis of the present-day ac systems.

AC vs DC [Tesla vs Edison]
In the 1890s, there was considerable controversy over whether the electric
utility industry should be standardized on dc or ac. There were passionate
arguments between Edison, who advocated dc, and Westinghouse, who
favoured ac.
By the turn of the century, the ac system had won out over the dc system
for the following reasons:
  Voltage levels can be easily transformed in ac systems, thus
providing the flexibility for use of different voltages for generation,
transmission, and consumption.
 AC generators are much simpler than dc generators.
 AC motors are much simpler and cheaper than dc motors.
The ac versus dc controversy ended with victory for the ac system.

Frequency – 50Hz vs 60Hz

In the early period of ac power transmission, frequency was not
standardized. Many different frequencies were in use: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133
Hz.
This posed a problem for interconnection. Eventually 60 Hz was adopted
as standard in North America, although many other countries use 50 Hz.
The increasing need for transmitting larger amounts of power over longer
distances created an incentive to use progressively higher voltage levels.

Early AC Systems
The early ac systems used 12, 44, and 60 kV (RMS line-to-line).
 This rose to 165 kV in 1922, 220 1W in 1923, 287 kV in 1935, 330 kV in 1953,
and 500 kV in 1965.
 Hydro Quebec energized its first 735 kV in 1966, and 765 kV was introduced in
the United States in 1969.
 To avoid the proliferation of an unlimited number of voltages, the industry has
standardized voltage levels.
 The standards are 115, 138, 161, and 230 kV for the high voltage (HV) class,
and 345, 500 and 765 kV for the extra-high voltage (EHV) class.

HVDC Transmission Systems – 1950s

With the development of mercury arc valves in the early 1950s, high
voltage dc (HVDC) transmission systems became economical in special
situations.
 The HVDC transmission is attractive for transmission of large blocks of power
over long distances. The cross-over point beyond which dc transmission may
become a competitive alternative to ac transmission is around 500 km for
overhead lines and 50 km for underground or submarine cables.
 HVDC transmission also provides an asynchronous link between systems where
ac interconnection would be impractical because of system stability
considerations or because nominal frequencies of the systems are different.
The first modern commercial application of HVDC transmission occurred
in 1954 when the Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland were
interconnected by a 96 km submarine cable.
With the advent of thyristor valve converters, HVDC transmission became
even more attractive. The first application of an HVDC system using thyristor
valves was at Eel River in 1972 – a back-to-back scheme providing an
asynchronous tie between the power systems of Quebec and New Brunswick.

With the cost and size of conversion equipment decreasing and its
reliability increasing, there has been a steady increase in the use of HVDC
transmission.

 Interconnection of neighbouring utilities usually leads to improved system

security and economy of operation. Improved security results from the mutual
emergency assistance that the utilities can provide. Improved economy results
from the need for less generating reserve capacity on each system.
 In addition, the interconnection permits the utilities to make economy transfers
and thus take advantage of the most economical sources of power. These
benefits have been recognized from the beginning and interconnections continue
to grow.
Almost all the utilities in the United States and Canada are now part of one
interconnected system. The result is a very large system of enormous
complexity. The design of such a system and its secure operation are indeed
challenging problems.
II. Consider the New Power System Under EPIRA LAW
EPIRA Law is the Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001. Under the
law falls the rules and regulations regarding the structure and operation of the
electric power industry. The electric power industry has its three sectors—the
generation, the transmission and the distribution.

Generation Sector
Pursuant to Section 6 of the Act, generation of electric power, a business
affected with public interest, shall be competitive and open to all qualified
Generation Companies. Generation shall not be considered a public utility
operation. For this purpose, any Person engaged or intending to engage in
Generation of Electricity shall not be required to secure a national franchise.
No Person may engage in the Generation of Electricity as a new
Generation Company unless such Person has received a COC from the ERC to
operate facilities used in the Generation of Electricity. A Person that
demonstrates compliance with the standards and requirements of this Rule 5,
and such other terms and conditions as determined by the ERC to be appropriate
to ensure that Persons comply with all applicable legal and regulatory
requirements, shall be issued a COC.

Transmission Sector
The transmission of electric power is affected with public interest and shall
be a regulated common electricity carrier business, subject to the ratemaking
powers of the ERC. This Rule shall apply to TRANSCO or its Buyer or
Concessionaire and any other successor-in-interest thereto.

Distribution Sector
Pursuant to Section 22 of the Act, the Distribution of Electricity to End-
users shall be a regulated common carrier business, requiring a national
 franchise. For purposes of these Rules, distribution franchise shall mean the
privilege of a Distribution Utility to convey electric power through its Distribution
System in a given geographical area granted by the Congress of the Republic of
the Philippines. The Distribution of Electricity is a business affected with public
interest.

III. Recognize Major Components of Deregulated Power System

Electric deregulation is the process of changing rules and regulations that
control the electric industry to provide customers the choice of electricity
suppliers who are either retailers or traders by allowing competition. Deregulation
improves the economic efficiency of the production and use of electricity. Due to
competition in the electric industry, the power prices are likely to come down
which benefits the consumers.
The main objectives of the deregulated power market:
• To provide electricity for all reasonable demands.
• To encourage the competition in the generation and supply of
electricity.
• To improve the continuity of supply and the quality of services.
• To promote efficiency and economy of the power system.

The benefits associated with deregulation are:

• Systems capacity will be used efficiently.
• Optimization of energy supply will take place.
• Price of the electricity will become clearer.
• Consumer choice will be improved.
• Bad technologies are ignored and good technologies are replaced
in their place.
• Electricity prices are reduced.
• The usage efficiency is improved due to restructuring in price
signals.
• Power flow will take place from surplus areas to shortage areas.
 • The cost of ancillary services is reduced by reserve sharing.
In the deregulation process, some new entities are expected to appear
and hold major rules in power industry. The structural components representing
various segments of the electricity market are:
• Generation Companies (GenCos.)
• Transmission Companies (TransCos.)
• Distribution Companies (DisCos.)
• Independent Power producer (IPP)
• Independent System Operator (ISO)
• Power Exchange (PX)
• Retail Energy Service Companies (RESCos.)

Figure 2.0. Deregulated power utility structure

In the deregulated electricity market, increased infrastructure utilization
increases capital returns and increased competition increases economic energy
transactions. Due to introduction of less costly sources, there will be new power
flow patterns. New transmission difficulties will be created and some existing
transmission constraints will be binding more often and with more economic
significance. The interconnections are used at their capacity due to increased
interchanges in power markets. This reality has brought into focus the practical
 limitations of interconnections and the associated problem of transfer capability.
All these issues will have to be considered when transmission planning for a
project is undertaken. Figure 2.0 explains the transition process from regulated
industry to a deregulated one.

IV. Analyze Interconnected Power Structure

An interconnected power system is a complex enterprise that may be
subdivided into the following major subsystems:

 Generation Subsystem
 Transmission and Subtransmission Subsystem
 Distribution Subsystem
 Utilization Subsystem

Generation Subsystem

Generation subsystem includes generators and transformers. An essential

component of power systems is the three-phase ac generator known as
synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators have two
synchronously rotating fields: One field is produced by the rotor driven at
synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The other field is produced in the
stator windings by the three-phase armature currents.

The dc current for the rotor windings is provided by excitation systems. In

the older units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on the same shaft,
providing excitation through slip rings. Current systems use ac generators with
rotating rectifiers, known as brushless excitation systems. The excitation system
maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power flow. Because they
lack the commutator, ac generators can generate high power at high voltage,
typically 30 kV.
Another component of the generation subsystem is the transformer. The
transformer transfers power with very high efficiency from one level of voltage to
another level. The power transferred to the secondary is almost the same as the
primary, except for losses in the transformer. Insulation requirements and other
practical design problems limit the generated voltage to low values, usually 30
kV. Thus, step-up transformers are used for transmission of power. At the
receiving end of the transmission lines step-down transformers are used to
reduce the voltage to suitable values for distribution or utilization.

Transmission and Subtransmission Subsystem

An overhead transmission network transfers electric power from

generating units to the distribution system which ultimately supplies the load.

Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which allow the

economic dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, and the
transfer of power between regions during emergencies. High voltage
transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are called high-voltage
substations, receiving substations, or primary substations.

The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of service;

they are referred to as switching stations. At the primary substations, the voltage
is stepped down to a value more suitable for the next part of the trip toward the
load. Very large industrial customers may be served from the transmission
system. The portion of the transmission system that connects the high-voltage
substations through step-down transformers to the distribution substations is
called the subtransmission network. There is no clear distinction between
transmission and subtransmission voltage levels.

Typically, the subtransmission voltage level ranges from 69 to 138 kV.

Some large industrial customers may be served from the subtransmission
system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are usually installed in the
substations for maintaining the transmission line voltage.

Distribution Subsystem
 The distribution system connects the distribution substations to the
consumers’ service-entrance equipment. The primary distribution lines from 4 to
34.5 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical area.

Some small industrial customers are served directly by the primary

feeders. The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage for utilization by
commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cables not exceeding a few
hundred feet in length then deliver power to the individual consumers.

Distribution systems are both overhead and underground. The growth of

underground distribution has been extremely rapid and as much as 70 percent of
new residential construction is via underground systems.

Load Subsystems

Industrial loads are composite loads, and induction motors form a high
proportion of these loads. These composite loads are functions of voltage and
frequency and form a major part of the system load.

Commercial and residential loads consist largely of lighting, heating, and

cooking. These loads are independent of frequency and consume negligibly
small reactive power. The load varies throughout the day, and power must be
available to consumers on demand.

In order for a power plant to operate economically, it must have a high

system load factor. Today’s typical system load factors are in the range of 55 to
70 percent. Load-forecasting at all levels is an important function in the
operation, operational planning, and planning of an electric power system. Other
devices and systems are required for the satisfactory operation and protection of
a power system.