NEWTON’S LAWS

Newton’s First Law: Inertia The more mass an object has, the more inertia it has.

Newton’s Second Law: Fnet = ma A larger mass is more difficult to accelerate than a smaller one!
Also, a larger force accelerates a mass more than a smaller one!

Newton’s Third Law For every force, there is an equal and opposite force.
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Equilibrium: Fnet= 0 N Static Equilibrium: Object is not moving Fnet=0

Dynamic Equilibrium: Object is moving Fnet=0

Friction Static friction keeps him from sliding off the chair. Kinetic friction slows him as he slides.

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work: Work = Force x Distance → W = Fd Units: 1 Nm = 1 J

Positive Work: The force and displacement are in the same direction.
Negative Work: The force and distance are in opposite directions.
No Work: The force and distance are in perpendicular directions.

Power: Power = Work / time → P = W / t = Fd / t Units: 1 J/s = 1 Watt, W

Power is a measure of how quickly work is done.

Energy: KE = ½ mv2 PE = mgh Units: 1kgm2 / s2 = 1 J

Work Energy Theorem: Work = ΔE total energy before = total energy after
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one form into another, but the total amount of
energy never changes.

MOMENTUM ( P = MV )

Only moving objects possess momentum. In a way, momentum is the motion equivalent of inertia.
A large moving object is more difficult to stop than a small moving object.

Impulse Formula J = Ft (kgm/s=Ns) FΔt = Δ(mv)

Impulse can also be defined as a change in momentum, ΔP.

No Bounce Interaction
A ball is falling towards the ground. It would take some change in momentum,
or impulse, to stop a moving object.

Bouncing Interaction
However, it would take even more impulse to stop the object, and then make
it ricochet in the opposite direction.

Conservation of Momentum Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

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Summary of Collisions
Explosion: one object breaking into more objects. 0 = mv+mv+ ...
Hit and stick: one object striking and joining to the other. mv1+mv2 = (m1+m2 )v3
Hit and rebound: one object striking and bouncing off of the other. m1v1+m2v2 = m1v3+m2v4

Elastic Collision
– Momentum is conserved.
– The objects colliding aren’t deformed or smashed
– Thus no kinetic energy is lost; kinetic energy is conserved also.
– Ex: billiard ball collisions

Inelastic Collision
– Momentum is still conserved.
– Kinetic energy is lost.
– The energy may be transformed into sound, deformation of materials, flying debris, etc.
– Often objects interlock or stick together.
– Objects are also often deformed or crunched.
– Ex: car crash

Consider the Components Px before = Px after Py before = Py after

GRAVITATION AND CIRCULAR MOTION

Law of Universal Gravitation

Uniform Circular Motion

Centripetal Acceleration

Centripetal Force Centripetal force is a “center seeking” force. It always points towards the center for an object
moving in a circular path. This isn’t some new force. Centripetal force can be provided by tension
from a string, gravitational pull, friction on the road, etc...

Simulated Gravity
When objects are moving in a circle, the centripetal force applied may mimic the usual gravitational force.

Gravity Equals Centripetal Force FG = Fc

Importance of Mass
This means that any mass satellite will have the same orbital speed for any particular radius.
A giant orbiting satellite will have the same speed as a tiny satellite in the same orbit.
However, it can be much more difficult to get that large satellite into orbit in the first place…

Rotating Space Habitats

We can’t create a gravitational force, but we can use centripetal force to act like gravity. If a round space ship is large
enough, and spins at the correct rate, the centripetal force would simulate gravity.

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 ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EQUILIBRIUM

Angular Velocity Angular Acceleration

Torque Ƭ= F l mN=Nm Torque=Force x Lever arm distance

Just as force makes objects move in a line, torque makes object rotate.
When calculating torque, only the force that is perpendicular, ┴ , to the lever arm
is considered.
Pushing along, or parallel, to the lever arm doesn’t produce any torque!

Moment of Inertia

Linear Inertia Review Linear inertia says that an object moving in a straight line wants to continue moving in a straight
line until acted upon by a force. Also, an object at rest wants to stay at rest. Linear inertia is
dependent upon mass.

Moment of Inertia I = Σmr2 kgm2

Moment of inertia says that an object rotating about an axis wants to continue rotating until acted on by a force, or
torque. Although mass is important, so is the location of that mass... When the
mass is nearer the axis of rotation, it is easier to move, low rotational inertia.
When the mass is farther from the axis, it is harder to move, high rotational
inertia.

Rotational Motion and Equilibrium

If the torques do balance out, and there are no other net forces acting, the system
would be in equilibrium.
Obviously the forces do not need to balance out, but the torques do. This is true
because torque is the product of a force and a distance.

Newton’s Second Law Again torque=momentofinertia x angular acceleration

When torques aren’t in equilibrium, rotation occurs. This is described by the rotational version of Newton’s second law :
ΣƬ = Iα Nm=kgm2 x rad/s/s

Angular Momentum Angular momentum is a measure of the “strength” of an object’s rotation about a particular axis.
L = I ω kg m2/s

Similarities P = mv L = Iω momentum = mass x velocity

Conservation of Angular Momentum

An object will maintain its angular momentum unless acted on by an unbalanced torque.

Stability Often, objects are rotated so that they are more stable. Because they have angular momentum, it is
more difficult to change their motion. This is why a football is thrown with a spiral motion.

The Gyroscope A gyroscope is simply a rotating object that has significant angular momentum. Like a rotating football,
that momentum is difficult to change, so the gyroscope is very stable.

Helicopters and Momentum The main rotating blade has angular momentum. To keep momentum conserved, the
body of the helicopter should rotate the opposite way! The tail rotor counteracts this
tendency and keeps the helicopter steady.

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 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

Crystalline Ordered atomstructure Existence of melting point

Amorphous solid Randomly arranged atom-structure No melting point

Density and Thermal Expansion

Deformation of Solids
– Stress: Force causing deformation
– Strain: Degree of deformation
– Elastic behavior
– Proportional limit
– Elastic limit
– Plastic behavior
– Breaking point

Three Types of Elastic Modulus

Young’s modulus
Y = tensile stress/tensile strain
Y = (F/A) / (ΔL/Lo)

Shear modulus
G = shear stress / shear strain
G = (F/A) / (Δx/h)

Bulk modulus
B = volume stress / volume strain
B = (F/A) / (ΔV/V)

Static Fluids
Pressure in Fluids
Equilibrium equation for arbitrary portion in fluids: PA – Mg – P0A = 0 M= ρAh
Pressure in fluids: P = P0 + ρgh

Pascal’s Principle
– The pressure at a depth of h below the surface of a fluid open to the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric
pressure by the amount ρgh
– Same depth will have the same pressure

Pressure Transmission: Hydraulic jack

Fluid inside the jack is compressed through an pistol. This pressure is transmitted to the larger output piston that creates
a great force to lift objects.
– Pressure can be transmitted in fluid Pressures at A1 and A2 are the same.
– Force can be amplified If A1 <<A2, F2 >>F1
– Stroke is reduced by energy conservation law and continuity law

Buoyancy
The lifting force for objects in fluids
What causes buoyancy? Pressure difference on objects B = ρgVim
(1) Upper pressure (2) Lower pressure (3) Resultant force

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Archimedes’ Principle Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force whose
magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body
B = ρgVim ρ: density of material Vim: Volume immersed

Surface Tension
– Why can insects walk on water?
– Why can razor blades float on water?
– Why can water raise in thin tubes?

Capillary Action Two types of fluidsurface interactions:

– Unwettable: water vs paraffin
– Wettable: water vs glass

Fluids in Motion

Viscosity Internal friction of a fluid; damping mechanism of fluids

The Equation of Continuity ρ 1A 1v 1 = ρ 2 A 2 v 2 A1v1 = A2v2

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar: – Different streamlines cannot intercross
– Velocity is low
Turbulent: – Motion is highly irregular
– Vortices are developed within the fluid
– Resistance to the flow is increased
– Velocity is high

Steady Ideal Flow non-viscous & non-compressible

Bernoulli’s Equation: P1 + (1/2)ρv12 + ρgy1 = constant = P2 + (1/2)ρv22 + ρgy2

TEMPERATURE AND THE KINETIC THEORY

Temperature Proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. As temperature increases Molecular
motion increases
Kelvin : 0 273 373 K = C + 273.15
Celsius : -273 0 100
Fahrenheit : 32 212 F = (9/5) * C + 32

Gas Behavior and Kinetic Molecular Theory

0 K is the T at which molecules have zero KE.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

– All gases are made of atoms or molecules
– Gas particles are in constant, rapid, random motion
– The temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles
– Gas particles are not attracted nor repelled from one another
– All gas particle collisions are perfectly elastic (no kinetic energy is lost to other forms)
– The volume of gas particles is so small compared to the space between the particles, that the volume of the
particle itself is insignificant

Pressure Force of gas particles running into a surface.

Pressure and Number of Molecules P∞n
Pressure and Volume P ∞ (1/V)
Pressure and Temperature P∞T

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Atmospheric Pressure Pressure due to the layers of air in the atmosphere.
As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.

Pressure In Versus Out A bag of chips is bagged at sea level. The internal pressure is higher than the external
pressure. The bag will expand in order to reduce the internal pressure.
An aerosol can is left in a car trunk in the summer. The internal pressure is higher than
the external pressure. The can is rigid; it cannot expand, it explodes!

Gas Laws

Standard Temperature and Pressure 1 atm (or the equivalent in another unit) and 0°C (273 K).

Gas Laws P1/n1 = P2/n2 Avogadro’s Law V1/n1 = V2/n2 (T, P constant)
Boyles’ Law P1V1 = P2V2 (T, n constant)
Charles’ Law V1/T1 = V2/T2 (P, n constant)
Combined Gas Law P1V1/n1T1 = P2V2/n2T2
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT

Molar mass (MM) Mass (m) per moles (n) of a substance. m/n

Real Gases
Wrong Assumption 1: Gas particles are not attracted nor repelled from one another
Reality: Gas particles do have attractions and repulsions towards one another.
Wrong Assumption 2: The volume of gas particles is so small compared to the space between the particles, that the
volume of the particle itself is insignificant
Reality: Gas particles do take up space; thereby reducing the space available for other particles to be.

Mean Free Path (λ) The mean free path is the average distance traveled by an atom or molecule before it collides
with another atom or molecule.

Diffusion A gas spreads throughout a space. (Perfume)

Effusion A gas escapes through a tiny hole. (Air leak out of a balloon)

A heavier object with the same kinetic energy as a lighter object moves slower than the lighter object
Heavy molecules move slower than smaller molecules
Diffusion: If molecules move slower, it will take them longer to reach the other side of the room.
Effusion: If molecules move slower, it will take them longer to find the hole to escape through.

Graham’s Law r1
=
MM2
r2 MM1

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

Thermal Expansion The ticking noises heard after a hot car is shut down are due the shape changes of engine parts
as they cool.

Thermostats – A thermostat uses two fused strips of metal, each with a different linear expansion coefficient.
– As the strip heats up one strip lengthens faster so the strips bend away from the longer strip.
– Typically the bent strips will make contact with a circuit

Thermometers – As the temperature rises, both the glass and liquid expand
– The liquid has a higher volume expansion coefficient than the glass tube so it rises within the
tube to tell you the temperature.

Energy Units Calorie (cal) - n. Heat is measured in calories. A calorie is the amount of heat required to heat 1 gram of
water 1°C.
Joule (J): Energy is measured in Joules. One calorie (cal) is equal to 4.18J. 4.18 J=1 cal

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Specific Heat (CP) Specific heat is a material property that defines the number calories of heat, q, required to raise
1g of a specific material 1°C. Q = Cpm

High Specific Heat Low Specific Heat

Large amount of energy to change temperature Small amount of energy can change temperature
Heats up slowly Heats up quickly
Cools down slowly Cools down quickly
Small temperature changes with condition changes Quickly readjusts to new conditions
e.g. Water, Cast-iron e.g. Air, aluminum foil

Heat Capacity (C) The amount of heat Q required to raise the temperature of an object by ΔT is given by:
Q = C * ΔT

Enthalpy The enthalpy of a reaction is the heat energy (J) gained or lost during a reaction. Enthalpy is a state
function.

Exothermic If the system looses net heat during a reaction, the reaction is exothermic.

Endothermic If the system gains net heat energy during a reaction, the reaction is endothermic.

Calorimetry Calorimetry is a laboratory technique used to determine the amount of heat Q taken up or given off by a
reaction.

Global Warming & Greenhouse Gases

Some of the energy reflected off the surface is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
As the concentration of greenhouse gases is increased due to emissions from cars and factories, the
temperature of the earth rises.

The Laws of Thermodynamics

– The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that objects in thermal equilibrium are at the same temperature.
– The internal energy of a system is the sum of the heat energy of the system and the work done on or by the
system.
– The 1st Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can change state but cannot be created or destroyed.
– The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics states that the total entropy, or disorder, of the universe can increase or stay
the same but never decrease. The universe tends towards disorder

Work in Thermodynamics U=q+w U = system internal energy

q = heat energy
w = work done on or by the system

Pressure-Volume Work ΔW = -P * ΔV
If the system expands, work is done by the system on the surroundings. The internal energy of the system decreases.
If the system contracts, work is done by the surroundings on the system. The internal energy of the system increases.

Adiabatic Work
An example of adiabatic work is a closed system with a piston. If pressure is applied rapidly to depress the piston, the
volume of the system will decrease. Work W is done on the system by the surroundings, but there is no change in heat Q
so the change in internal energy ΔU is equal to –W. ΔV ≥ 0 Q = 0, ΔU = -W = -P*ΔV

Constant-Volume Work
An example of constant-volume work is heating a sealed cylinder. There is no volume change so the change in internal
energy is equal to the change in heat energy. ΔV = 0 so W = 0 ΔT ≥ 0 so Q ≥ 0 ΔU = Q

Cyclical Work and Engines

In an engine, heat is used to increase pressure leading to an increase in volume. The change in volume does work on the
surroundings. The work energy is transferred back from the surroundings to compress the cylinder back to its original
size and the cycle repeats. ΔU = 0 Q = -W

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Free Expansion Work
Connecting a pressurized system to a vacuum is an example of free-expansion work. The gas from the pressurized system
will immediately and irreversibly expand to fill the vacuum. The process occurs rapidly, but unlike adiabatic work the
process is irreversible. ΔU = Q = W = 0

Entropy (S) Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system or its surroundings.

Low entropy states are more organized than high entropy states.

Lower Entropy Higher Entropy

Your clean bedroom Your room after finals
Solids Liquids
Liquids Gases
Salt tablets in water Dissolved salt in water

ELECTROSTATICS CONSERVATION OF CHARGE

When one item has “extra” electrons, this means that something else must have “lost” electrons. Just as mass, energy,
and momentum are conserved, so is electric charge. 1 Coulomb, C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons.

Coulomb’s Law
q1q2
The electric force can be attractive or repulsive. The gravitational force is only attractive. FE = k
r2
Lightning Strike Safety
The electrons repel themselves to the extreme outside of the car. Two electrons wouldn’t want to be near each other
on the inside by you. The electricity flows around the outside of the car, not through you. This would happen even if
there were no rubber tires at all on the car!

Electric Potential
How much work is done, depends on the amount of charge. Electric Electric Potential= Electric Potential Energy
potential describes how much work is done, per amount of charge. Charge

Voltage: Electric Potential Unit 1 V = 1 J / 1C A Joule per Coulomb is defined as a Volt.

Electric potential describes how much work could be done per amount of charge. Electric potential energy is simply an
amount of energy or work due to static charge.

Mechanical and Electrical Energy Gravitational potential energy is derived from the earth’s gravitational field.
Electrical potential energy, is derived from an electric field.

VanDeGraff Generator Charge accumulates on the metal dome, when enough electrons build up, and a high enough
voltage is reached they repel so much that they jump through the air creating a spark!

High Voltage Electric Potential & Electric Fields

CONDUCTORS, CAPACITORS, AND DIELECTRICS

Semi Conductors: Examples include silicon, carbon and germanium.

Super Conductors A material where electrons flow without any resistance. Generally, superconductivity only occurs
at very low temperatures. Magnetically levitated fast trains are one application of
superconductivity.

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Resistors The resistance of a wire can depend on thickness (area) of wire, temperature of wire, length of wire.
ρL A higher temperature means a higher resistance. Imagine the atoms of a hotter wire moving very rapidly.
R=
A The could interfere with the conduction of electrons, thus increasing resistance.

Capacitors Capacitors are used to store energy for future use.

Overall, the net charge on a capacitor is zero.

Increasing Area
To have a more “powerful” capacitor, you would want a larger area. However, that may be impractical, so
some capacitors are rolled to maximize space. This give the typical round or cylindrical shape of
capacitors.

Discharging
A capacitor “fills up” while electrons are being deposited onto one of the plates. The
capacitor can be discharged if the two plates are connected. (A switch is usually used)
This causes all the accumulated electrons to suddenly flow back. This movement of
charge can be used.
In the flash of a camera, charge is stored by a capacitor until needed (flash).

Dielectrics A dielectric is a material that enhances the capacity of a capacitor. Often an insulating
material is inserted between the plates of a capacitor. This substance is called a dielectric.
Dielectrics resist charge flow more than air. Thus higher voltages can be applied before the
charge jumps or discharges, thus more capacitance.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Amperes 1 Amp = 1 Coulomb / second

DC, Direct Current:
AC, Alternating Current:
Diodes
the charge flows in one direction only.
electrons in the circuit move in one direction, then switch and then flow in the opposite
direction.
Diodes allow electrons to flow in one direction only. They help change AC into DC. They
are a one way path for electrons.

Electric Power Just as power was used to discuss mechanical work per unit of time, electrical power
P=IV P=I2R works the same way. 1 Watt = 1 Joule / 1 second

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Junction Rule: The current going into a junction (intersection) is equal to the current leaving
the junction.

Loop Rule: The sum of the voltage changes for all elements in a loop must equal zero.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Iron, cobalt, and nickel are commonly magnetized materials. These materials are called ferromagnetic. All materials are
magnetic, but most are only VERY slightly magnetic.

The poles of a magnet cannot be separated. There are no magnetic monopoles, unlike electric charges.

A North pole will always be accompanied by a South pole. If you break a magnet, you don’t get an isolated N and S pole.
Each segment becomes its own complete mini magnet.

The Earth is a large magnet. Magnetic north and geographic north are not in the same location. The difference between
these is called magnetic declination. Note that what we call the North pole is actually the magnetic south pole of our
Earth!

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An wire carrying an electric current produces magnetism. In fact, any moving charge creates magnetism. This is why the
Earth has a magnetic field. The molten metal (charge) in its center is continually rotating. Thus, a magnetic field is
formed around the Earth. This is called the dynamo effect. Every few million years, the earth’s magnetic field reverses
itself!

Jupiter spins very fast, this may explain why it has a very large magnetic field. Most moons in the solar system have no
molten core. Thus they have no magnetic field.

Two Current Carrying Wires Notice that if the current is in the same direction, the forces are attractive.
Also see how they are repulsive if the currents oppose each other.

VIBRATIONS AND WAVES

Simple Harmonic Motion

Vibration: When a body in periodic motion moves back and forth along the same path the motion is called
oscillatory motion or vibratory motion.

Displacement and Amplitude

Displacement (x) The change in the position of a body at any instant in time.
Amplitude( A or r) The maximum displacement of the body from the mean position during a vibration.

Time Period (T) The time taken by a body to complete one vibration or oscillation i.e. start from O displacement
to X reach back to O displacement then to -X reach back to O.

Frequency (f): The number of oscillations completed in a unit time. Frequency is the
reciprocal of Time period. 1 vibration per second = 1 Hertz, Hz. f = 1/T

Angular Frequency ω = 2π / T

Phase The state of vibration at any given instant is determined by the phase. X = A sin (ωt + φ)

Frequency → Hertz
Period → Seconds
Angular frequency → Radians/sec
Amplitude → Meters

Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum is an idealized system consisting of a bob of point mass. It is suspended from
l a rigid support through a light cord. It may surprise you to know that the period of a pendulum
T=2Π has nothing to do with its mass. It depends only on the length of the pendulum, and the
g acceleration from gravity at that particular location.

Spring Oscillations A mass attached to a free end of a spring vibrates or oscillates in a similar
m
manner to a pendulum. T=2Π
k
Resonance When two bodies are in Resonance:
Natural frequency = Input frequency
rapid transfer of energy during resonance
body vibrates with max. amplitude

Six simple pendulums of the same material are suspended. The lengths of the colored pairs are equal. One
green is set into oscillation. All pairs vibrate a bit and stop except the green pair. The two green ones continue
to vibrate in resonance since they have the same natural frequency.

Two tuning forks A and B of equal natural frequencies can vibrate in resonance If a small piece of wax (RED) is attached
to the fork A, its frequency slightly decreases. Then fork B will not vibrate since its frequency is now slightly different.

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 Wave Motion

Electromagnetic Wave Electric and magnetic waves perpendicular to each other propagating in a
direction perpendicular to their plane

Mechanical Waves
– A mechanical wave is just a disturbance that propagates through a medium.
– The medium could be air, water, a spring, the Earth, or even people.
– A medium is any material through which a wave travels.

Types of Mechanical Waves

– The particles in the medium can vibrate in two different ways
– A parallel direction to the wave propagation
– Or perpendicular direction to the wave propagation
– Or a combination of the above two types

Longitudinal Wave Parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave. (sound waves)

Transverse Wave Perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. (waves on a string or rope)

Transverse Crests and Troughs

– Crest - maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement from the rest position
– Trough - maximum amount of negative or downwards displacement from the rest position

Wavelength-Transverse Waves The wavelength of a wave is simply the length of one complete wave cycle.
Distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough.

Compressions & Rarefactions A compression - region which has the maximum density.
A rarefaction - region which has the minimum density.

Wave Speed Equation Wave velocity = Frequency x Wavelength

Reflection of a Wave at a Fixed End Reflection of waves at a boundary: when a wave is progressing towards a fixed
end it gets inverted. If a crest is incident towards a fixed end boundary, it
will reflect and return as a trough. The wave is reflected inverted!
This occurs when the wave reflects off a more dense medium.

Reflection of a Pulse at a Free End The pulse reflects off the free end and returns. Direction of displacement will be
same. Direction of displacement will be same whenever a pulse reflects off a
free end or from a less dense medium.

Interference The topic of wave interference deals with the superposition of two or more waves along the
same medium. This is also called the principle of superposition.

Standing/Stationary Waves Stationary wave: When two waves of the same amplitude and wavelength are moving in
opposite directions, they superpose upon each other and a stationary wave is formed.

Nodes and Antinodes Node (N): Points of minimum displacement in the medium.
Antinodes (AN): Points of maximum displacement in the medium.

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 SOUND

Sound is a form of energy. When matter vibrates very quickly, it transports energy in the form of waves.
Sound waves are pressure waves (energy per unit area). Sound cannot travel through vacuum.

20Hz – 20,000Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called sonics. Audible to the human ear.
Below 20Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called Infrasonics. Inaudible to the human ear.
Above 20,000Hz Sounds of such frequencies are called Ultrasonics. Inaudible to the human ear

Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Sounds

Infrasonic waves are produced by earthquakes and storms in sea. Ultrasonic waves can travel longer distances without
undergoing much change in their properties due to their low wavelengths. Ultrasonic waves can be produced in the
laboratory. Bats produce ultrasonics. Other animals may perceive ultrasonic sounds too.

Sound Speed The normal value of the velocity of infrasonic, sonic or ultrasonic sound in air at 00C is 331m/s
Speed of sounds increases with temperature.

Wave Propagation “Continuous waves” that go on forever in each direction are progressive waves.
Progressive waves can be longitudinal waves or transverse waves Stationary waves are formed
due to superposition of two identical progressive waves moving in opposite directions.

Transverse Waves It can travel in solids only

Longitudinal Waves It can travel in solids, liquids and gases.

Progressive Waves All the particles of the medium execute S.H.M with same amplitude and frequency. There is a
flow of energy in the direction of wave propagation.

Standing Waves The particles of the medium execute S.H.M with same frequency but with different amplitudes.
There is no net flow of energy in the medium.

PHYSICAL OPTICS

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all the various types of light waves
that exist. The electromagnetic spectrum can be considered a catalog or map of
all the various frequencies of light.

Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is an oscillating combination of a magnetic and an electric field.
It can be visualized as two perpendicular waves (electric and magnetic).
This view shows the light wave coming right at you.

Speed of Light
In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves have a velocity of 300,000,000 m/s! Speed can vary depending on the medium.
The approximate speed of light was first calculated by Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer. He used careful telescopic
observations of the motions of Jupiter’s moons. American physicist Albert Michelson used a rotating mirror with fixed
mirror on a distant mountain.

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Waves often superimpose, or interfere with each other when they overlap.

Principle of Superposition When two or more waves occupy the same region of space
simultaneously, the resulting wave disturbance is the sum of
separate waves.

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Constructive Interference When waves overlap or superimpose, they may create a larger amplitude wave as a
result.

Destructive Interference When waves overlap or superimpose, they may create a smaller amplitude wave as a
result.

Thin Film Interference Soap bubbles and thin films of gasoline or oil often produce pretty
colored patterns.
This results from some light penetrating the film, then reflecting backwards. This light interferes with
light reflecting off the surface and creates certain colors depending on the thickness of the film.

Coherent Light Light waves that are all in phase, or in step with each other, are called coherent.
This basically means that the waves don’t shift with respect to each other as
time passes.

Monochromatic Light Light waves that have all the same frequency/wavelength/color are called
monochromatic. Laser light is both monochromatic and coherent.

Diffraction Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles, corners, or openings.

Thomas Young was the first person to measure the wavelength of light.
Diffraction also occurs in places other than a double slit experiment. If you yell to
someone in another room that isn’t in a direct path, they still hear you. Your
sound waves diffract around the doorways.

Polarization of Light Because light is a transverse wave, it can vibrate in a variety of directions compared to its
direction of motion.

Unpolarized Light In unpolarized light, the fluctuations in the electric field occur in all
directions. It’s random. Most of the light we see is unpolarized.

Polarized Light Because light is a transverse wave, it can be polarized. Longitudinal

waves cannot be polarized.
In polarized light, the electric field vibrates in only one direction.

Polarizers Unpolarized, random light can be made to be polarized with the aid of a
type of filter. The polarizing filter acts like a grate or strain that allows only
one direction of motion.

Pairs of Polarizers A pair of polarizers can be used to precisely adjust the intensity
of a light source. The end result is polarized light of a particular
reduced intensity.

Intensity Adjusting Polarizers With the pair of polarizing filters at a 0 degree angle with each other, a maximum
amount of light emerges. With the pair of polarizing filters at a 90 degree angle with
each other, a minimum amount of light emerges, virtually 0 intensity. By adjusting the
angle between the direction of the two filters, the intensity of the light can be
controlled.

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 GEOMETRIC OPTICS

No Frequency Change The image would seem to be as far from the mirror, as the object is from the
mirror. Since you see identical colors in the image, reflection apparently has no
effect on the frequency of the light.

Importance of Wavelength For visible light (λ= 400-700 nm), a reflective surface must be very smooth and
uniform. However, if a much larger wavelength were being reflected, the surface
could be much rougher. It could even have holes in the surface!

Radio Wave Reflection As far as radio waves are concerned, this dish is one solid reflective surface since
large radio waves can’t fit through the holes. However, it wouldn’t work well for
visible light since that wavelength is much smaller and they would pass right
through.

Microwave Ovens Your microwave oven door is composed of a fine mesh with many small
openings. Visible light can pass through so you can view your food, but 12
cm long microwaves can’t fit through these small spaces.

Curved Mirrors

Two Types of Curved Mirrors

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

(converging mirror) (diverging mirror)

Concave Mirror Ray Diagram-1

Real or Virtual Image As with a plane mirror, a virtual image can’t be projected onto a screen. The rays
only seem to be coming from the image position. In a real image, the rays
actually do converge at the image location. A real image can be projected onto a
screen. The previous ray diagram formed a real image.

Concave Mirror Ray Diagram-2

Concave Mirror Ray Diagram-3

Note how the reflected rays don’t actually meet. They must be traced
backwards to see when they seem to originate from. This forms a virtual image.

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Characteristics of Concave Mirror Images
Object past the focal point: Real, inverted image in front of mirror
Object at focal point: No image formed
Object inside focal point: Virtual, upright image behind mirror.
The image distance is negative.

Large Concave Mirror

Large concave mirrors can collect and concentrate large amounts of sunlight. This can
produce intense heat which could be utilized.

Telescopic Use Various types of reflecting telescopes use similar concave mirrors. In this example there
are two to reflect the light twice. Larger mirrors are better since they collect more light

Magnification As you may have seen, mirrors can create images that are either larger or smaller than
the original object. A quantitative description of this effect is magnification.

Signs Notice the – sign in the second form of the magnification equation. If the magnification is – that
means the image is inverted. If the magnification is + that means it is upright.

Convex Mirror Ray Diagram

Characteristics of Convex Mirror Images

Object placed anywhere: virtual, upright, smaller image formed behind the mirror.
Here the image distance, di, is negative since its on the opposite side of the mirror.
A convex mirror has a negative focal length.

Application of Convex Mirrors Security mirrors in department stores allow people to get a
wide field view of shoplifters. Additional mirrors on car side
view mirrors also provide a wider field of view.

Refraction Light doesn’t always travel in a straight line. Sometimes it is bent, or refracted. The index of
refraction, n, is a way of describing how optically dense a material is.

Air = 1.00
Water = 1.33
Glass = 1.52
Diamond = 2.42

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

Sunsets When we see a sunset, we actually see the sun for a few minutes after it has set! The sun is
actually below the horizon, but its light refracts in the atmosphere to bend and reach us.

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Viewing a Fish Underwater

Dispersion
The frequency of light has a slight effect on the speed of light in a medium. (not in a vacuum) This corresponds
to certain colors of light being bent or refracted more than others. (violet bent most, red the least) This gives
us the prism/rainbow phenomena.

Rainbows
This dispersion effect often takes place in water droplets in the
atmosphere. This gives us separate colors that we know as a
rainbow. Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet

Total Internal Reflection

As you may have noticed, water can reflect, or transmit light. The angle
of incidence determines which will happen.

Critical Angle
As you can tell from the previous diagram, there is a certain angle where the light no longer refracts through
the surface. Instead, it refracts over 90o, which is a reflection. This is called total internal reflection. The
“critical” angle at which this happens depends on the two indexes of refraction.

Binoculars
Because clear glass prisms can reflect light as previously discussed, they are commonly used in
binoculars to shorten the length of them. Instead of having long tubes or barrels for the binoculars, the prisms
fold the light path and make them more compact.

Fiber Optics
A fiber optic tube works like a tunnel for light. It is actually composed of two materials with different indexes
of refraction. If a light beam is incident at greater than the critical angle, the beam will reflect along the fiber. It
will not go through the clear tube.
Fiber is made of two materials with different indexes of
refraction.

Lenses
Clear materials like glass, plastic, or even water take advantage of refraction to bend light in useful ways.
A lens bends light through refraction. Due to the curvature of the surface of the lens, light refracts in
predictable patterns.

Convex Lens, Object Past 2f

Rays converge to show real, inverted and smaller image.

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Object Between 2f and f
Rays meet to give an inverted, real, larger image.

Convex Lens, Object Inside f

The rays don’t seem to actually converge. However if they are
traced backwards to their apparent
origin, a virtual, upright, and larger image is formed!!

Convex Lens, Object at f

As with a concave mirror, if the object is at the focal point, no
image is formed.

Review Questions
Where must an object be placed with a convex lens so that it acts as a magnifying glass?
-> Inside the focal point
Where must an object be placed with a convex lens so that it projects a larger image onto a screen (slide
projector)?
-> Between 2f and f

Concave Lens
With a concave lens, the rays appear to diverge.
However, if the rays are traced backwards to their apparent origin, a
smaller, upright, virtual image is formed.

Sign Conventions
If the image appears on the same side of the lens as the object (virtual image), the image distance is negative.
If the image is on the opposite side of the lens (real image), the image distance is positive.
Concave lens = negative focal length
Convex lens = positive focal length

Lenses/Mirrors Similarities
Here are some simple observations that will help with problem solving:
– Virtual images are – di
– Real images are + di
– Converging optics are + focal length
– Diverging optics are – focal length
– All do are +
– Diverging optics have only one universal ray diagram for any situation
– Use 1/f=1/do+1/di for both mirrors and lenses

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Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration: The light isn’t exactly focused to one point. Some rays
are slightly off.

Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic aberration: When light of different colors refracts differently and
makes different colors
misaligned at the focal point.

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