Truth and Validity

An argument is valid if the

conclusion follows from the premise.

An argument is valid if whenever the

premise is true, the conclusion is also true.

An argument is invalid if the premise is

true but the conclusion is false.

A valid argument may have a true or a

false conclusion.
1
Argument:
All humans are mortal.
I am human.
Therefore, I am mortal.
This is a valid argument
with a true premise and true
conclusion.

2
Argument:
All frogs have wings.
All animals with wings fly.
Therefore, all frogs can
fly.

This is a valid argument

with a false premise and false
conclusion.
3
Compound propositions

A compound proposition
consists of two or more simple
propositions joined together by
logical connectors.

4
 The Logical Connectors

not (negation: ∼ or  )
and (conjunction: · or )
or (disjunction: ∨)
if … then (conditional: → or ⊃)
if and only if (biconditional: )
5
Truth Table for a Negation

Let p be a proposition.

p p
T F
F T

6
Give the truth value of each statement.
1. 2 is not odd.
F
 (2 is odd.)
Ans. T
2. It is not the case that 49 is a perfect
square.
T
 (49 is a perfect square.)
Ans. F
7
Let p and q be propositions.
If both p and q are true,
then the compound
proposition p and q
(denoted by p  q) is true.
Otherwise p  q is false.

8
Truth Table for a Conjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

9
Give the truth value of each statement.
T T
1. 2 is prime and 2 is even.
Ans. T
F (Whatever!)
2. 3 is even and I am YayaDub.

Ans. F
10
Or is inclusive when it means
“either or both”.
Or is exclusive when it means
“either but not both”.
In logic, or is always inclusive.

11
Let p and q be propositions.
If at least one of p or q is
true, then the compound
proposition p or q (denoted
by p  q) is true.
Otherwise, p  q is false.

12
Truth Table for a Disjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

13
Give the truth value of each statement.
F F
1. 2 is odd or 3 is even.
Ans. F
T (Whatever!)
2. 4 is even or I am YayaDub.

Ans. T
14
 A conditional proposition is a
proposition joined by the words
if and then.
Form: If p then q.
p is called the antecedent, while
q is called the consequent.

15
 The conditional
proposition
if p then q
(denoted by p → q) is
true except when
p is true and q is false.

16
Truth Table for a Conditional
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

17
Give the truth value of each statement.
F F
1. If 2 is odd then 3 is even.
Ans. T
T F
2. If 4 is even then 5 is even.

Ans. F
18
 A biconditional proposition has
the form

p if and only if q.

The proposition p if and only if q

(denoted by p  q) is true if p and
q have the same truth values. It is
false otherwise.

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Truth Table for a Biconditional

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

20
Give the truth value of each statement.
F F
1. 2 is odd iff 3 is even.
Ans. T
T F
2. 4 is even iff 5 is even.

Ans. F
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Exercises: If A and B are true statements
and X and Y are false statements, find the
truth value of each.
1. A  (X  Y) 2. B → (A  Y)
Solution:

1. A  (X  Y) 2. B → (X  Y)
T  (F  F) T → (F  F)
T  (F) T → (F)
Ans. T Ans. F 22
TASK no. 1

If A and B are true statements and X and Y

are false statements, but the truth values of
P and Q are not known, can you determine
the truth value of each? If so, what is it?
Show all your solution.

1. P  P
2. (P  Q)  (  A  X)
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 Other Statements Derived from Conditional

CONVERSE It is formed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion.
Thus, the converse of P → Q is Q → P .
INVERSE It is formed by negating both the
hypothesis and the conclusion.
Thus, the inverse of P → Q is P → Q .
CONTRAPOSITIVE It is the result of interchanging
the hypothesis and conclusion
of its inverse.
Thus, the contrapositive of
P → Q is Q → P .
EXAMPLE: “If you work for eight hours,
then you work for one-third of a day.”
Hypothesis: You work for eight hours
Conclusion: You work for one-third of a day
CONVERSE If you work for one-third of a day,
then you work for eight hours.
INVERSE If you do not work for eight hours,
then you do not work for one-third of
a day.
CONTRAPOSITIVE If you do not work for one-third
of a day, then you do not
work for eight hours.
EXAMPLE: “If you work for eight hours,
then you work for one-third of a day.”
Hypothesis: You work for eight hours
Conclusion: You work for one-third of a day

P Q P Q P → Q Q → P P → Q Q → P PQ

T T F F T T T T T
NOTE: The implication of the biconditional depends
on the conditional and converse.
EXAMPLE: “If you see lightning,
then you don't hear thunder.”
Hypothesis: You see lightning
Conclusion: You don't hear thunder
CONVERSE If you don't hear thunder,
then you see lightning.
INVERSE If you don't see lightning,
then you hear thunder.
CONTRAPOSITIVE If you hear thunder,
then you don't see lightning.
EXAMPLE: “If you see lightning,
then you don't hear thunder.”
Hypothesis: You see lightning
Conclusion: You don't hear thunder

P Q P Q P → Q Q → P P → Q Q → P PQ

T F F T F T T F F
 Other COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
TAUTOLOGY It is a compound proposition that is
always true, no matter what the tuth
values of the propositions that occur.
Example: P  P is always true .
CONTRADICTION It is a compound proposition that is
always false.
Example: P  P is always false.
CONTINGENCY It is a compound proposition that
is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction.
P → P is sometimes false or true.
 Other COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS
They are Biconditional Proposition that
are TAUTOLOGY.
If P  Q is a tautology then P ≡ Q.