Care of the professional voice
Robert T. Sataloff, MD, DMA, Associate Editor
The Value of Vocal Warm-up
and Cool-down Exercises:
Questions and Controversies
Rima A. DeFatta and Robert T. Sataloff
Rima A. DeFatta
Robert T. Sataloff
Journal of Singing, November/December 2012
Volume 69, No. 2, pp. 173–175
Copyright © 2012
National Association of Teachers of Singing
November/December 2012
I
n singing and other athletic endeavors, the value of warm-up
and cool-down exercises has not been defined clearly. Relatively few
studies have researched the effects of these exercises on muscle function
and even fewer have studied their effect on singing-specific outcomes.
The value of warming up before singing is accepted widely despite the paucity
of scientific evidence to support its benefit. Singers often report increased
pitch range, smoother transitions, and overall improved ease of singing after
warming up. Warm-ups are a component of most voice pedagogy programs
and many voice therapy regimens. The importance and use of cool-down
exercises after singing is more controversial, just as it is in sports medicine.
Studies in exercise physiology literature both support and refute their value.
Although no consensus can be reached based on available scientific evidence,
singing teachers and voice therapists should be familiar with the current
literature in order to guide and counsel students appropriately.
The findings of exercise research can be applied in broad terms to singing.
Through a comprehensive review of the literature, Hoh showed that laryngeal
and limb muscles share several properties.1 Fast and slow twitch fibers are
found in both locations. Slow twitch fibers (type I) generally are considered
to be fatigue resistant. They can generate a steady flow of energy (adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP) by oxidative metabolism that is supported by a rich
blood supply and high mitochondrial content. Fast twitch fibers (types IIa,
IIx, and IIb) generally lack the endurance of slow twitch fibers. They possess
a wider range of speed and power made possible through glycolysis (sugar
metabolism to lactic acid). Each set of muscles in the larynx possesses unique
functional capabilities owing to the variable composition of fast and slow
twitch fibers. The thyroarytenoid (TA) has a high type II fiber content that
gives it the shortest contraction time of all the intrinsic muscles. The crico-
thyroid (CT) contains a much higher ratio of type I fibers, which slows its
contraction rate four fold. The range of TA contraction speeds parallels those
of very fast extraocular muscles, whereas CT contraction speeds approximate
those of fast limb muscles. Beyond the mentioned similarities, additional his-
tochemical specialization gives the larynx exceptional speed and endurance
that are absent from extremity muscles of the same species.
173
Rima A. DeFatta and Robert T. Sataloff
Before warm-up and cool-down exercises can be
applied clinically, basic biochemical and physiologic
effects should be understood. Bogdanis and colleagues
studied the effects of cool-down on metabolic, cardio-
pulmonary, and power output changes during repeated
sprints.2 Thirteen young healthy male volunteers com-
pleted two 30-second cycle sprints. The sprints were
four minutes apart and separated either by passive
recovery (sitting still) or active recovery (cycling at 40%
of maximal oxygen uptake). The active recovery group
showed an expected higher heart rate during the recov-
ery interval and a greater power output retrieval during
the second sprint. Despite these findings, blood lactate
and pH levels were not significantly different between
groups. It has been suggested by Harris et al. that blood
flow to recovering muscle is critical for the clearance
of metabolites (such as lactic acid), which are assumed
often to cause clinical muscle pain and fatigue.3 A recent
study by Tenan and colleagues demonstrated no correla-
tion between lactate levels and muscle fatigue as mea-
sured objectively by a decrease in the median frequency
of electromyographic tracings.4 Although Bogdanis’s
study did not assess subjective fatigue, Tenan’s findings
call into question the correlation between metabolite
buildup and muscle soreness. However, the study was
small and cannot be considered definitive.
Law and Herbert attempted to quantify the effects of
both warm-up and cool-down on delayed onset muscle
soreness.5 Healthy, untrained runners were randomized
into four groups: warm-up and cool-down, warm-up
only, cool-down only, and neither warm-up nor cool-
down. When cool-down was used, it was targeted specifi-
cally on similar muscle groups fatigued during exercise.
At 48 hours, muscle soreness was measured subjectively
using both a numerical and a visual analog scale. Soreness
was measured objectively using a force transducer that
applied increasing pressure to the gastrocnemius (calf)
muscle. The study concluded that warm-up reduced
muscle soreness by a mean of 13 mm on a 100 mm visual
analog scale, but that cool-down had no effect on muscle
soreness. Several authors have suggested that delayed
onset muscle soreness results from damaged, poorly
compliant myofibrils.6 Law and Herbert hypothesized
that because warm-up increased muscle temperature,
it may have improved myofibril compliance and con-
sequently limited the damage and soreness associated
174
with stretch injury. This compliance theory may explain
also the anecdotal benefits of warm-up before singing.
Motel and colleagues specifically studied the effect
of warm-up on the soprano voice.7 Their experimental
design was based on the assumption that submaximal
exercise leads to increased viscosity of the superficial
vocal fold. Although the viscosity of the underlying voca-
lis muscle may decrease as a result of metabolite con-
centration and water influx, the shear and compressive
forces from vocal fold oscillation limit water transport
to the mucosa by temporarily collapsing the capillaries.
Ishizaka’s vocal fold oscillator model predicts that a vis-
cosity increase should increase the phonation threshold
pressure and make singing more effortful.8 They found
that phonation threshold pressure (PTh) increased in six
out of nine soprano study volunteers. These findings
seemed to contradict the common observation that
warming up permits less effortful singing. The authors
recognized that standardizing the warm-up might not
have prepared each of the variably experienced subjects
optimally. The singers’ different rating of their readiness
to perform following the prescribed warm-up regimen
supports this. Although the study did not detail whether
low readiness scores correlated well with an increase in
PTh, none of the singers perceived a worsening of their
vocal quality. This variability in response to similar train-
ing routines is predicted by the individuality principle
of athletic training and should be kept in mind when
recommending exercise routines for vocal performers,
and when evaluating the results of research.9
In an attempt to answer questions regarding cool-
down, the majority of authors have focused on studying
its immediate effects on muscle physiology. In contrast,
Spencer and colleagues investigated the long-term effects
of active recovery.10 Nine healthy male participants
completed a cycle sprint trial every seven days over a
four-week period. Each trial consisted of six four-second
repeated sprints separated by either passive or active
recovery. Capillary blood samples and muscle biopsies
were collected to supplement performance measure
findings. Final peak power and muscle phosphocreatine
(a high energy molecule) were significantly lower in the
active recovery group. Despite the suggested negative
effect of active recovery in this study, it is important to
note that no difference was found in work decrement
between the active and passive recovery groups.
Journal of Singing

We can safely draw some conclusions about vocal per-
formance based on exercise physiology literature, but it is
important to keep in mind the limitations. Many experi-
ments utilize repeated sprint cycles to tailor the applicabil-
ity of results to team sports. Virtually none have studied
warm-up and cool-down in long distance running, which
is more similar to singing than are sprints. So, application
of various studies to singing must be made with caution.
For example, one study asked subjects to walk backward
downhill on an inclined treadmill for 30 minutes. The
intent was to fatigue the gastrocnemius muscle. It is
difficult to similarly isolate muscles of the vocal tract in
singing, as they typically work in unison to produce a
particular sound.11 The same is true of warm-ups and
cool-downs, since they typically represent performance
of an exercise at a submaximal threshold. Warming up
or cooling down a group of vocal tract muscles may pro-
duce different short and long-term physiologic effects on
the voice than can be predicted by experimental results
that test an isolated extremity muscle, or even a group of
muscles performing activities that differ from singing.
This variability in the type of muscle exercises tested
makes comparison of the results challenging. In turn,
a range of recommendations can be made regarding
specific warm-up and cool-down exercises based on
these results. Although some studies failed to show
benefit from warm-up and cool-down, no study has
shown measurable adverse outcomes as a result of
these maneuvers. Scientific studies specific to singing
are needed. Until reliable scientific evidence is available
to guide our recommendations, the continued use of
warm-up and cool-down exercises based on anecdotal
observations of experienced voice pedagogues seems
appropriate and prudent. The choice of exercises should
be individualized based on the singer’s classification,
type of performance and range expected, general fitness
level, and individual response to various exercises and
approaches to training. Singers should recognize the
existence of a knowledge gap and welcome opportunities
to participate in research on warm-up and cool-down
exercises so that we all can learn more.
Notes
1. J. F. Y. Hoh, “Laryngeal Muscle Fiber Types,” Acta Physio­
logica Scandinavica 183, no. 2 (February 2005): 133–149.
November/December 2012
Care of the Professional Voice
2. G. C. Bogdanis, M. E. Nevill, H. K. Lakomy, C. M. Graham,
and G. Louis, “Effects of Active Recovery on Power Output
During Repeated Maximal Spring Cycling,” European
Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology
74, no. 5 (1996): 461–469.
3. R. C. Harris, R. H. Edwards, E. Hultman, L. O. Nordesjö, B.
Nylind, and K. Sahlin, “The Time Course of Phosphoryl­
creatine Resynthesis During Recovery of the Quadriceps
Muscle in Man,” Pflügers Archiv 367, no. 2 (December 1976):
137–142.
4. M. S. Tenan, R. G. McMurray, B. Troy Blackburn, M.
McGrath, and K. Leppert, “The Relationship between Blood
Potassium, Blood Lactate, and Electromyography Signals
Related to Fatigue in a Progressive Cycling Exercise Test,”
Journal of Electromyography Kinesiology 21, no. 1 (February
2011); epublished ahead of print (October 2010): 7.
5. R. Y. Law and R. D. Herbert, “Warm-Up Reduces Delayed
Onset Muscle Soreness but Cool-Down Does Not: A
Randomised Controlled Trial,” Australian Journal of Physio­
therapy 53, no. 2 (2007): 91–95.
6. J. Fridén and R. L. Lieber, “Eccentric Exercise-Induced
Injuries to Contractile and Cytoskeletal Muscle Fibre
Components,” Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 171, no.
3 (March 2001): 321–326; D. L. Morgan, “New Insights
into the Behavior of Muscle During Active Lengthening,”
Biophysical Journal 57, no. 2 (February 1990): 2090–221; U.
Proske and D. L. Morgan, “Muscle Damage from Eccentric
Exercise: Mechanism, Mechanical Signs, Adaptation and
Clinical Applications,” The Journal of Physiology 537, no. 2
(December 2001): 333–345; S. Gray and M. Nimmo, “Effects
of Active, Passive or No Warm-Up on Metabolism and
Performance During High-Intensity Exercise,” Journal of
Sports Science 19, no. 9 (September 2001): 693–700.
7. T. Motel, K. V. Fisher, and C. Leydon, “Vocal Warm-Up
Increases Phonation Threshold Pressure in Soprano Singers at
High Pitch,” Journal of Voice 17, no. 2 (June 2003): 160–167.
8. N. Elliot, J. Sundberg, and P. Gramming, “What Happens
During Vocal Warm-Up?” Journal of Voice 9, no. 1 (March
1995): 37–44.
9. O. Friedman and R. T. Sataloff, “Laryngeal Papilloma,” in R. T.
Sataloff, ed., Professional Voice: The Science and Art of Clinical
Care, 3rd ed. (San Diego: Plural Publishing, 2005), 1087–1092.
10. M. Spencer, D. Bishop, B. Dawson, C. Goodman, and R.
Duffield, “Metabolism and Performance in Repeated Cycle
Sprints: Active Versus Passive Recovery,” Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise 38, no. 8 (August 2006): 1492–1499.
11. Elliot, Sundberg, and Gramming.
Rima A. DeFatta, M.D. completed her residency at Albany Medical College.
Dr. DeFatta completed her fellowship under Dr. Robert Sataloff’s mentorship
in Philadelphia and is currently practicing in Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
175