MODULE 3

Polymers and Powder Metallurgy

POLYMERS & POWDER METALLURGY
Basic Concepts: Introduction to Polymers used for additive manufacturing: polyamide, PF resin,
polyesters etc. Classification of polymers, Concept of functionality, Polydispersity and
Molecular weight [MW], Molecular Weight Distribution [MWD]
Polymer Processing: Methods of spinning for additive manufacturing: Wet spinning, Dry
spinning. Biopolymers, Compatibility issues with polymers. Moulding and casting of polymers,
Polymer processing techniques
General Concepts: Introduction and History of Powder Metallurgy (PM), Present and Future
Trends of PM
Powder Production Techniques: Different Mechanical and Chemical methods, Atomisation of
Powder, other emerging processes.
Characterization Techniques: Particle Size & Shape Distribution, Electron Microscopy of
Powder, Interparticle Friction, Compression ability, Powder Structure, Chemical
Characterization
Microstructure Control in Powder: Importance of Microstructure Study, Microstructures of
Powder by Different techniques
Powder Shaping: Particle Packing Modifications, Lubricants & Binders, Powder Compaction &
Process Variables, Pressure & Density Distribution during Compaction, Isotactic Pressing,
Injection Moulding, Powder Extrusion, Slip Casting, Tape Casting.
Sintering: Theory of Sintering, Sintering of Single & Mixed Phase Powder, Liquid Phase
Sintering Modern Sintering Techniques, Physical & Mechanical Properties Evaluation,
Structure-Property Correlation Study, Modern Sintering techniques, Defects Analysis of Sintered
Components
Application of Powder Metallurgy: Filters, Tungsten Filaments, Self-Lubricating Bearings,
PorousMaterials,Biomaterialsetc. 12 Hours
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

POLYMERS

“Polymers are long chain molecules produced by linking monomers together”. There are several ways to
link different types of monomers to polymers. They exhibit different physical properties compared to
monomers, dependent on length of polymer chains.

Fig: Polymer and monomer chain

Polymers used in AM (Classification)

Common polymers used:

• Polyamide (Nylon)
• Phenol Formaldehyde resins (PF
Resins)
• Polyesters
• Bio polymers
• ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
• PLA (Polyactide), inclusing soft PLA
• PC (polycarbonate)
• Nylon 12 (Tensile strength 45MPa)
• Glass filled nylon (12.48 Mpa)
• Epoxy resin
• Wax
• Photopolymer resins.

Fig: Classification of polymer & common polymers used in AM

A- Classification Based on Source

1. Natural polymers: These polymers are found in nature, example plants and animals. Eg : proteins,
cellulose, starch, resins and rubber.
2. Semi-synthetic polymers: The polymers obtained by simple chemical treatment of natural polymers
to change their physical properties Eg: Starch, silicones
3. Synthetic polymers: The fibres obtained by polymerisation of simple chemical molecules in
laboratory are synthetic polymers, Eg: Nylon, polyethene, polystyrene, synthetic rubber, Teflon,
PVC etc

B- Based on the structure of polymers

1. Linear polymers on Structure: Polymers monomers are linked with each other & form a long
straight chain. It has no any side chains; Molecules are closely packed and have high density, tensile
strength. Eg : Polyethene, PVC, Nylons, polyesters etc.
2. Branched chain polymers: They have a straight long chain with different side chains. Molecules are
irregularly packed. Has low density, tensile strength and melting point, Eg : polypropylene,
amylopectin and glycogen.
3. Crosslinked or Network polymers: Those polymers in which two linear chains are joined together
by covalent bonds and it have three dimensional. Degree of cross linking is a number of junction
points per unit volume. Polymers cross linking are hard, rigid .and brittle due to their network
structure. Polymers Cross linked do not dissolve in solvents because all the polymer Chains are

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covalently tied together, but they can absorb solvents. Ex. Bakelite, melamine, formaldehyde resins,
vulcanised rubber etc.

C- Based on Mode of Polymerisation Polymers

1. Addition polymers: The addition polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomer
molecules possessing double or triple bonds, the polymers formed by the addition of monomers
repeatedly without removal of by products are called addition polymers. Eg: formation of polythene
from ethene

2. Condensation polymers: They are formed by the combination of two monomers by removal of
small molecules like water, alcohol or NH3. Eg: Nylon 6,(nylon 6, 6 is formed by the condensation
of hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid.)

D- Based on Molecular Forces Mechanical properties

1. Elastomers: These are rubber – like solids with elastic properties. the polymer chains are held
together by the weakest intermolecular forces. These weak binding forces permit the polymer to be
stretched. A few ‘crosslinks’ are introduced in between the chains, which help the polymer to retract
to its original position after the force is released as in vulcanised rubber. Eg: buna-S, buna-N,
neoprene, etc.

2. Fibres Thread forming solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus. These
characteristics can be attributed to the strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding. These
strong forces also lead to close packing of chains and thus impart crystalline nature. Used in textile
industries. Eg: polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene), etc. Medical and Biological Polymers

3. Thermoplastic polymers; Polymers having intermolecular forces between elastomers & fibres.
Polymers which can be softened on heating & hardened on cooling room temperature. They may be
linear or branched chain polymers. These polymer can be recycled many times. Eg: Polythene,
polyesterne, PVC.

4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymer is hard and infusible on heating. These are not soft on heating
under pressure & are not remoulded. Polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules. These
polymers we cannot reused or recycle. Eg: bakelite, urea-formaldelyde resins, etc

E-Based On the basis of types of Monomers:

1. Homopolymer: A polymer containing a single type of repeat unit is called a homo-polymers Eg:
polystyrene

2. Hetropolymer (Copolymer): if a polymer is made up two different monomers then it is called

copolymer, Eg: butadiene –styrene rubber

F- Based on the Basis of Morphology

1. Crystalline polymers: invariably don’t form perfect crystalline materials but instead are semi
crystalline with both crystalline & amorphous regions. The crystalline phase of such polymers are
characterized by their melting temperature (Tm)

2. Amorphous Polymers: Characterized by their glass transition temperature (Tg), the temperature at
which they transform abruptly from the glass state (hard) to the rubbery state (soft).This transition
corresponds to the onset of chain motion.

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Common Polymers
1. Polyamide (Eg: Nylon & Kevlar): A polyamide is a macromolecule with repeating units linked by
amide bonds. Amide (NH)+ Carboxyl (C=O). A polyamide link is formed when an amide link is formed by
reaction of an amino functional group with carboxyl group.
Natural Polyamides: Protein, wool, silks Artificial Polyamides: Nylon, Kevlar, aramids etc

–CO-NH-

2. PF (Phenol formaldehyde) Resin / Phenolic resins: PF resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the
reaction of phenol with formaldehyde which is used as the basis for Bakelite. Most widely used for
production of molded products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and
adhesives.

3. Polyester: Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain.
Polyesters are condensation polymers & are formed when a carboxylic acid monomer reacts with alcohol
monomer [carboxylic acid (COOH) + alcohol (OH)]. Commonly refers to Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Bio polymers
Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms (Polymeric bio-molecules) the input materials for
production of polymers may be either renewable or synthetic. There are 4 types of bio-polymers are
1. Starch
2. Sugar
3. Cellulose based biopolymers
4. Synthetic based bio polymers
1. Starch based Bio-Polymers: Natural polymers which occur as granules in plant tissue, from which it can
recovered in large quantities. Obtained from Potatoes, maize, wheat etc. it can be modified in such a way
that it can be melted & deformed thermo-plastically. Resulting material is suitable for conventional plastic
forming processes such as injection molding & extruding.
2. Sugar based Bio-Polymers: Starting material of Polyhydroxibutyrate is made from sucrose or starch by
a process of bacterial fermentation. The polymer can be formed by injection, extrusion, blowing & vacuum
forming. Polylactides (Lactic acid polymers) made from lactic acid, which is in turn made from lactose
(Milk sugar) obtained from sugar beet, potatoes, wheat, maize.
3. Cellulose based Bio-Polymers: Cellophane include packing for CDS, Confectionary and Cigarettes. The
use of cellulose for material packaging. Material is wholly biodegradable & can be compose by existing
waste processing plant.
4. Synthetic bio-Polymers: Synthetic compounds derived from petroleum can be used as biodegradable
polymers. Eg. Aliphatic aromatic co polyesters. Its has resembling properties.

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Methods of spinning for AM (Polymer Fibre Production Processes)

Spinning is manufacturing process for creating polymer fibers. It is a specialized form of extrusion that
uses a spinneret to form multiple continuous filaments. There are four types of spinning: Dry spinning, Wet
spinning, Melt spinning and Gel spinning
1. Dry Spinning: Dry spinning is also used for fiber-forming substances in solution. However, instead of
precipitating the polymer by dilution or chemical reaction, solidification is achieved by evaporating the
solvent in a stream of air or inert gas. The filaments do not come in contact with a precipitating liquid,
eliminating the need for drying and easing solvent recovery. This process may be used for the production of
acetate, triacetate, acrylic, modacrylic, PBI, spandex, and vinyl
2. Wet Spinning: Wet spinning is the oldest process. It is used for fiber-forming substances that have been
dissolved in a solvent. The spinnerets are submerged in a chemical bath and as the filaments emerge they
precipitate from solution and solidify.Because the solution is extruded directly into the precipitating liquid,
this process for making fibers is called wet spinning. Acrylic, rayon, aramid, modacrylic and spandex can be
produced by this process
3. Melt spinning: In melt spinning, the fiber-forming substance is melted for extrusion through the
spinneret and then directly solidified by cooling. Nylon, olefin, polyester, saran and sulfar are produced in
this manner. Melt spun fibers can be extruded from the spinneret in different cross-sectional shapes (round,
trilobal, pentagonal, octagonal, and others). Trilobal-shaped fibers reflect more light and give an attractive
sparkle to textiles. Pentagonal-shaped and hollow fibers, when used in carpet, show less soil and dirt.
Octagonal-shaped fibers offer glitter-free effects. Hollow fibers trap air, creating insulation and provide loft
characteristics equal to, or better than, down.

1. Dry Spinning 2. Wet Spinning 3. Melt Spinning

4. GEL Spinning: Gel spinning is a special process used to obtain high strength or other special fiber
properties. The polymer is not in a true liquid state during extrusion. Not completely separated, as they
would be in a true solution, the polymer chains are bound together at various points in liquid crystal form.
This produces strong inter-chain forces in the resulting filaments that can significantly increase the tensile
strength of the fibers. In addition, the liquid crystals are aligned along the fiber axis by the shear forces
during extrusion. The filaments emerge with an unusually high degree of orientation relative to each other,
further enhancing strength. The process can also be described as dry-wet spinning, since the filaments first
pass through air and then are cooled further in a liquid bath. Some high-strength polyethylene and aramid
fibers are produced by gel spinning.

Fig: GEL Spinning

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Moulding, casting and processing techniques of polymers

1. Calendaring
2. Die casting
3. Rotational Casting
4. Film Casting
5. Compression Moulding
6. Injection Moulding
7. Blow Moulding
8. Extrusion Moulding
9. Thermoforming
10. Reinforcing(Hand lay up technique, Filament Winding technique & Spray up technique)
1. Calendaring
 It produces continuous films & sheets.
 High polished metal rollers rotate in opposite direction
with a provision for precise adjustment of gap between
rollers.
 Compounded polymeric material is fed between rollers
which are maintained at an elevated temperature, & the
sheet emerging from rollers is cooled by passing through
cold rollers.
 Materials : polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene,
acrylonitrile-butadience styrene (ABS) and rubbers
2. Die Casting
 It is relatively low cost process which consists of
converting a liquid prepolymer to a solid object with
a desired shape. Sheets tubes, rods (with limited
length) can be produced in casting.
 The prepolymer is compounded suitably with curative
& other ingredients is poured into Petridis, the latter
representing the die. The dish is then kept in oven at
elevated temperature for few hours to complete cure
reaction. The solid thus cast will have shape identical
to interior.
 Materials: Plaster of Paris lead or glass.
3. Rotational Casting
 Hollow articles (Eg: Dolls) are produces using rotational
casting.
 Charging: Compounded thermoplastic material in form
of powder is taken in a hollow mould. The apparatus has
a provision for rotating the mould simultaneously along
primary & secondary axes.
 Heating: After Closing the mould, It is heated &
rotated. This distributes molten plastic uniformly along
entire surface of the inside cavity of mould.
 Cooling: After a while, mould still under rotation,
chilled with cold water Now the molten plastic is
uniformly distributed inside the mould surface cools
down & solidifies in the shape of the surface.
 De-moulding: Mould will be opened & Product is
removed.
 For thermosetting type prepolymer & curative mixture
is fed into moluld in liquid form & curing is done at an
elevated temperature, when product is formed.
 Rotational casting using liquid is called slush moulding

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4. Film Casting
 Casting technique used to produce polymeric films.
 The solution in an approximate concentration of
polymer in a suitable solvent is allowed to fall at pre-
calculated rate on an endless metallic belt of high finish
moving at constant speed.
 A continuous sheet of polymer is thus formed on surface
of metallic belt.
 When solvent is evaporated under controlled condition,
a thin film of polymer is formed on surface of belt. The
film could be removed from stripping.
 Materials: Cellophane sheets & photographic films
5. Compression Molding

 Widely used to produce articles from thermosetting plastics.

 The thermo setting plastic is subjected to heat & pressure in a single stroke (2000C & 70kg/cm2).
 The compounded material is placed in cavity of the mould so as to fully fill the cavity. As the mould
closes down under pressure, the material is squeezed or compressed between 2 halves& compacted
to shape inside the cavity. Excess material (flash) flows out as a thin film.
 Mould is opened & product is obtained.
6. Injection Moulding
It is best suited for producing articles made of thermoplastic material. Relatively higher cost with high
production rate.A definite quantity of molten thermoplastic material is injected under pressure into a
relatively cold mould where it solidifies to shape of mould

7. Blow Moulding
 Hollow plastic articles (Eg: Soft drink Bottles, drums) are produced in this process
 An extruder uses a rotating screw to force the molten plastic through a die head that forms the parison
around a blow pin. The parison is extruded vertically between the two open mold halves, so they can
close on the parison and blow pin. Pressurized air flows through the blow pin to inflate the parison. This
is the most common type of blow molding and is used to manufacture large quantities of relatively
simple parts
Materials: Thermoplastic materials like Polyethylene, poly carbonate, Poly propylene, Poly styrene, PVC,
nylon, ABS etc
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8. Extrusion Moulding

 Extrusion is low cost method used fro plastic products such as films, filaments, tubes, sheets, pipes,
rods, hoses & straps, all in continuous length. (Eg: PVC, rubbers etc)
 This process is widely used to form metal and plastic components that have constant cross sectional
shapes such as pipes, curtain rails etc.
 The extrusion process is similar to injection moulding. Plastic granules are heated in a hopper and a
screw thread forces the material through a die. The material is then cooled. Extrusion can only be
used for simple shapes and the end product generally has a poor quality finish
9. Thermo-forming
 It is highly used fro fabricating 3 dimensional
articles from plastic sheets. (Submarines hulls
made of with ABS)
 Thermoplastic sheet is heated to its softening
temperature. The warm flexible sheet is then
placed into female half of a matched metal die
dully assisted by male half.
 Sheet assumes the required shape of mould. On
cooling, shaped articles become rigid & can be
removed from mould.
 The hot plastic is sucked into cavity of female
mould under influence of vacuum to give
desired shape. (Vacuum forming)
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