PERSONALITY

The term personality has been derived from Latin word „personnare‟, which means to speak
through. Traditionally personality refers to how people influence others through their external
appearance (actions) more precisely. Personality is relatively stable set of psychological and
behavioral attributes that distinguish one person to another. Understanding basic personality
attributes is important because they affect people‟s behavior in organizational situations and
people‟s perception and attitudes towards the organization. The term personality has been
defined by different experts are as follows:

“Personality means how a person affects how he understands and views himself as well as
the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits, and the person-situation interaction.” – F.
Luthans (2002)

“Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
This is most often described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibits.” –
Robbins (1998)

Personality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influences his or her
behaviour toward goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of protecting these states.

Gordon Allport defines personality as “the dynamic organizations within the individual
of these psycho-physical system that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment”.
Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

There are numerous personality traits that influence individual behavior at the workplace. These
traits are clearly identified, measured and associated with our behavior. The major personality
attributes or traits that influence OB are:

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 Attributes of Personality

1. Locus of control: This concept denotes whether people believe that they are in control of
events or events control them. Those who have an internal locus of control (internals)
believe that they control and shape the course of events in their lives, while those who
have an external locus of control (externals) believe that events occur purely by chance or
because of factors beyond their own control. Internal, as compared to externals, seek

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 more job-related information, try to influence, other at work more activity seek
opportunities for advancement and rely more on their own abilities and judgment at
work.

2. Authoritarianism: Authoritarians also tend to be rigid in their positions, place high

moral value on their beliefs and are strongly oriented towards conformity to rules and
regulations. It is a concept developed by the psychologist Adorno during World War II to
measure susceptibility to autocratic, fascistic, or anti-democratic appeals. Since that time,
the concept has been extended to the authoritarian personality, a generic term used to
describe and who has a strong belief in the legitimacy of established mechanism of
formal authority, views obedience to authority as necessary, exhibits a negative
philosophy people, adheres to conventional and traditional values system, is intellectually
rigid, and opposes the use of subjective feelings.

3. Machiavelliasm: Manipulation of others as primary way of achieving one's goals is what

Machiavelliasm is all about. Individuals high on the Mach scale, a scale developed to
measure the extent to which an individual tends to be Machiavellian tend to be cool,
logical in assessing the system around them, willing to twist and turn facts to influence
other and try to gain control of people, events and situations by of manipulation the
system to their advantage. Machiavellian may fool a few people all the time and all the
people for a very short time, but in the long run, they tend to be distrusted and disliked by
many in the system and hence may become ineffective.

4. Self-esteem and self-concept: Self-esteem denoted the extent to which individuals

consistently regard themselves as capable, successful, important and worthy individuals.
This is an important personality factor that determines how managers perceive
themselves and their role in the organization. Self-esteem is important to self-concept,
that is, the way individuals define themselves as to who they are and derive their sense of
identity. High self-esteem provides a high sense of self-concept; high self-concept in turn,
reinforces high self-esteem. Thus, the two are mutually reinforcing. Individuals high in
self-esteem will try to take on more challenging assignments and be successful, thus
enhancing their self-concept, that is they would tend to define themselves as highly
valuable and valued individuals in organization system. The higher the self-concept and

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 self-esteem, the greater will be their contributions to the goals of the organization;
especially when the system rewards them for their contributions.

5. Personality type (Type A and Type B Behavior): Individuals can have type A
personality or type B personality. Type A persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency
are high achievement oriented, exhibit a competitive drive and are impatient when their
work is slowed down for any reason. Type B persons are easy going individuals who do
not experience the competitive drive. Type A individuals are significantly more prone to
heart attack than type B persons. While type A persons help the organization to move
ahead in a relatively short period of time, they may also suffer health problems, which
might be detrimental to both themselves and the organization in the long run.

6. Risk taking: People differ in their willingness to take risks. Individuals can be high risk
taking and low-risk taking. High-risk taking managers tend to make quick decision with
less information. However, demands of the job determine the degree of risk taking.

7. Self-monitoring: Self-monitoring refers to an individual‟s ability to adjust his behavior

to external situational factors. A personality trait which has recently received increased
attention is called self-monitoring. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable
adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly
sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations. High self
monitors are capable of presenting string contradictions between their public personal
and their private self. Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in that way.

8. Tolerance for ambiguity: This personality characteristics indicate the level of

uncertainty that people can tolerate without experiencing undue stress and can still
function effectively. Managers have to work well under conditions of extreme uncertainty
and insufficient information, especially when things are rapidly changing in the
organization's external environment. Managers who have a high tolerance for ambiguity
can cope well under these conditions.

Factors Determining the Personality

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Different thinkers of personality have listed different determinants of personality. For example,
McClelland has categorized them into four fundamental theories (i) Traits, (ii) Scheme, (iii)
Motives and (iv) Self scheme.

People are very complex. They have different abilities and interests. Most failures on job,
however, are not attributable to a person‟s amount of intelligence alone but also to certain
personality characteristics. Personality is an important factor influencing an employee‟s
behavior. The determinants of personality have been categorized by different author in different
ways. Scott and Mitchell have classified them into heredity, groups and cultural factors.
However, a general description of these factors may run as follows:

Determinants of Personality

1. Biological Factors

The general biological characteristics of human beings influence the way in which human being
trends to sense external event, (data), interpret and respond to them. The biological factors
include the following three important factors.

i) Heredity

Heredity refers to those factors that are determined at conception e.g. physical structure,
facial attractiveness, gender, temperaments, muscle composition and reflexes, energy

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levels and biological rhythms.
The heredity plays an important role in one‟s personality. The importance of heredity varies from
one personality trait to another. For instance, heredity is generally more important in determining
a person‟s temperament than values and ideas.

ii) Brain

The structure of brain determines personality, though no conclusive proof is available so far
about the role of brain in personality formation. In other words, researches in this filed have
given indication that better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from
the study of the brain.

iii) Physical Features

An individual‟s external appearance is proved to have a tremendous effect on his personality.

For instance, the fact that person is short or tall, fat or skinny, handsome or ugly and black or
white will undoubtedly influence the person‟s effect on others and in turn, will affect the self-
concept.

2. Situational Factors

The S-O-B model of human behavior considers the situation under which the behavior is
occurring. In other words, the effect of environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and
language are acquired and represent important modifications of the behavior. Learned
modifications in behavior are not passed on to the children they must be acquired by them
through their own personal experience, through interaction with the environment. According to
Milgram, situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and may
provide push. In certain circumstances, it is not always the kind of situation in which he is
placed, that determines his actions. He demonstrated that situation may potentially have a very
big impact on the behavioral expression of personality.

3. Family and Social Factors

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The development of the individual proceeds under the influence of many socializing forces and
agencies based on nuclear family to more distant or global groupings. Family and social groups
have most significant impact on personality development.

i) Home Environment

Total home environment is a critical factor in personality development. For example, children
with marked institutional upbringing or children in a cold and un-stimulating home have a much
greater potential to be emotionally maladjusted than children raised by parents in a warm, loving
and stimulating environment.

ii) Family Members

Parents and other family members have strong influence on the personality development of
children. Moreover, parents have more effect on the personality development as compared to
other members of the family. The study by Newcomb showed the
high correlation between attitudes of parents and children with a further consistency in patterns.
The relationship between parents and children was higher than that between the children and
their teachers besides parents, sibling (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.

iii) Social Groups

Besides a person‟s home environment and family members, there are other influences arising
from the social placement of the family as the person is exposed to agencies outside the home,
particularly the school, friend circle and other work groups. Similarly, socio-economic factors
also affect personality development.

4. Cultural Factors

Cultural factors are very important determinants of behavior of a person. Culture is the complex
form of beliefs, values and techniques for dealing with the environment which are shared among
contemporaries and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with
which it is related.
G.W. Allport

Attitude as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive

processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world.

Krech and Crutchfield

Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain

way.

Katz and Scotland

Components of Attitude

Cognitive component

Beliefs are the cognitive components of consumer attitude. Cognitive component of attitude is
associated with the value statement. It consists of values, belief, ideas and other information that
a person may have faith in.

Positive brand associations enhance brand equity and are achieved through a number of
positioning strategies. Through brand associations, marketers establish and influence favorable
beliefs about a brand and unfavorable beliefs about competitors.

Example: Quality of sincere hard is a faith or value statement that a manager may have.

Affective component

Affective is the emotive component of consumer attitude. Affective component of attitude is

associated with individual feelings about another person, which may be positive, neutral or
negative.

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Three research models describe the determinants of affective response.

Functional theory of attitude explains that consumers buy as a result of one of four psychological
functions: adjustment, ego defense, value expression, and application of prior knowledge.

Fishbein model relates consumer beliefs and evaluations to affective response: if beliefs are
strong and desirable, affective responses are positive.

Belief importance model analyses affective responses across competing brands.

Example: I don‟t like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is sincere. It is an
expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.

Behavioral component

Intention is the behavioral component of consumer attitude. Behavioral component of attitude is

associated with the impact of various condition or situations that lead to person behavior based
on cognitive and affective components.

Two research models demonstrate the relationship between intention to purchase and actual
purchase and consumption.

The theories of reasoned action explain purchasing behavior as a direct result of intention,
influenced by attitude toward purchase and by subjective norms.

The theory of trying to consume explains actual consumption behavior of purchasers. It provides
insight into the establishment and maintenance of long-term relationship with consumers.

Example: I don‟t like Sam because he is not honest is an affective component, I, therefore, would
like to disassociate myself with him, is a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid
Sam.

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Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behaviour. Former two components
cannot be seen, only the behaviour component can be seen. Former is important because it is a
base for the formation of attitude.

Characteristics of Attitude

Attitude are predispositions

Attitude are different from values

Attitude are evaluative statement

Attitude influence human behavior

Attitude have intensity

Attitude are learnt

Attitude are predispositions

Attitude are predispositions of purpose, interest or opinion of the person to assess some objects
in a favourable or an unfavourable manner.

Attitude are different from values-Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow, they are
our feelings.

Attitude are evaluative statement-either favourable or unfavourable concerning the objects,

people or events.

Attitude influence human behavior- A positive attitude towards a thing will influence human
behavior towards the thing favorably and vice-versa.

Attitude have intensity-It refers to the strength of the effective component. For example, we may
dislike an individual but the extent of our disliking would determine the intensity of our attitude
towards the person.

Attitude are learnt-Attitude is not inborn phenomenon. Attitude are learnt through social
interaction and experience.

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Functions of Attitude

Four important functions of attitude which are crucial in organizational behavior viewpoint are:

Adjustment Function

Ego-Defensive Function

Value-Expressive Function

Knowledge Function

Adjustment Function

Attitudes often help individuals to adjust to their work environment.

Consumers hold certain brand attitudes partly because of the brand utility. If a product has
helped us in the past even in a small way, our attitude towards it tends to be favorable. One way
of changing attitude in favor of a product is by showing people that it can solve utilitarian goals.
They may not have considered some advertisement which stresses the utilitarian benefits of a
product.

Example: Well-treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their management
or job.

Ego-Defensive Function

Consumers want to protect their self concept from inner feelings of doubt. Cosmetic and
personal hygiene products, by acknowledging this need, increase their relevance to the consumer
and have the possibility of a favorable attitude by offering reassurance to the consumers self
concept.

Example: Older faculty might feel somewhat threatened by a young and new faculty member
who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm

Value-Expressive Function

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Attitudes are one expression of general values, lifestyles, and outlook. If a consumer segment
generally holds a positive attitude towards being in a fashion segment, consumer may treat high
fashion clothing and accessories as symbols of that lifestyle.

Example, a manager who values honest and sincere work will be more vocal against an
employee who is having a very casual approach towards work.

Knowledge Function

Attitudes provide frames of reference or standard that allow individuals to understand and
perceive the world around him. Individuals have a strong need to know and understand the
people and things with whom they come in contact, especially if they think they might influence
their behavior.

Example, If a student has a strong negative attitude towards the college, whatever the college
does, the student will be perceived as something „bad‟ and as actually against them.

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