Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili

Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
DC Electrical
Circuit Analysis
Practice Problems, Methods, and Solutions
DC Electrical Circuit Analysis
DC Electrical Circuit Analysis

Practice Problems, Methods, and Solutions
Department of Engineering Technology
The State University of New York, Buffalo State
Buffalo, NY, USA
ISBN 978-3-030-50710-7 ISBN 978-3-030-50711-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50711-4
# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

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Preface
Electrical Circuit Analysis is one of the most fundamental subjects of Electrical Engineering
major which is taught in two courses in successive semesters under the names of “Electrical
Circuit Analysis I” and “Electrical Circuit Analysis II” or under the names of “DC Electrical
Circuit Analysis” and “AC Electrical Circuit Analysis” in universities and colleges all over the
world.
This textbook includes basic and advanced exercises of DC Electrical Circuit Analysis with
very detailed and multiple methods of solutions. The textbook can be used as a practicing
textbook by students and as a supplementary teaching source by instructors.
To help students study the textbook in the most efficient way, the exercises have been
categorized in nine different levels. In this regard, for each problem of the textbook, a difficulty
level (easy, normal, or hard) and a calculation amount (small, normal, or large) have been
assigned. Moreover, in each chapter, problems have been ordered from the easiest problem with
the smallest calculations to the most difficult problems with the largest calculations. Therefore,
students are recommended to start studying the textbook from the easiest problems and
continue practicing until they reach the normal and then the hardest ones. On the other hand,
this classification can help instructors choose appropriate problems to conduct a quiz or a test.
Moreover, the classification of computation amount can help students manage their time during
future exams and instructors give appropriate problems based on exam duration.
Since the problems have very detailed solutions and some of them include multiple methods
of solution, the textbook can be useful for the under-prepared students. In addition, the textbook
is beneficial for knowledgeable students because it includes advanced exercises.
While preparing the problem solutions, the use of typical methods of electrical circuit
analysis was attempted to present the textbook as an instructor-recommended one. In other
words, the heuristic methods of problem solution have never been used as the first method of
problem solution. By considering this key point, the textbook will be aligned to instructors’
lectures, and the instructors will not see any untaught problem solutions in their students’
answer sheets.
The Iranian University Entrance Exams for the Master’s and PhD degrees of Electrical
Engineering major [1] is the main reference of the textbook; however, all the problem solutions
have been provided by me. The Iranian University Entrance Exam is one of the most competi-
tive university entrance exams in the world that allows only 10% of the applicants to get into
prestigious and tuition-free Iranian universities.
Students and instructors are welcome to email their comments to me if they find any misprint
or any other possible mistakes in the textbook. Their name and contribution will be mentioned
in the next version of the textbook.
[1] Iranian National Organization of Educational Testing, www.sanjesh.org.
Buffalo, NY, USA Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
v
Contents
1 Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit

Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Solutions of Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis,
and Circuit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Problems: First-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4 Solutions of Problems: First-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5 Problems: Second-Order and Higher-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6 Solutions of Problems: Second-Order and Higher-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . 209
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
vii
About the Author
Dr. Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili is an Assistant Professor in the Engineering Technology Depart-

ment at The State University of New York, Buffalo State. As a professor, he has taught many
courses such as Essentials of Electrical Engineering Technology, Electrical Circuits Analysis I,
Electrical Circuits Analysis II, Electrical Circuits and Devices, Industrial Electronics, and
Renewable Distributed Generation and Storage. Dr. Rahmani-Andebili has more than 100
single-author publications including textbooks, monographs, book chapters, journal papers,
and conference papers. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering
(Power System) from Tarbiat Modares University and Clemson University in 2011 and 2016,
respectively. Moreover, he was a Postdoctoral Fellow at Sharif University of Technology
during 2016–2017
ix
Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit
Analysis, and Circuit Theorems 1
Abstract
This chapter helps both groups of underprepared and knowledgeable undergraduate students taking courses in electrical
circuit analysis. In this chapter, the basic and advanced problems of three important subjects of electrical circuit analysis,
that is, circuit components, methods of circuit analysis, and circuit theorems, are presented. The problems of methods of
circuit analysis are concerned with mesh analysis, nodal analysis, and heuristic techniques. Moreover, the problems of
circuit theorems are related to source transformation theorem, superposition theorem, Thevenin theorem, Norton theorem,
and maximum power transform theorem. Like the other chapters of this textbook, the problems are categorized in different
levels based on their difficulty levels (easy, normal, or hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal, or large). Addition-
ally, the problems are ordered from the easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult problems with
the largest calculations.
1.1. What is the value of I in the circuit of Fig. 1.1?

Difficulty level ● Easy ○ Normal ○ Hard
Computation amount ● Small ○ Normal ○ Large
1) 1.5 A
2) 2 A
3) 2.5 A
4) 0.5A
Fig. 1.1 The circuit of problem 1.1
# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

M. Rahmani-Andebili, DC Electrical Circuit Analysis, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50711-4_1
2 1 Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit Theorems
1.2. How much are the values of Vx and Vy in the circuit of Fig. 1.2?
1) Vx ¼ 8 V, Vy ¼ 2 V
2) Vx ¼ 8 V, Vy ¼ 2 V
3) Vx ¼ 8 V, Vy ¼ 2 V
4) Vx ¼ 8 V, Vy ¼ 2 V
1.3. Determine the value of Ia in the circuit of Fig. 1.3.

1) 0.5 A
2) 1 A
3) 2 A
4) 1.5 A
1.4. In the circuit of Fig. 1.4, determine the voltage across the 5 Ω resistor.
1) 10 V
2) 15 V
3) 20 V
4) 30 V
1 Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit Theorems 3
1.5. How much is the value of Ix in the circuit of Fig. 1.5?

Computation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
21 A
1) 40
7 A
2) 40
3) 7 A
80
21 A
4) 80
1.6. How much should be the value of V in the circuit of Fig. 1.6 to have Vx ¼ 0?
Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard
1) 3 V
2) 6 V
3) 12 V
4) 18 V

1.7. How much is the resistance seen from terminal A-B in the circuit of Fig. 1.7?
1) 0
2) 0.5 Ω
3) 2 Ω
4) 1
1.8. What must be the value of RL to absorb the maximum power in the circuit of Fig. 1.8? Moreover, how much is the
maximum power transferrable to RL?
1) 5 Ω, 2.5 W
2) 10 Ω, 2.5 W
3) 7.5 Ω, 1.25 W
4) 2.5 Ω, 1.75 W
1.9. In the circuit of Fig. 1.9, which source is absorbing power?

1) I1
2) V2
3) I3
4) V4
1.10. Determine the power of the independent current source in the circuit of Fig. 1.10.
1) 120 W
2) 30 W
3) 120 W
4) 150 W
1.11. The power of some of the components is given in the circuit of Fig. 1.11. Determine the current of I.
1) 1 A
2) 2 A
3) 0.5 A
4) 0.25 A

1.12. Determine the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.12.
1) 1 Ω
2) 1.33 Ω
3) 1.5 Ω
4) 2 Ω
1.13. Determine the Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance of the circuit of Fig. 1.13 seen from terminal a-b.
1) 15 V, 2 Ω
2) 12 V, 4 Ω
3) 12 V, 5 Ω
4) 15 V, 5 Ω
1.14. What is the power of 5 V voltage source in the circuit of Fig. 1.14?
1) 15 W generation
2) 15 W consumption
3) 20 W consumption
4) 20 W generation
1.15. What is the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal a-b of the circuit of Fig. 1.15?
1) 0
2) 1 Ω
3) 1
4) 12 Ω
1.16. How much is Vo in the circuit of Fig. 1.16?

5 V
1) 27
2) 5 V
5 V
3) 24
4) 6 V
1.17. How much is Vab in the circuit of Fig. 1.17?

1) 1.25 V
2) 1.75 V
3) 2.5 V
4) 3.25 V
1.18. What must be the size of RL that will absorb the maximum power in the circuit of Fig. 1.18?
1) 5 W
2) 10 W
3) 15 W
4) 20 W

1.19. What is the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.19?
1) RTh ¼ 100 Ω, VTh ¼ 10 V
2) RTh ¼ 180 Ω, VTh ¼ 0 V
3) RTh ¼ 120 Ω, VTh ¼ 15 V
4) RTh ¼ 100 Ω, VTh ¼ 0 V
1.20. In the circuit of Fig. 1.20, which matrix shows the right equations of mesh analysis based on the given mesh currents?
2 32 3 2 3
9 4 0 i1 7
6 76 7 6 7
1) 4 20 13 3 54 i2 5 ¼ 4 5 5
2 1 1 i3 0
2 32 3 2 3
9 4 0 i1 7
6 76 7 6 7
2) 4 20 13 3 54 i2 5 ¼ 4 3 5
2 1 1 i3 0
2 32 3
2 3
9 4 0 i1 3
6 76 7 6 7
3) 4 5 2 3 54 i2 5 ¼ 4 5 5
2 1 3 i3 0
2 32 3 2 3
9 4 0 i1 3
6 76 7 6 7
4) 4 5 2 3 54 i2 5 ¼ 4 5 5
2 1 3 i3 0
1.21. What is the range of the input resistance of the circuit of Fig. 1.21 seen from terminal a-b?
1) 0 < Rin < 1
2) 0.75 < Rin < 1
3) 0 < Rin < 0.83
4) 0.78 < Rin < 0.83
1.22. Determine the value of RL to absorb the maximum power in the circuit of Fig. 1.22.
1) 6 Ω
2) 18 Ω
3) 12 Ω
4) 8 Ω

1.23. How much is the value of VAB in the circuit of Fig. 1.23?
1) 1 V
2) 2 V
3) 0.5 V
4) 0.25 V
1.24. How much is the input resistance of the circuit of Fig. 1.24 seen from terminal a-b?
1) 47 Ω
14 Ω
2) 15
3) 74 Ω
15 Ω
4) 14
1.25. Determine the value of I in the circuit of Fig. 1.25.

1) 5 A
2) 6 A
3) 5 A
4) 6 A
1.26. In the circuit of Fig. 1.26, for what value of k is the input resistance seen from terminal a-b zero?
1) 52 Ω
2) 25 Ω
4
3) 13 Ω
4 Ω
4) 13
1.27. What is the maximum power that can be transferred to the load in the circuit of Fig. 1.27?
1) 2.25 W
2) 4.5 W
3) 6 W
4) 9 W

1.28. How much is the Thevenin voltage seen from the indicated terminal of the circuit of Fig. 1.28?
1) 3 V
2) 3 V
3) 13 V
4) 13 V
1.29. In the circuit of Fig. 1.29, what is the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal a-b?
1) R
2) R(1 + 2αμ)

3) R 1 þ αμ2
4) R3
1.30. How much is the power absorbed by the 2 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. 1.30?
1) 0.08 W
2) 0.32 W
3) 0.64 W
4) 3.92 W
1.31. Which one of the following circuits shown in Figs. 1.31.1–4 is the Norton equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b?
1.32. What are the parameters of the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.32?
1) Req ¼ 4 Ω, V oc ¼ 45 I s
2) Req ¼ 6 Ω, V oc ¼ 45 I s
3) Req ¼ 6 Ω, V oc ¼ 54 I s
4) Req ¼ 4 Ω, V oc ¼ 54 I s

1.33. In the circuit of Fig. 1.33, how much is the Req?

1) 13 R
2) 2R
3) 3R
4) 12 R
1.34. In the circuit of Fig. 1.34, for what value of k, the voltage V, resulted from the independent current source, is equal to
the half value of the current of the independent current source (V ¼ I2s )?
1) 1
2) 0.5
3) 5
4) For no value of k, since the circuit does not have a unique solution
1.35. How much are the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance seen from the terminal in the circuit of Fig. 1.35?
1) 2 V, 5 Ω
2) 5 V, 2 Ω
3) 25 V, 20 Ω
4) 25 V, 25 Ω
1.36. Determine the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.36.
1) 40 V, 20
23 Ω
2) 40 V, 40
23 Ω
3) 50 V, 40
23 Ω
4) 60 V, 20
23 Ω
1.37. Determine the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.37.
1) 8 V, 6 Ω
2) 12 V, 6 Ω
3) 16 V, 2 Ω
4) 24 V, 4 Ω

1.38. How much is the power of the dependent current source in the circuit of Fig. 1.38?
1) 1.28 W
2) 1.28 W
3) 0.64 W
4) 0.64 W
1.39. What is the relation between Vt and It in the circuit of Fig. 1.39?
1) Vt ¼ 3It + 20
2) Vt ¼ 5It + 30
3) Vt ¼ 7It + 10
4) Vt ¼ 7It + 20
1.40. Determine the Thevenin voltage (V) and the Thevenin resistance (Ω), respectively, seen from terminal a-b, in the circuit
of Fig. 1.40.
1) 24 9
25 , 25
25 I s , 25
9 24
2)
231 I s , 231
22 4
3)
77 I s , 77
16 20
4)
1.41. In the circuit of Fig. 1.41, how much is the Req seen from terminal a-b?
1) 12 Ω
2) 23 Ω
3) 32 Ω
4) 52 Ω
1.42. How much is the power of the independent current source in the circuit of Fig. 1.42?
1) It generates 32 W.
2) It consumes 32 W.
3) It generates 67 W.
4) It consumes 64 W.

1.43. In the circuit of Fig. 1.43, how much is the Norton resistance seen from terminal a-b?
1) 30 Ω
2) 60 Ω
3) 90 Ω
4) 120 Ω
1.44. In the circuit of Fig. 1.44, determine the power of the independent voltage source.
1) 5 W
2) 10 W
3) 40 W
4) 20 W
1.45. In the circuit of Fig. 1.45, how much is the power lost in the vertical 4 Ω resistor?
1) 1.44 W
2) 2.44 W
3) 7.2 W
4) 12.96 W
1.46. What is the input resistance seen from terminal A-B of the circuit of Fig. 1.46?
Computation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large
1) 3R + 3.2
2) 2R 1.5
3) 1.4R + 3
4) 2.4R + 2
1.47. Determine the value of Vx and Vy in the circuit of Fig. 1.47.

1) Vx ¼ 20 V, Vy ¼ 7.5 V
2) Vx ¼ 20 V, Vy ¼ 7.5 V
3) Vx ¼ 7.5 V, Vy ¼ 15 V
4) Vx ¼ 7.5 V, Vy ¼ 15 V
1.48. In the circuit of Fig. 1.48, what is the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminal A-B?
1) A voltage source with the size of 53 I s
2) A voltage source with the size of 35 I s series with a 45 Ω resistor
3) A voltage source with the size of 35 I s
4) A voltage source with the size of 53 I s series with a 45 Ω resistor
1.49. What is the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminal A-B in the circuit of Fig. 1.49?
1) RTh ¼ 2 Ω, VTh ¼ 36Is
2) RTh ¼ 2 Ω, VTh ¼ 36Is
3) RTh ¼ 2 Ω, VTh ¼ 36Is
4) RTh ¼ 2 Ω, VTh ¼ 36Is
1.50. What is the equivalent resistance seen from the terminal in the circuit of Fig. 1.50?
2β RL
2þβ
1)
βþ2
2) β2 RL
2þβ RL
2β
3)
β2
4) βþ2 RL
1.51. How much is the maximum power that the resistor can absorb in the circuit of Fig. 1.51?
1) 4.5 W
2) 9 W
3) 13.5 W
4) 18 W
1.52. In the circuit of Fig. 1.52, all the resistors are 1 Ω. How much is the equivalent resistance between the nodes of “A”
and “B”?
Difficulty level ○ Easy ○ Normal ● Hard
1) 14 Ω
2) 13 Ω
3) 12 Ω
4) 34 Ω
1.53. In the circuit of Fig. 1.53, what is the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b?
1) V Th ¼ 56 E, RTh ¼ 56 R.
2) V Th ¼ 56 E, RTh ¼ 5R.
3) V Th ¼ 56 E, RTh ¼ 0.
4) There is no Thevenin equivalent circuit for this circuit.
1.54. The network shown in Fig. 1.54 is resistive, linear, and time-invariant. About 20% of the power of the voltage source is
absorbed by the 5 Ω resistor. How to increase the size of the voltage source to transfer 30% of its power to the resistor?
1) 32 times.
2) 94 times.
3) It is impossible, since the power absorbed by the resistor only depends on its resistance.
4) It is impossible, since the power absorbed by the resistor only depends on its resistance and the network
configuration.
1.55. How much is the input resistance seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.55?
5
1) 11 Ω
2) 1 Ω
3) 3 Ω
11 Ω
4) 39

1.56. How much is the value of I in the circuit of Fig. 1.56?

1) 13 mA
2) 23 mA
3) 12 mA
4) 43 mA
1.57. In the circuit of Fig. 1.57, suppose that the resistance of each resistor is R. Determine the input resistance of the circuit.
1) R
2) 0.618R
3) 0.5R
4) 0.382R
1.58. In the circuit of Fig. 1.58, the conductance of each resistor is given in mho or siemens. What is the condition on α to
adjust the circuit as an amplifier?
1) α > 10.
2) α > 12.
3) α > 14.
4) Because of the presence of a dependent source in the circuit, the circuit will always behave as an amplifier.
1.59. Determine the range of α that results in a negative value for the input resistance of the circuit of Fig. 1.59 seen from
terminal a-b.
1) 73 < a < 3
2) 2 < a < 3
3) 73 < a < 4
4) 2 < a < 4
1.60. How much is the value of Isc in the circuit of Fig. 1.60?
1) 1 A
2) 2 A
3) 4 A
4) 8 A

1.61. How much is the equivalent resistance seen from terminal A-B in the circuit of Fig. 1.61? Assume that each resistor has
1 Ω resistance.
1) 13 Ω
2) 23 Ω
3) 1 Ω
4) 12 Ω
1.62. In the circuit of Fig. 1.62, determine the Norton equivalent circuit seen by the 7 Ω resistor.
1) RN ¼ 2 Ω, I N ¼ 13 A
2) RN ¼ 403 Ω, I N ¼ 13 A
3) RN ¼ 203 Ω, I N ¼ 12 A
4) RN ¼ 403 Ω, I N ¼ 12 A

1.63. In the circuit of Fig. 1.63, for what value of “m,” the value of resistance, seen from terminal a-b, is negative?
1) 3
2) 4
3) 5
4) 6
1.64. What is the equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.64?
1) RTh ¼ 13
6
R, V Th ¼ EþIR
2
2) RTh ¼ 2R, VTh ¼ E
3) RTh ¼ R, V Th ¼ EþIR
4
4) RTh ¼ R2 , V Th ¼ EIR
4
1.65. In the circuit of Fig. 1.65, if a ! 1, how much will be RTh and VTh seen from terminal a-b?
1) 1 Ω, 2 V
2) 0 Ω, 2 V
3) 0 Ω, 1 V
4) 1 Ω, 1 V
1.66. In the circuit of Fig. 1.66, for what value of α, the input resistance (Rin), seen from terminal a-b, will be equal to R
(Rin ¼ R)?
1) α ¼ 0
2) α ¼ 0.5
3) α ¼ 1
4) Any value of α, but α 6¼ 0
1.67. What are the parameters of the Norton equivalent circuit seen from terminal a-b in the circuit of Fig. 1.67?
1) I N ¼ 1 A, RN ¼ 43 Ω
2) I N ¼ 1 A, RN ¼ 73 Ω
3) I N ¼ 34 A, RN ¼ 43 Ω
4) I N ¼ 34 A, RN ¼ 73 Ω
1.68. In the circuit of Fig. 1.68, the resistance of each resistor is 20 Ω. Determine the equivalent resistance between the nodes
of “A” and “O.”
1) 9 Ω
2) 1.8 Ω
3) 2.15 Ω
4) 7.5 Ω
1.69. How much is the input resistance (Rin) in the circuit of Fig. 1.69, when α goes to infinity (α ! 1)?
1) 23 R
2) 12 R
3) 32 R
4) 2R

1.70. What are the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance seen from the terminal in the circuit of Fig. 1.70?
1) 10
3 V, 3 Ω
5
2) 2 V, 2 Ω
1
3) 2 V, 12 Ω
3 V, 3 Ω
4) 10 5

Solutions of Problems: Circuit Components,
Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit Theorems 2
Abstract
In this chapter, the problems of the first chapter are fully solved, in detail, step-by-step, and with multiple methods, by using
mesh analysis, nodal analysis, and heuristic techniques. In all the problems’ solutions, Kirchhoff current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL) as well as the concepts of mesh current, node voltage, supermesh, and supernode are clearly
described. Moreover, in the application of circuit theorems, the concepts of open circuit voltage, short-circuit current,
Thevenin voltage, Thevenin resistance, Norton current, and Norton resistance are explained. In addition, this chapter shows
how to deal with circuit components like resistors, dependent current and voltage sources, and independent current and
voltage sources.
2.1. Applying conventional methods like mesh and nodal analyses will need lots of calculations. By looking at the circuit, it
can be noticed that we need to apply one KVL and one KCL, as can be seen in the figure.
KVL : V þ I þ 2 4I ¼ 0 ð1Þ
V
KCL : 1 þ I þ ¼ 0 ) V ¼ I 1 ð2Þ
1
put ð2Þ in ð1Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) ðI 1Þ þ I þ 2 4I ¼ 0 ) 3 ¼ 2I ) I ¼ 1:5 A
Choice (1) is the answer.
Fig. 2.1 The circuit of solution of problem 2.1

34 2 Solutions of Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit Theorems
2.2. Nodal analysis is the best method to solve this problem, since there are just two independent nodes (nodes 1 and 2) with
unknown voltages (e1 and e2), as can be seen in the figure.
KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of Fig. 2.2.2:
e2 e 10 3
3V y þ 4þ 2 ¼ 0 ) 3V y þ e2 9 ¼ 0 ð1Þ
1 2 2
Now, we need to define Vx and Vy based on the voltages of independent nodes (e1 and e2).
V x ¼ 10 e2 ð2Þ
V y ¼ e2 ð3Þ
Now, put (3) in (1) and simplify them.
3 9
3ðe2 Þ þ e2 9 ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ 9 ) e2 ¼ 2 ð4Þ
2 2
Solving (2) and (4):
V x ¼ 10 e2 ¼ 10 2 ¼ 8 V
V y ¼ e2 ¼ 2 V
Fig. 2.2 The circuits of solution of problem 2.2

2 Solutions of Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit Theorems 35
2.3. Nodal analysis is the best method to solve the problem, since the circuit will include the least variables (two independent
nodes with unknown voltages, i.e., e1 and e2). As can be seen in the circuit, the dependent voltage source is located
between two nodes; thus, we must use KCL for the supernode including these nodes.
KCL in the supernode, and simplifying it:
e1 4 e1 e2
þ þ 4 ¼ 0 ) e1 þ e2 ¼ 6 ð1Þ
2 2 1
The relation between the voltage of voltage source and node voltages:
e2 e1 ¼ 2I a ð2Þ
Defining Ia based on the node voltages:
e1
Ia ¼ ð3Þ
2
ð2Þ, ð3Þ
e
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) e2 e1 ¼ 2 1 ¼ e1 ) e2 ¼ 2e1 ð4Þ
2
) e1 þ 2e1 ¼ 6 ) e1 ¼ 2 V ð5Þ
ð3Þ, ð5Þ e 2
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I a ¼ 1 ¼ ¼ 1 V
2 2
2.4. Using Ohm’s law in the left-side loop:
2
I1 ¼ A
3
Using Ohm’s law in the right-side loop:
2
V 2 ¼ 5I 2 ¼ 5ð6I 1 Þ ¼ 30 ¼ 20 V
3

2.5. Mesh analysis is the best method to solve this problem. Since there is a current source between meshes 2 and 3, we must
consider a supermesh instead of these meshes.
KVL in mesh 1:
8 þ 1ði1 i3 Þ þ 2ði1 i2 Þ ¼ 0 ) 3i1 2i2 i3 ¼ 8 ð1Þ
KVL in the supermesh including meshes 2 and 3:
1ði3 i1 Þ þ 4i3 þ 3I x þ 2ði2 i1 Þ ¼ 0 ) 3i1 þ 3I x þ 2i2 þ 5i3 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
Using Ix ¼ i1, which is clear in the figure:
2i2 þ 5i3 ¼ 0 ð3Þ

Auxiliary equation for the supermesh:
i2 ¼ i3 þ 3 ð4Þ
6
2ði3 þ 3 Þ þ 5i3 ¼ 0 ) i3 ¼ A ð5Þ
7
15
i2 ¼ A ð6Þ
7
Solving (1), (5), and (6):

15 6 80
3i1 2 ¼ 8 ) i1 ¼ A
7 7 21

2.6. First Method: Based on the given information, Vx ¼ 0. Hence, the voltage of the resistor is zero, and no current will flow
through that branch.
By applying KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of Fig. 2.6.2, we have:
I
1 þ 0 þ 2 þ I ¼ 0 ) 1:5I ¼ 3 ) I ¼ 2 A
2
Moreover, we need to write a KVL in the indicated loop.
V þ 3I 0 ¼ 0 ) V ¼ 3I ¼ 3 2 ) V ¼ 6 V
Second Method: By applying nodal analysis, we will have two unknowns and two equations, since there are four nodes
that one of them needs to be considered as the ground and the other one is connected to a grounded voltage source.
Third Method: Mesh analysis can be applied in this question, but it will need a lot of calculations. By applying mesh analysis,
we will have four unknowns and four equations. Note that there are five meshes, but the current of top mesh is known (1 A).
2.7. We need to apply one KVL in the loop and one KCL in the supernode, as can be seen in Figs. 2.7.1 and 2.7.2,
respectively. Then, RAB ¼ VI 11 .
KVL in the loop of the circuit of Fig. 2.7.1:
4
V 1 þ 2V 2 3V 1 þ V 2 ¼ 0 ) V 2 ¼ V 1 ð1Þ
3
KCL in the supernode of the circuit of Fig. 2.7.2:
I 1 þ 3V 2 3I 1 2V 1 ¼ 0 ) 4I 1 þ 3V 2 2V 1 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
ð1Þ, ð2Þ
4 V
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 4I 1 þ 3 V 1 2V 1 ¼ 0 ) 4I 1 þ 2V 1 ¼ 0 ) 1 ¼ 2 ) RAB ¼ 2 Ω
¼
3 I1
2.8. To absorb the maximum power, RL must be equal to the Thevenin resistance (RTh) seen by itself. To calculate the
Thevenin resistance, we must turn off all the power sources. As can be seen in Fig. 2.8.2, since there is no dependent
power source in the circuit, we can use the series-parallel rule to determine the input resistance or equivalent resistance
which is equal to the Thevenin resistance.

RTh ¼ Rin ¼ Req ¼ 6 þ 44 þ 2 ¼ 10 Ω
RL ¼ RTh ¼ 10 Ω
Based on the maximum power transfer theorem, the maximum power that can be transferred to the load (PL, max) is equal to
V 2Th
4RTh. To determine VTh, we need to calculate the open circuit voltage across the load (Voc). Then, VTh ¼ Voc. Note that power
sources are not turned off in this part.
As can be seen in Fig. 2.8.3, since there is no current flowing through the 6 Ω and 2 Ω resistors (no voltage drop), the Voc
will be equal to the voltage of vertical 4 Ω resistor. Therefore, by using voltage division formula, we have:
4
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 20 ¼ 10 V
4þ4
V 2Th 102
PL,max ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:5 W
4RTh 4 10

2.9. A source, or in general a component, absorbs power if the value of multiplication of its voltage and current (VI) is
positive, assuming an associated reference direction for its voltage and current (current enters its positive terminal). Now,
let us check the value of VI for each component of the circuit.
P1 ¼ V 1 I 1 ¼ 2 ð2Þ < 0
P2 ¼ V 2 I 2 ¼ 8 ð2Þ < 0
P3 ¼ V 3 I 3 ¼ 10 4 > 0
P4 ¼ V 4 I 4 ¼ 10 ð5Þ < 0
As can be seen, the third power source is a power absorber.

2.10. To calculate the power of the independent current source, its voltage must be known. To find its voltage, the circuit
needs to be analyzed. In this problem, nodal analysis is the best method.
KCL in node 1:
e1 ð70Þ e 3e
6I 4 þ 5 þ 1 ¼ 0 ) 6I 4 þ 1 þ 9 ¼ 0 ð1Þ
5 10 10
e1
I4 ¼ ð2Þ
10
ð1Þ, ð2Þ e 3e 3e
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 6 1 þ 1 þ 9 ¼ 0 ) 1 ¼ 9 ) e1 ¼ 30 V
10 10 10
P1 ¼ V 1 I 1 ¼ 30 ð5Þ ¼ 150 W
2.11. Based on the energy conservation law, the algebraic sum of power of components in any circuit is zero. Herein, we must
apply associated reference direction (current enters the positive terminal of the component). Therefore:
X
N
Pi ¼ 0 ) P1 þ P2 þ P3 þ P4 þ RI 2 þ 16I ¼ 0
i¼1
) 6 þ ð3Þ þ 1 þ 12 þ 16I 2 32I ¼ 0
) 16I 2 32I þ 16 ¼ 0 ) I 2 2I þ 1 ¼ 0 ) I ¼ 1 A

2.12. To determine the Thevenin resistance (RTh) of a circuit, first, we need to turn off all the independent
sources (independent voltage and current sources). In other words, an independent voltage source must be replaced
by a short circuit branch, and an independent current source needs to be replaced by an open circuit branch (see
Fig. 2.12.2).
Then, if the circuit includes, at least, one dependent source (dependent voltage or dependent current source), we must
apply a test source (test voltage or current source with the voltage and current of Vt and It) to analyze the circuit
to determine the value of VI tt , which is equal to RTh. Otherwise, if the circuit does not include any dependent source,
we can simply apply the series-parallel rule to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit.
Although there is a dependent source in the circuit of the problem, we do not need to apply a test source to find the value
of VI tt because the circuit is changed to a simple one. As can be seen in Fig. 2.12.3, Ix ¼ 0 after turning off the independent
current source. Consequently, the dependent current source is shut down and changed to an open circuit. The remaining
circuit includes two 1 Ω resistors. Thus:
RTh ¼ 1 þ 1 ¼ 2Ω:

2.13. To find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit (VTh), we need to determine the open circuit voltage (Voc) seen from the
indicated terminal (a-b terminal). Moreover, to find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit (RTh), we must turn off all the
independent sources and apply a test source (e.g., a test voltage source) to calculate the ratio of VI tt if the circuit includes
a dependent source.
However, analyzing the circuit to find Voc and VI tt by using the conventional methods (mesh and nodal analyses) needs
lots of calculations. The best approach to solve this problem is applying a heuristic technique.
As can be seen in Fig. 2.13.2, I ¼ 1 A, since no current flows through the 3 Ω resistor because terminal a-b is electrically
open. Thus, by writing a KVL in the indicated mesh, we have:
V oc þ 10 þ 2 1 þ 3 0 ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ 12 V
Additionally, as can be seen in Fig. 2.13.3, the Thevenin resistance of the circuit is a series connection of 2 Ω and 3 Ω
resistors. Therefore:
RTh ¼ 2 þ 3 ¼ 5 Ω

2.14. To calculate the power of a component, its voltage and current must be known. The current of the 5 V voltage source
can be calculated by applying KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of Fig. 2.14, as follows:
1 þ I 5V 3 ¼ 0 ) I 5V ¼ 4 A
Thus, the power of 5 V voltage source is P ¼ V5VI5V ¼ 5 4 ¼ 20 W, since the current enters the positive terminal of the
voltage source. Additionally, since P > 0, the 5 V voltage source is a power consumer component.
2.15. The circuit does not include any independent source, but it includes dependent sources. Therefore, we need to apply a
test source to calculate the ratio of VI tt to determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit (RTh).
To analyze the circuit of this problem, nodal analysis is applied. The circuit includes four nodes of which one is
considered as the ground node; therefore, it includes three independent nodes. However, two of them are connected to
the voltage sources. Thus, we need to apply KCL in node 2.
Defining Vx based on the node voltage (e2):
V x ¼ e2 ð1Þ
From the circuit:
Ix ¼ It ð2Þ
KCL in node 2:
e2 e 2V x Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ

I x þ 2I x þ 2 ¼ 0 ) 3I x þ 2e2 2V x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼) 3I t þ 2e2 2e2 ¼ 0
1 1
Vt
) 3I t ¼ 0 ) I t ¼ 0 ) ¼ 1 ) RTh ¼ 1
It

2.16. To solve this problem, application of nodal and mesh analyses will result in a four-equation-four-unknown problem that
needs lots of calculations. Herein, a heuristic method can simply solve the problem, as is shown in Fig. 2.16.2. As can be
seen, by using KCL, the current of resistors in the horizontal branches is determined, and then KVL is applied in the
top loop.
KVL in the top loop:
10
3ð3 I Þ þ 2ð5 I Þ þ ð6 I Þ 1:5 I ¼ 0 ) 7:5I þ 25 ¼ 0 ) I ¼ A
3
Using Ohm’s law:
10
V o ¼ 1:5I ¼ 1:5 ¼5V
3

2.17. Since the circuit does not include any dependent source, we can apply current division formula to find the voltage nodes
“a” and “b” and then calculate Vab.
12 12 12
I¼ ¼ ¼ ¼1A
9 þ ð4 þ 8Þð3 þ 1Þ 9 þ 12þ4
124 9 þ3
ð3 þ 1 Þ 4
I 4,8 ¼ 1¼ ¼ 0:25 A
ð 3 þ 1Þ þ ð 4 þ 8Þ 16
ð4 þ 8 Þ 12
I 3,1 ¼ 1¼ ¼ 0:75 A
ð 3 þ 1Þ þ ð 4 þ 8Þ 16
V ab ¼ V a V b ¼ 8 I 4,8 1 I 3,1 ¼ 8 0:25 1 0:75 ¼ 2 0:75 ¼ 1:25 V

2.18. To transfer the maximum power to RL, it must be equal to the Thevenin resistance (RTh) of the circuit. To determine the
Thevenin resistance, we must turn off all the power sources. Since the circuit includes at least one dependent source, we
must apply a test source at the terminal and determine the value of VI tt to find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit.
In the circuit of Fig. 2.18.2, it is clear that:
Ix ¼ It ð1Þ
Applying KVL in the only loop of the circuit:
Using ð1Þ
V t þ 5I x þ 10I x ¼ 0 ) V t þ 15I x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V t þ 15I t ¼ 0 ) V t ¼ 15I t
Vt
) RTh ¼ ¼ 15
It
RL ¼ RTh ¼ 15 Ω
2.19. Quickly, we can conclude that VTh ¼ 0, since there is no independent source in the circuit. To find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance (RTh), we need to connect a test voltage source (Vt) to the terminal, as is shown in Fig. 2.19.2, and
then RTh ¼ VI tt .
To analyze the circuit, it is better to apply the nodal analysis method, since we will have fewer unknown variables.
Herein, there are two independent nodes, one of which is connected to a grounded voltage source. Thus, we need to
write one KCL in the supernode. Note that node “b” is assigned as the ground.
V x V t 1220I x
I t þ I x þ þ ¼0 ð1Þ
50 20
We need to define Ix based on the favorable variables (Vt, It to find RTh ¼ VI tt ); thus by using Ohm’s law:
Vt
Ix ¼ ð2Þ
1000
And, as is clear:
Vx ¼ Vt ð3Þ
put ð2Þ, ð3Þ in ð1Þ V V V t 1220 1000

Vt
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I t þ t þ t þ ¼0
1000 50 20
1
1 1 1 1220 1000
) It þ V t þ þ ¼0
1000 50 20

1 1 V
) It þ V t ¼ 0 ) Vt ¼ I t ) t ¼ 100 ) RTh ¼ 100 Ω
100 100 It
2.20. We just need to apply KVL in the indicated meshes and organize the resultant equations based on the mesh currents.
However, since there is a current source between meshes 2 and 3, we need to apply KVL for the indicated supermesh.
KVL in mesh 1:
2ði1 2Þ 3 þ 4ði1 i2 Þ þ 3i1 ¼ 0 ) 9i1 4i2 ¼ 7 ð1Þ
KVL in the supermesh including meshes 2 and 3:
3i2 2V 2 þ 4ði2 i1 Þ þ 3 þ 2i3 þ 5V 1 þ i3 ¼ 0

) 4i1 þ 7i2 þ 3i3 2V 2 þ 5V 1 þ 3 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
The relation between the current of current source and the related mesh currents:
2I o ¼ i2 i3 ð3Þ
Defining V1 based on the mesh currents, by using Ohm’s law for the 4 Ω resistor:
V 1 ¼ 4ð i 1 i 2 Þ ð4Þ
Defining V2 based on the mesh currents, by using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor:
V 2 ¼ 2ð 2 i 1 Þ ð5Þ
Defining Io based on the mesh currents:
I o ¼ i1 i3 ð6Þ
Solving (2), (4), and (5):
4i1 þ 7i2 þ 3i3 2ð2ð2 i1 ÞÞ þ 5ð4ði1 i2 ÞÞ þ 3 ¼ 0 ) 20i1 13i2 þ 3i3 ¼ 5 ð7Þ
2ði1 i3 Þ ¼ i2 i3 ) 2i1 i2 i3 ¼ 0 ð8Þ
Equations (1), (7), (8) can be written in the form of matrices, as is seen in the following:
2 32 2 3 3
9 4 0 i17
ð4Þ, ð5Þ, ð6Þ 6 76 7 6 7
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 4 20 13 3 5 4 i2 5 ¼ 4 5 5
2 1 1 i3 0

2.21. Since the circuit includes only resistors, we can use the series-parallel rule to calculate the input resistance of the circuit.
5Rþ26

3R þ 12 5R þ 26 5R þ 26
Rin ¼ 1 2 þ 3ð4 þ RÞ ¼ 1 2 þ ¼ 1 ¼ 6Rþ33
Rþ7
¼
Rþ7 Rþ7 Rþ7
6R þ 33
This is a rational function and it always has an ascending or descending trend. Therefore, to find its range, we need to
calculate its value for the lowest and highest value of its parameter (R).
Note: The range of the resistance R is [0, 1).
5R þ 26 26
lim R!0 Rin ¼ lim R!0 ¼ ¼ 0:78 Ω
6R þ 33 33
5R þ 26 5
lim R!1 Rin ¼ lim R!1 ¼ ¼ 0:83 Ω
6R þ 33 6
Thus, 0.78 < Rin < 0.83.
2.22. To transfer the maximum power to the load, RL needs to be equal to the Thevenin resistance (RTh) of the rest of the circuit.
To determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, all the power sources need to be turned off. In this problem, since the
circuit includes a dependent power source, we cannot use the series-parallel rule to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the
circuit. Instead, we must connect a test source (e.g., test voltage source) to the circuit, as can be seen in the circuit of
Fig. 2.22.2, and then analyze the circuit to determine the value of VI tt , which is equal to the Thevenin resistance.
In this problem, mesh analysis is the best method to solve the problem, since the equations will include the least
variables. Herein, the current of the right-side mesh is assigned by using the available variable, that is, It, to minimize the
number of variables.
KVL in the right-side mesh:
V t þ 4ðI t þ I 1 Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
KVL in the left-side mesh:
6I 1 2V ab þ 4ðI t þ I 1 Þ ¼ 0 ) 10I 1 2V ab þ 4I t ¼ 0 ð2Þ

As can be seen in the circuit, the 4 Ω resistor and the test source are in parallel. Thus:
V ab ¼ V t ð3Þ
ð2Þ, ð3Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 10I 1 2V t þ 4I t ¼ 0 ð4Þ
Calculate I1 from (4) and put it in (1):

Vt
) V t þ 4ðI t þ ð0:2V t 0:4I t ÞÞ ¼ 0 ) 0:2V t þ 2:4I t ¼ 0 ) RTh ¼ ¼ 12 Ω
It
) RL ¼ RTh ¼ 12 Ω
2.23. Mesh and nodal analyses are the worst methods to solve this problem, since the circuit includes many nodes and meshes.
This problem can be easily solved by using the source transformation theorem, as can be seen in Figs. 2.23.1–2.23.7.
From Fig. 2.23.1 to Fig. 2.23.2: In the left-side dashed box, the source transformation theorem is applied:
V 3
I¼ ¼ ¼ 3 A ðUpwardÞ
R 1
In the right-side dashed box, the source transformation theorem is used:
V ¼ IR ¼ 5 1 ¼ 5 V
From Fig. 2.23.2 to Fig. 2.23.3: In the left-side dashed box, the parallel current sources are combined:
I ¼ 3 þ 2 ¼ 5 A ðUpwardÞ
In the right-side dashed box, the series resistors are combined:
R¼3þ1¼4Ω
From Fig. 2.23.3 to Fig. 2.23.4: In the left-side dashed box, the source transformation theorem is applied:
V ¼ IR ¼ 5 1 ¼ 5 V
In the right-side dashed boxes, the source transformation theorem is applied twice:
V1 1
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 A ðDownward Þ
R1 2
V2 5
I2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:25 A ðUpwardÞ
R2 4
From Fig. 2.23.4 to Fig. 2.23.5: In the left-side dashed box, the resistors are combined:
R¼1þ3¼4Ω
In the right-side dashed boxes, the parallel resistors and the parallel current sources are combined, respectively:
R¼3þ1¼4Ω
I ¼ 1:25 0:5 ¼ 0:75 A
From Fig. 2.23.5 to Fig. 2.23.6: In the dashed box, the source transformation theorem is applied:
V 5
I¼ ¼ ¼ 1:25 A ðUpward Þ
R 4
From Fig. 2.23.6 to Fig. 2.23.7: The parallel resistors and the parallel current sources are combined, respectively:
1 1 1 1 1þ4þ3
¼ þ þ ¼ ¼ 2 ) Req ¼ 0:5 Ω
Req 4 1 43 4
I ¼ 1:25 þ 0:75 ¼ 2 A
In Fig. 2.23.7:
V ab ¼ 2 0:5 ¼ 1 V

Fig. 2.23 (continued)
2.24. Since the circuit includes a dependent source, we must apply a test source to the terminal to calculate the input resistance
of the circuit (Rin ¼ VI tt ). If the circuit had independent sources, we would need to turn them off.
To analyze the circuit, nodal analysis is the best method. To minimize the computations, it is better to use Vt instead
of e3.
KCL in node 1 of the circuit of Fig. 2.24.2:
e1 e1 e2 e 1 V t
þ þ ¼ 0 ) 2:5e1 0:5e2 V t ¼ 0 ð1Þ
1 2 1
Defining Vx based on the node voltages:
V x ¼ V t e1 ð2Þ
From the circuit:
Using ð2Þ
e2 ¼ 2V x ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e2 ¼ 2ðV t e1 Þ
¼ ð3Þ
KCL in node 3:
V t V t e2 V t e1
I t þ þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t e1 e2 þ 2:5V t ¼ 0 ð4Þ
2 1 1
4
2:5e1 0:5ð2ðV t e1 ÞÞ V t ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V t ð5Þ
7
I t e1 2ðV t e1 Þ þ 2:5V t ¼ 0 ) I t þ e1 þ 0:5V t ¼ 0 ð6Þ
4 15 V 14 14
I t þ V t þ 0:5V t ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) Rin ¼ Ω
7 14 It 15 15

2.25. Nodal analysis is the best approach to solve the problem, since the circuit includes only one independent node
(supernode) with unknown voltage (e1 ¼ e2).
From the circuit:
e2 ¼ e1 ð1Þ
KCL in the supernode including nodes 1 and 2:
e1 75 e1 e 13 Using ð1Þ 15 þ 12 þ 10 450 312 52

þ 13 þ 2 ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e1 þ ¼0
4 5 6 60 24
37 814
) e ¼ ) e1 ¼ 55 V ð2Þ
60 1 24
KCL in node 1:
e1 75 e1
þ þI ¼0 ð3Þ
4 5

55 75 55
þ þ I ¼ 0 ) I ¼ 5 11 ¼ 6 A
4 5
2.26. To calculate the equivalent resistance seen from terminal A-B, a test source must be connected to the terminal, since the
circuit includes a dependent source. In addition, the circuit does not include any independent source to be turned off.
The value of VI tt will be the equivalent resistance seen from the terminal (RAB). In this problem, mesh analysis will result
in the least equations. Herein, the current of left-side mesh has been assigned by using the available variable (It) to
minimize the number of variables.
Using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor to define V based on mesh current:
V ¼ 2i1 ð1Þ
V t þ 4I t þ 3ðI t i1 Þ þ kV ¼ 0 ) V t þ 7I t 3i1 þ kV ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V t þ 7I t þ ð2k 3Þi1 ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
kV þ 3ði1 I t Þ þ 2i1 ¼ 0 ) kV þ 5i1 3I t ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ 3I t
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) ð5 2kÞi1 3I t ¼ 0 ) i1 ¼ ð3Þ
5 2k

3I t 3ð2k 3Þ
V t þ 7I t þ ð2k 3Þ ¼ 0 ) V t þ It 7 þ ¼0
5 2k 5 2k

35 14k þ 6k 9 26 8k
) V t þ I t ¼ 0 ) V t þ It ¼0
5 2k 5 2k
V t 26 8k 8k 26 V 8k 26 26 13
) ¼ ¼ ) RAB ¼ t ¼ ¼0)k¼ ¼
It 5 2k 2k 5 It 2k 5 8 4
V2
2.27. First Method: The maximum power transferrable to the load (Pmax) is 4RThTh, 14 V Th I N , or 14 RN I 2N . In these three formulas,
the Thevenin resistance and Norton resistance are equal (RTh ¼ RN), and VTh and IN are the Thevenin voltage and Norton
current that are equal to the open circuit voltage (Voc) and the short-circuit current (Isc), respectively.
As can be noticed from the three power formulas, two out of three quantities (VTh, RTh, IN) are needed to determine the
value of maximum transferrable power. In this problem, calculating the value of VTh and IN will result in the least
calculations.
To determine the value of VTh, we need to determine the value of the open circuit voltage (Voc). Mesh analysis is the best
method to analyze the circuit. As is shown in Fig. 2.27.1, the mesh currents have been assigned based on the available
variables (Ix and Ix) to minimize the number of variables.
1ðI x 2I x Þ þ 6 þ I x þ 2I x ¼ 0 ) 2I x þ 6 ¼ 0 ) I x ¼ 3 A ð1Þ
V oc ¼ 2I x ¼ 6 V ð2Þ
To determine the value of IN, we need to calculate the value of the short-circuit current (Isc). As can be seen in
Fig. 2.27.2, the two ends of the 2 Ω resistor are now equipotential. Thus, no current will flow from the resistor (Ix ¼ 0).
Consequently, the dependent current source is turned off by being an open circuit branch (see Fig. 2.27.3).
KVL in the indicated loop of the circuit of Fig. 2.27.3:
I sc þ 6 þ I sc ¼ 0 ) I sc ¼ 3 A ð3Þ
Therefore,
1 1
Pmax ¼ V Th I N ¼ ð6Þ ð3Þ ¼ 4:5 W
4 4
Second and Third Methods: In these methods, we need to determine the value of the Thevenin resistance or Norton
resistance of the circuit (RTh ¼ RN). Additionally, we need to calculate one of the Thevenin voltage and Norton current
which is like the first method. Then:
V 2Th 1
Pmax ¼ or Pmax ¼ RN I 2N
4RTh 4
To calculate RTh or RN, all the independent sources (independent voltage and current sources) are turned off (indepen-
dent voltage sources are changed to short-circuit branches and independent current sources are converted to open circuit
branches). Then, a test source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It, respectively) is connected to the terminal to find
I t (RTh ¼ RN ¼ I t ) if the circuit includes dependent sources; otherwise, they can be calculated by using the regular
Vt Vt
series-parallel rules.
In this problem, there is one independent voltage source and one dependent current source. Therefore, the independent
voltage source must be short-circuited, and a test source is needed to be connected to the terminal to find VI tt .
Herein, nodal analysis is applied to analyze the circuit because it needs the least variables and calculations. The voltage
of the right-side node is defined based on the available variable, that is, Vt.
Using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor to define Ix based on the node voltage:
Vt
Ix ¼ ð4Þ
2
KCL in node 1:
Using ð4Þ
e1 e1 V t V
2I x þ þ ¼ 0 ) 2I x þ 2e1 V t ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2 t þ 2e1 V t ¼ 0
1 1 2
) 2V t þ 2e1 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V t ð5Þ
KCL in the right-side node:
V t V t e1 e
I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) It þ V t 1 ¼ 0 ð6Þ
2 2 2
Vt V V V
I t þ V t ¼ 0 ) I t þ t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ I t ) t ¼ 2 ) RTh ¼ RN ¼ 2 Ω
2 2 2 It
V 2Th ð6Þ2
Pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:5 W
4RTh 4 2
or,
1 1
Pmax ¼ RN I 2N ¼ ð2Þ ð3Þ2 ¼ 4:5 W
4 4
Fourth Method: In this method, the values of VTh and RTh are simultaneously calculated. In this method, a test source
(with the voltage of Vt and the current of It) is applied to the terminal, but the independent sources are not shut down.
Then, one needs to find a relation between Vt and It in the form of Vt ¼ αIt + β. Based on this method, RTh ¼ α and
VTh ¼ β.
Mesh analysis is the best approach to analyze this circuit, since it will result in the least variables and calculations.
Herein, the currents of the left-side and right-side meshes have been assigned by using the available variables (Ix and It).
From the circuit, we see that:
I x ¼ i1 þ I t ð7Þ
KVL in the middle mesh:
1ði1 2I x Þ þ 6 þ i1 þ 2ði1 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) 4i1 2I x þ 2I t þ 6 ¼ 0
Using ð7Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4i1 2ði1 þ I t Þ þ 2I t þ 6 ¼ 0 ) 2i1 þ 6 ¼ 0 ) i1 ¼ 3 ð8Þ
V t þ 2ði1 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ð9Þ
V t þ 2ð3 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) V t ¼ 2I t 6 ) RTh ¼ 2 Ω, V Th ¼ 6 V
V 2Th ð6Þ2
Pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:5 W
4RTh 4 2
Fifth Method: In this method, the values of IN and RN are simultaneously calculated. Like the previous method, in this
method, a test source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It, respectively) is applied to the terminal without turning
off the independent sources. After that, a relation between Vt and It in the form of I t ¼ α1 V t γ is sought. Based on this
method, RN ¼ α and IN ¼ γ.
1
V t þ 2ð3 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) V t 6 þ 2I t ¼ 0 ) I t ¼ V t ð3Þ ) RN ¼ 2 Ω, I N ¼ 3 A
2
1
Pmax ¼ 2 ð3Þ2 ¼ 4:5 W
4
2.28. First Method: The Thevenin voltage of a circuit is equal to the open circuit voltage of the terminal (VTh ¼ Voc).
Therefore, we need to determine the value of Voc.
To analyze the circuit, nodal analysis is suggested, since it will result in the least unknown variables and equations.
From the circuit of Fig. 2.28.1, we can see that:
3V e2 ¼ V ) e2 ¼ 4V ð1Þ
KCL in node 2:
e2 ð3V Þ V e2 e3 Using ð1Þ

þ þ ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2ð4V Þ þ 3:5V e3 ¼ 0 ) e3 ¼ 4:5V ð2Þ
1 2 1
KCL in node 3:
V e3 e2 Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ V

þ 1¼0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) þ ð4:5V Þ ð4V Þ ¼ 1 ) V ¼ 1
¼ ð3Þ
2 1 2
As can be seen in the circuit of Fig. 2.28.1, Voc ¼ 3V. Hence:
V oc ¼ 3V ¼ 3 ð1Þ ¼ 3 V
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 3 V
Second Method: In this problem, the application of a heuristic (non-conventional) method can minimize the
calculations. By applying KCL in the indicated supernode shown in the circuit of Fig. 2.28.2, the current of 1 Ω
resistor in the horizontal branch is identified (1 A). Therefore:
V ¼ 1 1 ¼ 1 V
As can be seen in the circuit of Fig. 2.28.2, Voc ¼ 3V. Hence:
V oc ¼ 3V ¼ 3 ð1Þ ¼ 3 V
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 3 V

2.29. To find the input resistance of the circuit in this problem, we just need to apply a test voltage source and determine the
ratio of VI tt (as RTh) by analyzing the circuit. Nodal analysis is the best method to solve this problem, since the circuit
includes only two independent nodes. As can be seen in the circuit of Fig. 2.29.2, the node voltages have been defined
based on the available variables (Vt and V2) to decrease the number of variables.
KCL in the left-side supernode:
I t þ I 1 ¼ 0 ) I 1 ¼ I t ð1Þ
KCL in the right-side supernode:
V2 V2 2V RαI 1 Using ð1Þ RαI t

αI 1 þ þ ¼ 0 ) αI 1 þ 2 ¼ 0 ) V 2 ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V 2 ¼ ð2Þ
R R R 2 2
Defining I1 based on the node voltages:
V t ðμV 2 Þ Using ð1Þ V þ μV 2

I1 ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t ¼ t ð3Þ
R R

V t þ μ RαI t
μRαI t μα
It ¼ 2
) Vt ¼ RI t ) V t ¼ I t R 1 þ
R 2 2

V μα μα
) t ¼R 1þ ) RTh ¼ R 1 þ
It 2 2

2.30. Source transformation technique is the best way to analyze this circuit. First, the two series voltage sources are
combined considering their polarities, as can be seen in Fig. 2.30.2.
Then, the 3 V voltage source in series with the 1 Ω resistor is converted to the 1 Ω resistor in parallel with the 3 A current
source, by using source transformation, as can be seen in Fig. 2.30.3.
Next, the two current sources (3 A and 4 A in opposite directions) are combined considering their polarities, as can be
seen in Fig. 2.30.4.
After that, the source transformation technique is applied, and the circuit is simplified, as is shown in Fig. 2.30.5.
Finally, the series resistors (1 Ω and 0.8 Ω) are combined, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.30.6.
Now, by using the voltage division formula:

23 1:2 1:2
V 2Ω
¼ ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:4 V
2 þ 1:8 1:2 þ 1:8 3
2
V 2 ð0:4Þ
P2Ω ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:08 W
R 2

2.31. First Method: To find the Norton equivalent circuit, we need to determine the value of IN (Isc flowing through a-b
terminal) and RN (Req seen from a-b terminal).
To find RN, the independent sources are turned off (herein, the independent voltage source is replaced by a short-
circuit branch), as can be seen in Fig. 2.31.2. Moreover, a test source (herein, a test voltage source with the voltage
and current of Vt and It) is connected to the terminal, and then the value of VI tt will be the Norton resistance of the circuit.
Mesh analysis is the best technique to solve this problem. As can be seen in Fig. 2.31.2, mesh currents have been defined
based on the available variables (0.1Vab and It) to simplify the equations.
In Fig. 2.31.2, it is clear that:
V ab ¼ V t ð1Þ
KVL in mesh 2:
2ði2 0:1V ab Þ þ i2 0:3V ab þ ði2 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) 4i2 0:5V ab þ I t ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4i2 0:5V t þ I t ¼ 0 ð2Þ
V t þ ði2 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) i2 ¼ V t I t ð3Þ
ð2Þ, ð3Þ V 6 6
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼) 4ðV t I t Þ 0:5V t þ I t ¼ 0 ) 3:5V t 3I t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) RN ¼ Req ¼ Ω
It 7 7
Figure 2.31.3 illustrates the circuit to calculate Isc. As can be seen, since the a-b terminal is now short-circuited, Vab ¼ 0.
Therefore, the current of the dependent current source and the voltage of dependent voltage source are zero. Hence, the
dependent current and voltage sources of the original circuit (Fig. 2.31.1) must be replaced by the open circuit and short-
circuit branches, respectively, as is shown in Fig. 2.31.3. As can be noticed, the left-side branch, including 2 Ω and 1 Ω
resistors, is eliminated due to the circuit branch. Thus:
2
I sc ¼ ¼ 2 A ) I N ¼ I sc ¼ 2 A
1
Therefore, the equivalent Norton circuit is a 67 Ω resistor in parallel to a 2 A current source (with the upward current
direction), as can be seen in Fig. 2.31.5 and Fig. 2.31.6.
Second Method: In this method, the parameters of the Thevenin equivalent circuit (VTh and RTh) are determined, and
then the parameters of Norton equivalent circuit (IN and RN) are calculated by using (1) and (2).
V Th
IN ¼ ð1Þ
RTh
RN ¼ RTh ð2Þ
In this method, RN is determined like the previous method. Thus, RN ¼ 67 Ω.

To find VTh:
KVL in mesh 2 in Fig. 2.31.4:
2ði2 0:1V ab Þ þ i2 0:3V ab þ i2 þ 2 ¼ 0 ) 4i2 0:5V ab þ 2 ¼ 0 ð3Þ

Applying KVL in the right-side mesh:
V ab ¼ i2 þ 2 ) i2 ¼ V ab 2 ð4Þ
ð3Þ, ð4Þ 12
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 4ðV ab 2Þ 0:5V ab þ 2 ¼ 0 ) 3:5V ab ¼ 6 ) V ab ¼
¼ V
7
12
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ V ab ¼ V
7
Using ð1Þ V 12
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I N ¼ Th ¼ 67 ¼ 2 A
RN 7

2.32. First, we should combine the parallel 4 Ω and 1 Ω resistors to simplify the analysis of the circuit, as is shown in
Fig. 2.32.2. The parameters of the Thevenin equivalent circuit include the Thevenin resistance (RTh) and Thevenin
voltage (VTh).
To calculate the Thevenin voltage, we need to determine the value of the open circuit voltage (VTh ¼ Voc) seen from a-b
terminal, as can be seen in Fig. 2.32.2.
Moreover, to calculate the Thevenin resistance, since the circuit includes a dependent source (dependent current
source), we must connect a test source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It) to the terminal and analyze the circuit
to determine the value of VI tt, while all the independent sources are shut down (an independent voltage source is replaced
by the short-circuit branch and an independent current source is replaced by the open circuit branch), as is shown in
Fig. 2.32.3.
To calculate the Thevenin voltage by using mesh analysis (see Fig. 2.32.2):
KCL in the supernode:
e 5
I þ 4 4I I s ¼ 0 ) e 5I I s ¼ 0 ð1Þ
5
4
Since the terminal is an open circuit,
I¼0 ð2Þ
ð1Þ, ð2Þ 5 4
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) e I s ¼ 0 ) e ¼ I s ð3Þ
4 5
4 4
V oc þ 2I þ e ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ I ) V Th ¼ I s
5 s 5
To calculate the Thevenin resistance by using mesh analysis (see Fig. 2.32.3):
e 5
I þ 4 4I ¼ 0 ) e 5I ¼ 0 ð4Þ
5
4
As can be seen in the circuit,

I ¼ It ð5Þ
ð4Þ, ð5Þ 5
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) e 5I t ¼ 0 ) e ¼ 4I t ð6Þ
4
KCL in node “a”:
Vt e Using ð6Þ V 4I t V
I t þ ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ t ¼ 0 ) 6I t þ V t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 6 ) RTh ¼ 6 Ω
2 2 It
2.33. To calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit, we must turn off all the independent sources and connect a test
source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It) to the terminal, since the circuit includes a dependent source. Then, we
need to determine the value of VI tt which is equal to RTh. In this problem, the application of nodal analysis will need the
least calculations. As can be seen in the circuit, it has been tried to define the node voltages based on the available
variable (Vt).
V t e1
I t þ I þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ I þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ð1Þ
1
KCL in node 1:
e1 V t e1 V t
I þ þ ¼ 0 ) I þ 2e1 2V t ¼ 0 ð2Þ
1 1

V t e1 V t 1
I þ þ ¼ 0 ) I e1 þ 1 þ V t ¼ 0 ð3Þ
1 R R
Solving (1) and (2) to eliminate I:
I t þ ð2e1 2V t Þ þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ) I t þ e1 V t ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ I t þ V t ð4Þ
Solving (2) and (3) to eliminate I:

1 1 1
ð2e1 2V t Þ e1 þ 1 þ V t ¼ 0 ) 3e1 þ 3 þ V t ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ 1 þ V ð5Þ
R R 3R t
Solving (4) and (5) to eliminate e1:

1 1 V
It þ V t ¼ 1 þ V ) It ¼ V ) t ¼ 3R ) RTh ¼ 3R
3R t 3R t It
2.34. Since we are interested in determining the effect of the independent current source on the indicated voltage (V), we can
turn off other independent sources (the independent voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit branch), based on
superposition theorem, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.34.2.
Now, we can analyze the circuit to calculate the voltage. In this circuit, nodal analysis is the best approach to solve the
problem.
Based on the given information:
Is
V¼ ð1Þ
2
KCL in node 1:
V V e2 5 e Using ð1Þ 5I e
I s þ þ ¼ 0 ) Is þ V 2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I s þ s 2 ¼ 0
2 3 6 3 12 3
7I s e2 7
) ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ I s ð2Þ
12 3 4
Defining the voltage of the dependent voltage source based on the node voltages:

Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ 7 k k 7
e2 e3 ¼ kV ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I s e3 ¼ I s ) e3 ¼ þ I s
¼
¼
¼ ð3Þ
4 2 2 4

e2 V e3 e3 Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ, ð3Þ 74 I s I2s k 7 7 1 k 7
þ þ ¼0¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼) þ Is ¼ 0 ) þ þ þ Is ¼ 0
3 2 2 3 2 4 12 6 2 4
7 1 k 7 30 k
) þ þ þ ¼0) þ ¼0)k¼ 5
12 6 2 4 12 2

2.35. Mesh analysis and a heuristic technique are the best approaches to calculate the Thevenin resistance and the Thevenin
voltage of the circuit, respectively, as can be seen in Figs. 2.35.2 and 2.35.3.
To find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, the independent current source is shut down (open-circuited), and a test
voltage source is applied in the terminal to find the value of VI tt .
In addition, to find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, the circuit is analyzed to determine the open circuit voltage of the
terminal.
To find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit (see Fig. 2.35.2):
From the circuit, it is clear that:

I2 ¼ It ð1Þ
Defining the current of the dependent current source based on the mesh currents:
Using ð1Þ
3I 2 ¼ i1 I t ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 3I t ¼ i1 I t ) i1 ¼ 4I t
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the bottom 1 Ω resistor to define V1 based on mesh currents:
V 1 ¼ 1 i1 ¼ i1 ð3Þ
KVL in the supermesh including both meshes:
Using ð1Þ, ð3Þ

V t þ 5V 1 þ I 2 þ V 1 ¼ 0 ) V t þ 6V 1 þ I 2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V t þ 6i1 þ I t ¼ 0
Using ð2Þ V V
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V t þ 6ð4I t Þ þ I t ¼ 0 ) V t þ 25I t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 25 ) RTh ¼ t ¼ 25 Ω
¼
¼
¼
It It
To find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit (see Fig. 2.35.3):
By writing KVL in the left-side mesh:
V oc þ 5V 1 þ I 2 1 þ V 1 ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ 6V 1 þ I 2 ð1Þ
1 þ I 2 ¼ 0 ) I 2 ¼ 1 A ð2Þ
KCL for the node with the node voltage of V1:
V1 Using ð2Þ
I 2 3I 2 þ ¼ 0 ) V 1 ¼ 4I 2 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V 1 ¼ 4 1 ¼ 4 V
¼
¼
¼ ð3Þ
1
Solving (1), (2), (3):
V oc ¼ 6ð4Þ þ 1 ¼ 25 V ) V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 25 V

2.36. Since the circuit does not include any dependent source, the Thevenin resistance of the circuit can be simply calculated
by using the series-parallel rule, while all the independent sources are turned off. As is illustrated in Fig. 2.36.2, the
independent voltage sources are replaced by the short-circuit branches, and the independent current sources are replaced
by the open circuit branches.
Moreover, to determine the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, the open circuit voltage of the terminal is calculated by
using nodal analysis, as can be seen in Fig. 2.36.3.
To calculate the Thevenin resistance (see Fig. 2.36.2):
5 8 40
2 10 5 8 40
Req ¼ 5 1 þ 210 ¼ 5 1 þ ¼ 5 1 þ ¼ 5 ¼ 3
¼ 23
3
¼ Ω
2 þ 10 3 3 5þ38
3
23
40
RTh ¼ Req ¼ Ω
23
To calculate the Thevenin voltage (see Fig. 2.36.3):
Finding a relation between the node voltages by defining the voltage of the 30 V independent voltage source based on
the node voltages:
V oc e1 ¼ 30 ) e1 ¼ V oc 30 ð1Þ
e1 e2 V oc e2 V oc 50 1 6 3
1 þ þ þ ¼ 0 ) e1 e2 þ V oc 11 ¼ 0
2 10 5 2 10 10
Using ð1Þ 1 6 3 6 8
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) ðV oc 30Þ e2 þ V oc 11 ¼ 0 ) e2 þ V oc 26 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
2 10 10 10 10
KCL in node 2:
e2 e1 e2 e V oc 1 16 1
þ 7þ 2 ¼ 0 ) e1 þ e2 V oc 7 ¼ 0
2 1 10 2 10 10
Using ð1Þ 1 16 1 16 6
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) ðV oc 30Þ þ e2 V oc 7 ¼ 0 ) e V þ8¼0 ð3Þ
2 10 10 10 2 10 oc

6 10 6 8 23
V 8 þ V oc 26 ¼ 0 ) V 23 ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ 40
10 16 10 oc 10 40 oc
) V Th ¼ 40 V
2.37. To determine the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, the open circuit voltage is calculated by using nodal analysis, as can be
seen in Fig. 2.37.2. In addition, to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, a test voltage source is connected to
the terminal to calculate the value of VI tt by using nodal analysis, as can be seen in Fig. 2.37.3.
To calculate the Thevenin voltage (see Fig. 2.37.2):
As can be seen in the circuit, the node with the node voltage of e1 has been grounded. Thus:
e1 ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
Defining the voltage of dependent voltage source (in the horizontal branch) based on the node voltages:
Using ð1Þ V
2I ¼ V oc e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 2I ¼ V oc ) I ¼ oc
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
2
e1 2I e 1 Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ V

6 þ þI ¼0) 6þ 1þ I ¼0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 6 þ oc ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ 24
¼
¼
¼
4 4 2 4
) V Th ¼ 24 V
To calculate the Thevenin resistance (see Fig. 2.37.3):
Defining the voltage of the dependent voltage source (in the horizontal branch) based on the node voltages:
Using ð1Þ V
2I ¼ V t e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I ¼ t ð3Þ
2
e1 2I e 1 Using ð1Þ, ð3Þ V V

I t þ þ I ¼ 0 ) It þ 1 þ I ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 4
4 4 2 4 It
) RTh ¼ 4 Ω

2.38. To calculate the power of a component, we need to know its voltage and current considering the conventional polarity
for the voltage and current of the component (associate reference direction). Nodal analysis is the best approach to solve
the problem, since there are only two independent nodes in the circuit.
Defining I0 based on the node voltages (see Fig. 2.38.2):
e1
I0 ¼ ) I 0 ¼ e1 ð1Þ
1
KCL in node 1:
e1 e1 e2 Using ð1Þ e e e2
2 þ þ þ 2I 0 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2 þ 1 þ 1 þ 2e1 ¼ 0
1 2 1 2
7 1
2 þ e1 e2 ¼ 2 ð2Þ
2 2
KCL in node 2:
e2 e2 e2 e1 Using ð1Þ e2 e2 e2 e1 5 5
þ þ 2I 0 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) þ þ 2e1 ¼ 0 ) e1 þ e2 ¼ 0
2 4 2 2 4 2 2 4
) e2 ¼ 2e1 ð3Þ
7 1 5 4
2 þ e1 ð2e1 Þ ¼ 0 ) 2 þ e1 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ ð4Þ
2 2 2 5
Using ð3Þ, ð4Þ 8

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e2 ¼ ð5Þ
5
The current of the independent source is:
Using ð1Þ 4 8
I ¼ 2I 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I ¼ 2e1 ¼ 2 ¼ A
¼
¼
¼ ð6Þ
5 5
The voltage of the independent source is:
Using ð4Þ, ð5Þ 4 8 4

V ¼ e1 e2 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V ¼ ¼ V
¼
¼
¼ ð7Þ
5 5 5
Using ð6Þ, ð7Þ 4 8 32

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼) P ¼ VI ¼ ¼ W ¼ 1:28 W
5 5 25

2.39. Determining the relation between Vt and It is equivalent to finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Herein, mesh
analysis is the best approach to analyze the circuit.
Using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor to define V1 based on mesh currents (see Fig. 2.39.2):
V 1 ¼ 2i1 ð1Þ
KVL in the supermesh:
Using ð1Þ
20 þ 2i1 þ 3V 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 20 þ 2i1 þ 3ð2i1 Þ ¼ 0 ) 20 4i1 ¼ 0 ) i1 ¼ 5 ð2Þ
Using ð1Þ Using ð2Þ

V t þ 5I t þ 3V 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V t þ 5I t þ 3ð2i1 Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼ ¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V t þ 5I t 6ð5Þ ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼
) V t ¼ 5I t þ 30

2.40. Instead of individually determining the Thevenin voltage (VTh) and the Thevenin resistance (RTh) of the circuit, we can
calculate them simultaneously. Hence, we need to connect a test source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It,
respectively) to the terminal, but we do not turn off the independent sources. Next, we try to find a relation between Vt
and It in the form of Vt ¼ αIt + β, where RTh ¼ α and VTh ¼ β.
In this problem, nodal analysis is the best technique to apply, since it will result in the least variables and calculations.
From the circuit of Fig. 2.40.2, it is clear that:
V ¼ Vt ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 3 Ω resistor to define I based on node voltages:
e1 V t
I¼ ð2Þ
3
e1 e Vt 5 V Using ð1Þ 5 V
4V þ Is þ 1 ¼ 0 ) 4V þ e1 I s t ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4V t þ e1 I s t ¼ 0
2 3 6 3 6 3
11 5
) V þ e Is ¼ 0 ð3Þ
3 t 6 1
Vt V e1 7 e
I t þ Iþ t ¼ 0 ) It þ V t I 1 ¼ 0
4 3 12 3
Using ð2Þ 7 e V t e1 11 2
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ V t 1 ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ð4Þ
12 3 3 12 3

11 5 3 11 11 5 55
V t þ I t þ V t I s ¼ 0 ) V I þ V Is ¼ 0
3 6 2 12 3 t 4 t 48 t
77 5
) V I Is ¼ 0
16 t 4 t
20 16
) Vt ¼ I þ I
77 t 77 s
Therefore, V Th ¼ 16
77I s and RTh ¼ 77.
20
2.41. To determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit, we must apply a test source at the terminal and determine the value
of VI tt , since the circuit includes dependent sources.
Defining Vx based on the node voltages (see Fig. 2.41.2):
V x ¼ e1 ð1Þ
Defining I based on the node voltages:
V t 2V x Using ð1Þ
I¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I ¼ V t 2e1 ð2Þ
1
Using ð2Þ
I t þ I þ I ¼ 0 ) I t þ 2I ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ 2ðV t 2e1 Þ ¼ 0
) I t þ 2V t 4e1 ¼ 0 ð3Þ
KCL in node 1:
e1 Using ð2Þ
I I þ ¼ 0 ) 2I þ e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2ðV t 2e1 Þ þ e1 ¼ 0 ) 2V t þ 5e1 ¼ 0
1
2
) e1 ¼ V t ð4Þ
5

2 2 V 5 5
I t þ 2V t 4 V t ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) RTh ¼
5 5 It 2 2
2.42. To determine the power of a component, we need to calculate its voltage and current. In this regard, we need to consider
the polarities of the voltage and the current of the component. In this problem, nodal analysis is the best approach to
apply.
Using Ohm’s law to define I based on the node voltages (see Fig. 2.42.2):
V2
I¼ ð1Þ
2
Using ð1Þ V 2 1
2I ¼ V 2 V 1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2 ¼ V 2 V 1 ) V 2 ¼ V 1 ð2Þ
2 2
V1 V 2 V 2
4 þ 2V 2 3V 1 þ þ ¼ 0 ) 4 2V 1 3V 2 ¼ 0
1 2 2
Using ð2Þ
1 1
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4 2V 1 3 V 1 ¼ 0 ) 4 V 1 ¼ 0 ) V 1 ¼ 8
2 2
P ¼ VI ¼ V 1 ð4Þ ¼ ð8Þ ð4Þ ¼ 32 W
As can be seen, the independent current source is consuming power, since its power is positive, considering
conventional polarity for the voltage and current (associate reference direction).
2.43. As we know, the Norton resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance seen by the terminal. As can be seen in
Fig. 2.43.2, to calculate the equivalent resistance, since the circuit includes a dependent source, we must apply a test
source to determine the value of VI tt .
Defining I based on the node voltages (see Fig. 2.43.2):
e1
I¼ ð1Þ
10
Using ð1Þ 7
e1 e Vt 11 V e V
þ 2I þ 1 ¼0) e1 þ 2I t ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e1 þ 2 1 t ¼ 0
10 4 20 4 20 10 4
3 V 5
) e t ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V t ð2Þ
20 1 4 3

V t V t e1 9 1 Using ð2Þ 9 1 5
I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ V t Vt ¼ 0
5 4 20 4 20 4 3
1 V
) It þ V ¼ 0 ) Req ¼ t ¼ 30 ) RN ¼ Req ¼ 30 Ω
30 t It
2.44. To calculate the power of a component, we need to multiply its voltage and current considering the voltage and current
polarities. Mesh analysis is the best method to solve this problem.
KVL in mesh 1 (see Fig. 2.44.2):
2 þ I x 1 þ V x I x ¼ 0 ) 2 þ V x ¼ 0 ) V x ¼ 2 ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 1 Ω resistor in the vertical branch, to define Vx based on the mesh current:
V x ¼ 1ð i 1 8Þ ) V x ¼ i 1 8 ð2Þ
) i1 8 ¼ 2 ) i1 ¼ 10 ð3Þ
Using ð3Þ
P ¼ VI ¼ ð2Þði1 Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) P ¼ ð2Þð10Þ ¼ 20 W
The minus sign was applied in the power formula because the current is leaving the positive terminal of the voltage of
the component.

2.45. We need to calculate the voltage and current of the resistor, and then multiply them to determine its lost power
considering its voltage and current polarities. Nodal analysis is the best technique to solve this problem.
Defining Ix based on the node voltages (see Fig. 2.45.2):

e1 e2
Ix ¼ ð1Þ
2
KCL in node 1:
e1 e3 Using ð1Þ e e2 e1 e3 3 1 1
3 þ I x þ ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 3 þ 1 þ ¼ 0 ) e1 e2 e3 ¼ 3
4 2 4 4 2 4
3e1 2e2 e3 ¼ 12 ð2Þ
KCL in node 2:
e2 e1 e2 e2 e3 1 7 1
þ þ ¼ 0 ) e1 þ e2 e3 ¼ 0 ) 4e1 þ 7e2 e3 ¼ 0 ð3Þ
2 4 8 2 8 8
KCL in node 3:
e3 e2 e3 e1 Using ð1Þ e3 e2 e3 e1 e e2
þ þ 2I x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) þ þ2 1 ¼0
8 4 8 4 2
3 9 3
) e e þ e ¼ 0 ) 6e1 9e2 þ 3e3 ¼ 0 ð4Þ
4 1 8 2 8 3
Since we are interested in knowing the value of e2, we should eliminate e1 and e3 by solving equations (2), (3), and (4).
1 21 3 13 7
3 ð7e2 e3 Þ 2e2 e3 ¼ 12 ) e e 2e2 e3 ¼ 12 ) e e ¼ 12 ð5Þ
4 4 2 4 3 4 2 4 3
1 3 3
6 ð7e2 e3 Þ 9e2 þ 3e3 ¼ 0 ) e2 þ e3 ¼ 0 ) e3 ¼ e2 ð6Þ
4 2 2
13 7 12
e ðe2 Þ ¼ 12 ) 5e2 ¼ 12 ) e2 ¼ ð7Þ
4 2 4 5
Therefore, the voltage of 4 Ω resistor in the vertical branch is V ¼ 12
5 0 ¼ 2:4 V.
V 2 2:42
P¼ ¼ ¼ 1:44 W
R 4
2.46. Since the circuit includes dependent sources, we need to connect a test source to terminal A-B to determine the value of VI tt
to calculate the input resistance of the circuit. In addition, the circuit does not include any independent source to shut down.
To analyze the circuit, mesh analysis is the best one because it needs the least calculations. As can be seen in Fig. 2.46.2,
the available variables (I0and It) have been used to choose the mesh currents.
To avoid being involved with the unknown voltages of independent current sources, we need to apply KVL for the
supermesh.
Defining the current of the right-side dependent current source based on the mesh currents:
11I 0 ¼ i2 I t ) i2 ¼ I t 11I 0 ð1Þ

Defining the current of the left-side dependent current source based on the mesh currents:
Using ð1Þ
13I 0 ¼ i1 i2 ) i1 ¼ 13I 0 þ i2 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) i1 ¼ 13I 0 þ ðI t 11I 0 Þ ) i1 ¼ 2I 0 I t
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
Ri1 þ 3ði2 þ I 0 Þ þ 7ðI t þ I 0 Þ þ V t ¼ 0 ) Ri1 þ 3i2 þ 10I 0 7I t þ V t ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ&ð2Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) Rð2I 0 I t Þ þ 3ðI t 11I 0 Þ þ 10I 0 7I t þ V t ¼ 0
) I 0 ð2R 23Þ þ I t ðR 10Þ þ V t ¼ 0 ð3Þ
KVL in the top mesh:
3ði2 þ I 0 Þ þ 7ðI t þ I 0 Þ þ 3I 0 ¼ 0 ) 3i2 þ 13I 0 7I t ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ I
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 3ðI t 11I 0 Þ þ 13I 0 7I t ¼ 0 ) 10I t 20I 0 ¼ 0 ) I 0 ¼ t
¼
¼
¼ ð4Þ
2
Solving (3) and (4) result in:

It V
ð2R 23Þ þ I t ðR 10Þ þ V t ¼ 0 ) I t ð2R þ 1:5Þ þ V t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 2R 1:5
2 It
) RAB ¼ 2R 1:5 Ω

2.47. Mesh analysis is the best method to solve this problem because we will need to solve the least equations. As can be seen
in the circuit of Fig. 2.47, there is one current source between meshes 1 and 2 as well as between meshes 1 and
3. Therefore, we must apply a supermesh for meshes 1, 2, and 3.
Using Ohm’s law for the 5 Ω resistor to define Vy based on the mesh current:
V y ¼ 5i2 ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 10 Ω resistor to define Vx based on the mesh currents:
V x ¼ 10ði2 i3 Þ ð2Þ
110 þ 20i1 þ 5i2 þ 15i3 ¼ 0 ð3Þ
Defining the current of the lower dependent current source based on the mesh currents:
Using ð1Þ
1:6V y ¼ i1 i3 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 1:6ð5i2 Þ ¼ i1 i3 ) i1 þ 8i2 i3 ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼ ð4Þ
Defining the current of the upper dependent current source based on the mesh currents:
Using ð2Þ
0:5V x ¼ i1 i2 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 0:5ð10ði2 i3 ÞÞ ¼ i1 i2 ) i1 6i2 þ 5i3 ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼ ð5Þ
3
ð8i2 i3 Þ 6i2 þ 5i3 ¼ 0 ) 14i2 þ 6i3 ¼ 0 ) i2 ¼ i3 ð6Þ
7
Solving (3), (4), and (6):

3 3
110 þ 20 8 i3 i3 þ 5 i3 þ 15i3 ¼ 0
7 7
340 15 220 7
) 110 i þ i3 þ 15i3 ¼ 0 ) 110 i ¼ 0 ) i3 ¼ ð7Þ
7 3 7 7 3 2

3 7 3
i2 ¼ ¼ ð8Þ
7 2 2

3
V y ¼ 5 ¼ 7:5 V
2
Solving (2), (7), and (8):

3 7
V x ¼ 10 ¼ 20 V
2 2

2.48. To determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we need to calculate the Thevenin resistance and Thevenin voltage of the
circuit.
To find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, the only independent source (independent current source) of the circuit is
shut down, and a test source (test voltage source) is connected to the input terminal, as can be seen in Fig. 2.48.2.
Mesh analysis is applied to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit. To deal with the fewest variables, the
currents of the second and third meshes are defined based on the available variables (It and 2Vo).
As can be seen in the circuit:
Vo ¼ Vt ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor to define Vx based on the mesh current:
V x ¼ 2i1 ð2Þ
KVL in mesh 1:
2:5V x þ 2i1 þ 3ði1 2V o Þ þ 4ði1 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) 2:5V x þ 9i1 6V o þ 4I t ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 2:5ð2i1 Þ þ 9i1 6V t þ 4I t ¼ 0 ) 4i1 6V t þ 4I t ¼ 0
¼ ð3Þ
V t þ 4ði1 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
Vt
V t þ 4ð1:5V t I t þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ) V t þ 6V t ¼ 0 ) 5V t ¼ 0 ) V t ¼ 0 ) ¼ 0 ) RTh ¼ 0
It
To determine the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, we need to calculate the open circuit voltage of the terminal, as can be
seen in Fig. 2.48.3.
Again, mesh analysis is the best approach to solve the problem. To work with the smallest number of variables, the
currents of the second and third meshes are defined based on the available variables and parameters (Is and 2Vo).
Using Ohm’s law for the 4 Ω resistor to define Vo based on the mesh current:
V oc ¼ V o ¼ 4i1 ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor to define Vx based on the mesh currents:
V x ¼ 2ðI s i1 Þ ð2Þ
KVL in mesh 1:
2:5V x þ 2ði1 I s Þ þ 3ði1 2V o Þ þ 4i1 ¼ 0 ) 2:5V x þ 9i1 2I s 6V o ¼ 0
Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ 3

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 2:5ð2ðI s i1 ÞÞ þ 9i1 2I s 6ð4i1 Þ ¼ 0 ) 3I s 20i1 ¼ 0 ) i1 ¼ I s
¼ ð3Þ
20

3 3
V oc ¼ V o ¼ 4i1 ¼ 4 Is ¼ Is
20 5
3
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ I s
5
Therefore, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is a single voltage source with the size of 35 I s .

2.49. To find the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we need to calculate the Thevenin resistance (RTh) and the Thevenin voltage
(VTh). Since the circuit includes a dependent source (dependent current source), we need to connect a test source (with
the voltage and current of Vt and It) to the A-B terminal to find the Thevenin resistance (RTh ¼ VI tt ), while all the
independent sources are turned off. In addition, VTh will be the same as the open circuit voltage (Voc). As can be seen in
Fig. 2.49.2, nodal analysis is applied to find RTh.
Defining Ix based on the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 2.49.2:

e1
Ix ¼ ð1Þ
8
KCL in node 1:
e1 e e2 Using ð1Þ e e e2 e e
2I x þ 1 ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 1 þ 1 ¼ 0 ) 1 2 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ 4e2 ð2Þ
8 10 8 10 40 10
KCL in node 2:
e2 e1 e2 e2 V t Using ð1Þ e2 e1 e2 e2 V t e1
þ þ þ 2I x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) þ þ þ ¼0
10 3 4 10 3 4 4
41 3 V Using ð2Þ 41 3 V 5 V
) e2 þ e1 t ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e þ ð4e2 Þ t ¼ 0 ) e t¼0
60 20 4 60 2 20 4 60 2 4
) e2 ¼ 3V t ð3Þ
Defining It based on the node voltages:
V t e2 Using ð3Þ V 3V t 1 V
It ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t ¼ t ¼ V t ) t ¼ 2
4 4 2 It
Vt
RTh ¼ ¼ 2Ω
It
Nodal analysis is applied to find VTh, as can be seen in Fig. 2.49.3.
Defining Ix based on the node voltages:

e1
Ix ¼ ð4Þ
8
KCL in node 1:
e1 e e2 Using ð1Þ e e e2 e e
I s þ 2I x þ 1 ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I s 1 þ 1
¼
¼
¼ ¼ 0 ) Is 1 2 ¼ 0 ð5Þ
8 10 8 10 40 10
KCL in node 2:
e2 e1 e2 Using ð1Þ e2 e1 e2 e1 13e2 3e1 26

þ þ 2I x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) þ þ ¼0) þ ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ e2 ð6Þ
10 3 10 3 4 30 20 9
26
9 e2 e 1
I s 2 ¼ 0 ) I s e2 ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ 36I s
40 10 36
)Voc ¼ e2 ¼ 36Is, because there is no voltage drop on the 4 Ω resistor, since the terminal is open circuit.
V Th ¼ 36I s

2.50. The circuit includes a dependent source. Hence, we must apply a test source (with the voltage and current of Vt and It) at
the terminal, while all the independent sources are shut down. After that, we need to determine the quantity of VI tt
(Req ¼ VI tt ).
Herein, nodal analysis is applied to solve the problem that the node voltages are defined based on the available variable (Vt).
KCL in the left-side node:
V t e1 V e
I t þ I x þ ¼ 0 ) It þ Ix þ t 1 ¼ 0 ð1Þ
R R R
KCL in node 1:
e1 V t e1 V t 2 2
βI x þ þ ¼ 0 ) βI x þ e1 V t ¼ 0 ð2Þ
R R R R

V t e1 V t 1 1 1
I x þ þ ¼ 0 ) I x e1 þ þ V ¼0 ð3Þ
R RL R R RL t
Solving (1) and (2) to eliminate Ix:

2 2 V e 2 1 2 1
I t þ e1 þ V t þ t 1 ¼ 0 ) It þ þ Vt þ e ¼0
Rβ Rβ R R Rβ R Rβ R 1

I t Rβ 2
þ R1 V t RβI ð2 þ βÞV Rβ
) e1 ¼ ¼ t t
) e1 ¼ I þ Vt ð4Þ
Rβ þ R
2 1 ð 2 þ β Þ 2 þβ t
Solving (2) and (3) to eliminate Ix:

1 1 1 2 2 2β β2 β
) β e1 þ þ V þ e1 V t ¼ 0 ) e1 þ þ V ¼0 ð5Þ
R R RL t R R R R RL t

2β Rβ β2 β
It þ V t þ þ V ¼0
R 2þβ R RL t

2β Rβ 2β β2 β
) I þ þ þ V ¼0
R 2þβ t R R RL t
βð2βÞ
R 2þβ
2β Rβ
V 2þβ 2β
) t ¼ 2β β2 ¼ ¼ R
It þ þ β β 2þβ L
R R RL RL
Vt 2 β
) Req ¼ ¼ R
It 2þβ L

2.51. To calculate the maximum power absorbable by the variable resistor, we need to determine the Thevenin voltage
and Thevenin resistance seen by that resistor. As can be seen in Fig. 2.51.2, to determine the Thevenin voltage of the
circuit, the open circuit voltage is calculated by using nodal analysis. Moreover, as can be seen in Fig. 2.51.3, to
calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, a test voltage source is applied to calculate the value of VI tt by using mesh
analysis.
To determine the Thevenin voltage of the circuit (see Fig. 2.51.2):
Using Ohm’s law for the 3 Ω resistor to define I1 based on the node voltages:
e2
I1 ¼ ð1Þ
3
Using ð1Þ 5
5I 1 ¼ e1 V oc ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e1 ¼ e2 þ V oc
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
3
e1 e2 V oc e2
3 þ þ ¼ 0 ) e1 3e2 þ 2V oc 6 ¼ 0 ð3Þ
2 1
KCL in node 1:
e2 e1 e2 V oc e2
þ þ ¼ 0 ) 3e1 þ 11e2 6V oc ¼ 0 ð4Þ
2 1 3
5 4
e þ V oc 3e2 þ 2V oc 6 ¼ 0 ) e2 þ 3V oc 6 ¼ 0 ð5Þ
3 2 3
3ð3e2 2V oc þ 6Þ þ 11e2 6V oc ¼ 0 ) 2e2 18 ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ 9 ð6Þ
4
ð9Þ þ 3V oc 6 ¼ 0 ) 18 þ 3V oc ¼ 0 ) V oc ¼ 6 V ) V Th ¼ 6 V
3
To determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit (see Fig. 2.51.3):
I1 ¼ It ð7Þ
KVL in the top mesh:
Using ð7Þ
2i2 þ 5I 1 þ 1ði2 þ I t Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 3i2 þ 6I t ¼ 0 ) i2 ¼ 2I t ð8Þ
KVL in the bottom mesh:
Using ð7Þ Using ð8Þ

3I 1 V t þ 1ðI t þ i2 Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4I t V t þ i2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 4I t V t þ ð2I t Þ ¼ 0
Using ð8Þ V
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2I t V t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 2 ) RTh ¼ 2 Ω
It
2
Based on maximum power transfer theorem, the maximum transferable power can be calculated by using Pmax ¼ V4RThTh .
Thus:
V Th 2 62 36
Pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:5 W
4RTh 4 2 8

2.52. Solving the problem will be easy if we consider the symmetry of the circuit that exists between the nodes of “A” and “B.”
In this circuit, since calculating the equivalent resistance between the nodes of “A” and “B” is of interest, the nodes of
“C1,” “C2,” “C3,” and “C4” will have equal electrical potential, as can be seen in Fig. 2.52.1. Therefore, these nodes can
be short-circuited. Hence, the resistors, indicated by “f,” are removed.
Similarly, the nodes of “D1,” “D2,” “D3,” and “D4” have equal electrical potential, and hence the resistors, indicated by
“h,” are eliminated.
On the other hand, the short-circuited nodes cause the resistors (indicated by “e”) to be in parallel, as can be seen in
Fig. 2.52.2. Likewise, the resistors, indicated by “g,” as well as the resistors, indicated by “i,” will be in parallel (see
Fig. 2.52.2). Therefore, the equivalent resistance seen from terminal A-B is:
1 1 1 3
RAB ¼ þ þ ¼ Ω
4 4 4 4

2.53. To calculate the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, we need to calculate the open circuit voltage of terminal a-b, as is
illustrated in Fig. 2.53.2.
1
5V x V x þ E ¼ 0 ) V x ¼ E ð1Þ
6
Also, as can be seen in the circuit:
V oc ¼ 5V x ð2Þ
5 5
V oc ¼ E ) V Th ¼ E
6 6
In addition, to find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, we must apply a test source to determine the value of RTh ¼ VI tt,
as can be seen in Fig. 2.53.3. Moreover, we must turn off all the independent sources. Thus, the independent voltage
source is changed to a short-circuit branch, and consequently the parallel resistor is eliminated, as can be seen in
Fig. 2.53.4.
5V x V x ¼ 0 ) V x ¼ 0 ð3Þ
Also, voltage sources are in parallel, thus:
V t ¼ 5V x ð4Þ
Vt
V t ¼ 0 ) RTh ¼ ¼0
It

2.54. As is shown in Fig. 2.54.2, the part of the circuit seen by the 5 Ω resistor is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit.
The power of each resistor can be calculated by using the voltage division and power formulas and presented in
(1) and (2).
2
V 2R 1 R
PR ¼ ¼ V ð1Þ
R R R þ RTh Th
2
V 2RTh 1 RTh
PRTh ¼ ¼ V ð2Þ
RTh RTh R þ RTh Th
The percentage of powers absorbed by the resistors is presented in (3) and simplified in (4) by using (1) and (2).
PR
Power percentage ¼ 100 ð3Þ
PRTh
2
1 R
Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ R RþRTh V Th
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) Power percentage ¼ 2 100
1 RTh
RTh RþRTh V Th
RTh ðRÞ2 R
) Power percentage ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ð4Þ
RðRTh Þ2 RTh
As can be seen in (4), the power percentage does not depend on the size of the power source (herein, the voltage source),
and it only depends on the ratio of resistors. Therefore, by changing the size of the voltage source, the power absorbed
by the 5 Ω resistor will not be affected.
2.55. As is shown in the circuit of Fig. 2.55.2, we need to turn off all the independent sources and connect a test source with
the voltage and current of Vt and It, respectively. Next, we need to analyze the circuit to calculate the value of VI tt, which
is the same as the equivalent resistance of the circuit (Req).
To analyze this circuit, mesh analysis is the best approach. To minimize the number of variables, the current of the test
voltage source (It) and the current of the independent current source (3V ) are considered as the currents of mesh 1 and
mesh 3, respectively.
Defining V1 based on the mesh current:
V 1 ¼ 4 ð3V Þ ¼ 12V ð1Þ

KVL in mesh 1:
7 7
V t þ 1ðI t 3V Þ þ 1 I t V 1 ¼ 0 ) V t þ 2I t 3V V 1 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
6 6
7
V t þ 2I t 3V ð12V Þ ¼ 0 ) V t þ 2I t þ 11V ¼ 0 ð3Þ
6
KVL in mesh 2:
1
1 I t þ 4ð3V Þ þ V ¼ 0 ) I t 11V ¼ 0 ) V ¼ I ð4Þ
11 t

1 V
) V t þ 2I t þ 11 I t ¼ 0 ) V t þ I t ¼ 0 ) t ¼ 1
11 It
Vt
) Req ¼ ¼1
It

2.56. Note: In this circuit, it is convenient to consider the units of kΩ, mA, and V for the resistances, the currents, and the
voltages, respectively.
First Method (Nodal Analysis): As can be seen in Fig. 2.56.2, there are four nodes in the circuit; however, one of them
is dependent (ground zone) and one of them has a known voltage (1 V). The voltages of other nodes are indicated by e1
and e2, as can be seen in the circuit. To solve the problem by using nodal analysis, we need to apply KCL in each
independent node.
Note: Since there is a voltage source between two nodes, we must apply KCL for the supernode including these two
nodes.
e1 1 e
3I x þ 2 2 ¼ 0 ð1Þ
1 0:5
Also, we need to identify the relation between the voltage of the voltage source and these node voltages (e1 and e2).
e1 e2 ¼ 3V x ð2Þ
As can be seen in the equations, other variables have appeared in them; thus, we need to define them based on the node
voltages.
Using Ohm’s laws for the 1kΩ resistor, to define Ix based on the node voltages:
1 e1
Ix ¼ ð3Þ
1
Also, it is clear that:
V x ¼ e2 ð4Þ
Put (3) in (1) and simplify it:
e1 1 1 e1 e2
3 þ 2 ¼ 0 ) e1 1 3 þ 3e1 þ 2e2 2 ¼ 0 ) 4e1 þ 2e2 ¼ 6 ð5Þ
1 1 0:5
e1 e2 ¼ 3e2 ) e1 ¼ 4e2 ð6Þ
1
4ð4e2 Þ þ 2e2 ¼ 6 ) e2 ¼ V
3
As can be noticed from the circuit:
1
e2 V 2
I¼ )I¼ 3 ¼ mA
0:5 0:5 kΩ 3

Second Method (Mesh Analysis): As can be seen in Fig. 2.56.3, although the circuit includes three meshes, the current
of the right-side mesh is known (2 mA).
i3 ¼ 2 mA ð7Þ
To solve the problem by using mesh analysis, we need to apply KVL in each independent mesh. However, since there is
a current source between the two meshes, we must apply KVL for the supermesh including these two meshes.
KVL for the supermesh of the circuit of Fig. 2.56.3:
1 þ I x 1 þ 3V x þ V x ¼ 0 ) 1 þ I x þ 4V x ¼ 0 ð8Þ
Moreover, we need to determine the relation between the current of the current source and these mesh currents (i1
and i2).
i2 i1 ¼ 3I x ð9Þ
As can be seen in equations (8) and (9), they are not purely based on the independent variables (i1 and i2). Therefore, we
need to define Vx and Ix based on them.
Using Ohm’s laws for the 500 Ω resistor to define Vx based on the mesh currents:
Using ð7Þ
V x ¼ 0:5ði2 þ i3 Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V x ¼ 0:5ði2 þ 2Þ ð10Þ
Additionally, it is clear that:
I x ¼ i1 ð11Þ
Put (10) and (11) in (8) and simplify it:
1 þ i1 þ 4ð0:5ði2 þ 2ÞÞ ¼ 0 ) i1 þ 2i2 þ 3 ¼ 0 ð12Þ
i2
i2 i1 ¼ 3i1 ) i1 ¼ ð13Þ
4
i2 9 4
þ 2i2 þ 3 ¼ 0 ) i2 ¼ 3 ) i2 ¼ mA
4 4 3
As can be seen in the circuit:
4 2
I ¼ i2 þ i3 ¼ þ 2 ¼ mA
3 3

2.57. As can be noticed from the circuit, there are some symmetries and specific characteristics in that. The blue-color
boundary in Fig. 2.57.1 shows a parallel circuit with infinite number of components. Therefore, its equivalent resistance
will be zero, as can be seen in the following:

R R
RBlue ¼ RR . . . RR ¼ ¼ ¼0 ð1Þ
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} n 1
n times
Thus, this part of the circuit can be replaced by a short-circuit branch, as can be seen in Fig. 2.57.2. Figure 2.57.3 is the
simplified version of Fig. 2.57.2. This type of circuit is called infinite ladder circuit.
As can be seen in Fig. 2.57.4, the equivalent resistance of the red-color boundary is called RRed. Therefore, Rin is just a
parallel connection of R and RRed.

RRRed
Rin ¼ RRRed ¼ ð2Þ
R þ RRed
To calculate the equivalent resistance of RRed, Fig. 2.57.5 is drawn. As can be seen, the relation below is held between
RRed and RGreen.

R ðR þ RGreen Þ R2 þ RRGreen
RRed ¼ RðR þ RGreen Þ ¼ ¼ ð3Þ
R þ ðR þ RGreen Þ 2R þ RGreen
However, since the ladder circuit has an infinite size, RGreen will be approximately equal to RRed because removing one
series R and one parallel R will not significantly affect RRed.
RGreen ffi RRed ð4Þ
R2 þ RRRed
) RRed ffi ) 2RRRed þ R2Red ffi R2 þ RRRed
2R þ RRed
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
R R2 þ 4R2 1 5
) RRed þ RRRed R ffi 0 ) RRed ffi
2 2
¼R
2 2
RRed ffi 1:618R, 0:618R
However, 1.618R is not an acceptable value for the equivalent resistance of that part of the circuit, since it must be
non-negative. Now, the input resistance of the circuit can be determined by using equation (2).
RRRed 0:618R2
Rin ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:382R
R þ RRed 1:618R

2.58. To adjust the circuit as an amplifier, the ratio of VV os must be greater than one. To find this ratio, we need to analyze the
circuit. Herein, nodal analysis is the best approach. Just two nodes out of four nodes are independent with unknown
voltages (e1, Vo), as can be seen in the figure. In this question, note that the quantity shown for each resistor is its
conductance and not resistance.
KCL in the node with the node voltage of e1:
5ðe1 V s Þ þ 2e1 þ αI x ¼ 0 ) 7e1 5V s þ αI x ¼ 0 ð1Þ
KCL in the node with the node voltage of Vo:
4
αI x þ 3V o þ V o ¼ 0 ) I x ¼ V o ð2Þ
α
On the other hand, we can define Ix based on the node voltage. Using Ohm’s law:
I x ¼ 2e1 ð3Þ
4 2
2e1 ¼ V o ) e1 ¼ V o ð4Þ
α α
Put (2) and (4) in (1):

2 4 14 þ 4α V 5α
7 V o 5V s þ α V o ¼ 0 ) V o ¼ 5V s ) o ¼
α α α V s 14 þ 4α
The value of VV os must be greater than one to adjust the circuit as an amplifier. Thus:
5α
> 1 ) 5α > 14 þ 4α ) α > 14
14 þ 4α
2.59. First, we need to calculate the parametric value of input resistance of the circuit. As can be seen in Fig. 2.59.2, a test
voltage source is connected to the circuit, since the circuit includes a dependent power source. If the circuit had
independent sources, we needed to turn them off.
Nodal analysis is the best method to apply in this problem, since the circuit includes just two independent nodes.
KCL in node 1:
e1 e1 V t e Vt
þ þ αI þ 1 ¼ 0 ) 3e1 2V t þ αI ¼ 0 ð1Þ
1 1 1

V t e1 V e1 V t
I t þ αI þ t þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ 2:5V t 2e1 αI ¼ 0 ð2Þ
1 1 2
Defining I based on the node voltages:
V t e1
I¼ ¼ V t e1 ð3Þ
1
α2
3e1 2V t þ αðV t e1 Þ ¼ 0 ) ð3 αÞe1 þ ðα 2ÞV t ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V ð4Þ
α3 t
I t þ 2:5V t 2e1 αðV t e1 Þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t ð2:5 αÞ þ e1 ðα 2Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ

α2 α2 4α þ 4
I t þ V t ð2:5 αÞ þ V t ðα 2Þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t 2:5 α þ ¼0
α3 α3
1 1
Vt α2 4α þ 4 2:5α α2 7:5 þ 3α þ α2 4α þ 4
) ¼ 2:5 α þ ¼
It α3 α3
Vt α3 α3
) ¼ ¼
It 1:5α 3:5 1:5 α 73
Vt α3 7
) Rin ¼ ¼ <0) <α<3
It 1:5 α 73 3

2.60. First, we need to analyze the circuit to find the voltage of the second node (e2), and then the short-circuit current can be
calculated by using a single KCL. In this problem, nodal analysis will result in the least calculations. Herein, the voltage
of the third node is zero, since it is grounded (e3 ¼ 0 V ). Moreover, we should note that a short-circuit branch never
eliminates a current source.
e2 0
Ix ¼ ¼ e2 ð1Þ
1
KCL in node 1:
e1 e1 e2 Using ð1Þ
3 þ þ 2I x ¼ 0 ) 2e1 e2 2I x ¼ 3 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 2e1 3e2 ¼ 3 ð2Þ
1 1
KCL in node 2:
e2 e1 e2 e2 0
þ þ ¼ 0 ) e1 þ 3e2 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ 3e2 ð3Þ
1 1 1
2ð3e2 Þ 3e2 ¼ 3 ) e2 ¼ 1 V ð4Þ
To calculate Isc, we need to apply KCL in node 3.
0 e2 Using ð1Þ
2I x þ 5 þ I sc ¼ 0 ) 2I x e2 5 þ I sc ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I sc ¼ 5 e2
1
Using ð4Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I sc ¼ 5 1 ¼ 4 A
¼
¼
¼
2.61. The circuit is symmetrically seen from terminal A-B and AB axis is the symmetry axis. Therefore, the circuit can be folded
through the AB axis, as can be seen in Fig. 2.61.2. Herein, the vertical resistors in the left and right sides are eliminated,
since their two ends have equal voltages. Additionally, the resistance of three resistors is halved, due to the parallelism.
Now, as can be seen in Fig. 2.61.2, the three 0.5 Ω resistors have Wye-connection. By changing their connection to
Delta-connection, the circuit is converted to Fig. 2.61.3.
1 1 1 1 1 1
RAO RBO þ RBO RCO þ RCO RAO 2 2 þ 2 2 þ 2 2 1 3
RAC ¼ ¼ ¼3 ¼ Ω
RBO 1 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
RAB ¼ ¼ ¼3 ¼ Ω
RCO 1 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
RBC ¼ ¼ ¼3 ¼ Ω
RAO 1 2 2
2
Now, the circuit of Fig. 2.61.3 can be simplified like the one shown in Fig. 2.61.4.

3 1 2 3
3
1 ¼ ¼ Ω
2 1 þ 32 5
Finally,

3 3 3 63 5 2
6 3 18
18 2
RAB ¼ þ ¼ ¼ 6 3 ¼ 12þ15
10
¼ ¼ Ω
5 5 2 5 2 5þ2 10
27 3

2.62. We need to determine the value of the Norton resistance of the circuit (RN), which is the same as the equivalent
resistance (Req) seen from the terminal, and the Norton current (IN), which is equal to the short-circuit current (Isc)
flowing through the terminal.
To calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit (Req), we need to connect a test source to the terminal and determine
the quantity of VI tt, as is shown in Fig. 2.62.2. Moreover, to determine the value of the short-circuit current (Isc), we need
to analyze the circuit while the terminal is short-circuited, as can be seen in Fig. 2.62.3.
To find Req, first, we need to apply KVL in the top mesh of the circuit of Fig. 2.62.2:
V x þ 5I t ¼ 0 ) V x ¼ 5I t ð1Þ
KCL in supernode 1:
e1 V t e1 1 e 7 V 1 Using ð1Þ 7 V 1
þ Vx þ 1 ¼ 0 ) e1 t V x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e t I ¼0 ð2Þ
5 10 20 20 20 5 20 20 1 5 4 t
KCL in supernode 2:
V t e1
I t þ ¼ 0 ) 5I t þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ 5I t þ V t ð3Þ
5
7 V 1 3V t 40 V 40 V 40
ð5I t þ V t Þ t I t ¼ 0 ) I ¼0) t¼ ) Req ¼ t ¼ Ω
20 5 4 20 20 t It 3 It 3
40
) RN ¼ Req ¼ Ω
3
To find Isc, by applying KVL in the right mesh of the circuit of Fig. 2.62.3, we have:
V x þ e1 ¼ 0 ) V x ¼ e1 ð4Þ
KCL in supernode 1:
e1 5 e1 1 e 7e 1
þ V x þ 1 þ 2 ¼ 0 ) 1 V x þ 1 ¼ 0 ) 7e1 V x þ 20 ¼ 0
5 10 20 20 20 20
Using ð3Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) 7e1 þ e1 þ 20 ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ 2:5 V ð5Þ
KCL in supernode 2:
5 e1 5 e1 Using ð5Þ 5 ð2:5Þ

I sc 2 þ ¼ 0 ) I sc ¼ 2 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I sc ¼ 2
¼
¼
¼ ¼ 2 1:5 ¼ 0:5 A
5 5 5
I N ¼ I sc ¼ 0:5 A

2.63. Since the circuit includes at least one dependent source, we must apply a test source at the terminal and determine the
value of VI tt to find the input resistance of the circuit (Rin). After that, we can solve the equation of Rin < 0 to find the value
of m.
Using Ohm’s law for the vertical 1 Ω resistor to define I based on node voltages (see Fig. 2.63.2):
e2
I¼ ¼ e2 ð1Þ
1
Using ð1Þ
mI ¼ e2 e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) me2 ¼ e2 e1 ) e1 ¼ ð1 mÞe2
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
e1 V t e2 e2 Using ð2Þ
þ þ ¼ 0 ) e1 V t þ 3e2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) ð1 mÞe2 V t þ 3e2 ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼
1 1 0:5
Vt
) e2 ¼ ð3Þ
4m
V t V t e1 Using ð2Þ
I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ 3V t e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ 3V t ð1 mÞe2 ¼ 0
0:5 1
Using ð3Þ
Vt 1m
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ 3V t ð1 mÞ ¼ 0 ) It þ 3 V ¼0
4m 4m t

11 2m V 4m 4m 11
) It þ Vt ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) Rin ¼ <0)4<m<
4m It 11 2m 11 2m 2
m ¼ 5 is the only choice which is in the acceptable range. Thus, choice (3) is the answer.
2.64. Source transformation theorem is the best method to solve this problem, as is shown in Figs. 2.64.1–2.64.7. Since we are
interested in the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the problem, we can remove any component which is in series with the
independent current source. Hence, the indicated parts of the circuit in Fig. 2.64.1 are simplified and shown in Fig. 2.64.2.
Then, based on the source transformation technique, the indicated part of the circuit in Fig. 2.64.2 (the current source (I)
in parallel with the resistor (R)) is replaced by a voltage source (V ¼ IR) in series with the resistor (R), as is shown in
Fig. 2.64.3.
Next, the series resistors in both branches are combined, as can be seen in Fig. 2.64.4.
After that, the voltage source (IR) in series with the resistor (2R) is replaced by a current source (I ¼ 2R IR
¼ 2I ) in parallel
with the resistor (2R), based on the source transformation technique, as can be seen in Fig. 2.64.5. Simultaneously, the
voltage source (E) in series with the resistor (2R) is replaced by a current source (I ¼ 2R E
) in parallel with the resistor (2R).

Now, all the parallel current sources (2RE
þ 2I I ¼ 2RE
2I ¼ EIR
2R ) as well as all the parallel resistors (2R2RR ¼ 2) are
R
simplified, as is shown in Fig. 2.64.6.

Finally, by using the source transformation technique, the current source (EIR R
2R ) in parallel with the resistor ( 2 ) is
converted to the voltage source (EIR R
4 ) is series with the resistor ( 2 ), as can be seen in Fig. 2.64.7.


2.65. First, we need to determine the equivalent Thevenin circuit for this problem. After that, we can calculate the Thevenin
resistance and Thevenin voltage for the given value of parameter (a ! 1). As is shown in Fig. 2.65.2, to find the
equivalent Thevenin circuit, we can apply a test source and find a relation between Vt and It in the form of Vt ¼ αIt + β,
without turning off the independent sources. Then, RTh ¼ α and VTh ¼ β.
KCL in the node with the node voltage of V (see Fig. 2.65.2):
V V 2 V Vt 2 þ Vt
þ þ ¼ 0 ) 3V 2 V t ¼ 0 ) V ¼ ð1Þ
1 1 1 3
KCL in node “a”:
V t aV V t V
I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ 2V t ða þ 1ÞV ¼ 0
1 1

Using ð1Þ 2 þ Vt 5a 2a þ 2
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I t þ 2V t ða þ 1Þ
¼
¼
¼ ¼ 0 ) It þ Vt ¼0
3 3 3
3 2a þ 2 3 2a þ 2
) Vt ¼ I þ ) RTh ¼ ,V ¼
5a t 5a 5 a Th 5a
3
lim R ¼ a!1
lim ¼0Ω
a!1 Th 5a
2a þ 2
lim V Th ¼ lim ¼ 2V
a!1 a!1 5a

2.66. First, we need to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit seen from terminal a-b. Therefore, all the independent
sources are turned off; a test voltage source is connected to the terminal to find the value of VI tt , as can be seen in the
circuit of Fig. 2.66.2.
From the circuit, it is clear that (see Fig. 2.66.2):
V1 ¼ Vt ð1Þ
Using ð1Þ
αV 1 ¼ V t e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) αV t ¼ V t e1 ) e1 ¼ ð1 αÞV t
¼
¼
¼ ð2Þ
KCL in the larger supernode:
V t e1 V 2 V Using ð2Þ V
3V 2 I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) 2V 2 I t þ t þ e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 2V 2 I t þ t þ ð1 αÞV t ¼ 0
¼
¼
¼
R 1 R R

1
) 2V 2 I t þ 1 α þ V t ¼ 0 ð3Þ
R
KCL in node 2:
V2 V e1 Using ð2Þ
3V 2 þ 2 ¼ 0 ) V 2 e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V 2 ð1 αÞV t ¼ 0
1 1
) V 2 ¼ ð1 αÞV t ð4Þ

1 1
2ðð1 αÞV t Þ I t þ 1 α þ V t ¼ 0 ) I t þ 2ð1 αÞ þ 1 α þ V t ¼ 0
R R
ðα 1ÞR þ 1 V R R
) It þ Vt ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) RTh ¼ ð5Þ
R It ðα 1ÞR þ 1 ðα 1ÞR þ 1
According to the question:
RTh ¼ R ð6Þ
R
¼ R ) ðα 1ÞR þ 1 ¼ 1 ) ðα 1ÞR ¼ 0 ) α ¼ 1
ðα 1ÞR þ 1

2.67. Instead of finding the parameters of the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the problem (VTh and RTh), we can find the
parameters of the Norton equivalent circuit (IN and RN), and then we can calculate the parameters of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit by using the following relations:
V Th
IN ¼ ð1Þ
RTh
RN ¼ RTh ð2Þ
As can be seen in Fig. 2.67.2, to find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, we can simply use voltage division formula:
2
Va ¼ 3¼2V ð3Þ
2þ1
1
Vb ¼ 3¼1V ð4Þ
1þ2
Using ð3Þ, ð4Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼¼) V oc ¼ V ab ¼ V a V b ¼ 2 1 ¼ 1 V ð4Þ
) V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 1 V ð5Þ
As can be seen in Figs. 2.67.3–2.67.5, to find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, we can simply use the series-parallel
rule of resistors, while turning off the independent voltage source. As can be seen in Fig. 2.67.3 and Fig. 2.67.4, the 1 Ω
resistor in the vertical branch is eliminated, since its two ends are short-circuited. The circuit of Fig. 2.67.5 is the
simplified circuit of Fig. 2.67.4.

12 12 2 2 4 4
Req ¼ 12 þ 12 ¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ Ω ) RTh ¼ Req ¼ Ω ð6Þ
1þ2 1þ2 3 3 3 3
Solving (1), (5), and (6):
V Th 1 3
IN ¼ ¼ ¼ A
RTh 43 4

4
) RN ¼ RTh ¼ Ω
3
2.68. The circuit seems to be complicated, but it is not. As can be seen, there is a symmetry in the circuit. Since the equivalent
resistance between the nodes of “A” and “O” is requested, the A-O-Z axis is the symmetry axis. Therefore, the symmetric
nodes (“A” and “C” as well as “X” and “Y”) will have equal voltages (if a power source is connected between the nodes of “A”
and “O”), and the circuit can be folded through the A-O-Z axis, as can be seen in Fig. 2.68.2. Note that all the branches, except
the branches between A-O and O-Z, will include two resistors in parallel. Thus, the resistance of each of them will be 10 Ω.
Next, the loop of B-C-O-Z can be simplified, as is shown in Fig. 2.68.3 and in the following equations:

30 10 300 15
) RBCOZ ¼ ð10 þ 20Þð10Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 7:5 Ω ð1Þ
30 þ 10 40 2
After that, the circuit can be simplified by using series-parallel rules, as is illustrated in Figs. 2.68.4–2.68.7 and in the
following equations:
In Fig. 2.68.4:
10 þ 7:5 ¼ 17:5 Ω ð2Þ

In Fig. 2.68.5:

17:5 10 70
17:510 ¼ ¼ Ω ð3Þ
17:5 þ 10 11
In Fig. 2.68.6:
70 180
þ 10 ¼ Ω ð4Þ
11 11
In Fig. 2.68.7:

11 20
180
180
) ROA ¼ 20 ¼ 180 ¼9Ω
11 þ 20
11
2.69. As can be seen in the figure, a test source is applied to calculate the equivalent resistance seen from terminal a-b because
the circuit includes a dependent source. Moreover, the circuit does not have any independent source. Determining the
value of VI tt will return the equivalent resistance seen from the terminal (Rab). The circuit includes three meshes and three
independent nodes; thus, it does not matter which method of analysis is applied in this problem. Herein, nodal analysis
is applied.
KCL in node 2:
e2 e2 0 3e 3
þ αI ¼ 0 ) 2 αI ¼ 0 ) I ¼ e ð1Þ
4R 2R 4R 4αR 2
KCL in supernode “a”:
Vt 0 V Using ð1Þ V 3
I t þ þ αI ¼ 0 ) I t þ t þ αI ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) I t þ t þ α e ¼0
R R R 4αR 2
Vt 3
) It þ þ e ¼0 ð2Þ
R 4R 2
KCL in node 1:
0 V t 0 e2 V e Using ð1Þ 3 V e
Iþ þ ¼0)I t 2 ¼0¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e t 2 ¼0
R 2R R 2R 4αR 2 R 2R

3 1 V 3 2α V 3 2α V
) e2 t ¼ 0 ) e2 t ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ t
4αR 2R R 4αR R 4αR R

4α
) e2 ¼ V ð3Þ
3 2α t

Vt 3 4α 1 3 4α
I t þ þ V t ¼ 0 ) It þ þ V ¼0
R 4R 3 2α R 4R 3 2α t

1 12α 4ð3 2αÞ þ 12α
) It þ þ V t ¼ 0 ) It þ Vt ¼ 0
R 4Rð3 2αÞ 4Rð3 2αÞ

12 þ 4α 12 þ 4α Vt 4Rð3 2αÞ
) It þ V ¼ 0 ) It ¼ V ¼0) ¼
4Rð3 2αÞ t 4Rð3 2αÞ t It 12 þ 4α

Vt 12R 8αR 12R 8αR 8R
) Rab ¼ ¼ ) lim Rab ¼ lim ¼ ¼ 2R
It 12 þ 4α α!1 α!1 12 þ 4α 4
2.70. To determine the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, we need to calculate the open circuit voltage of the terminal, as is
shown in Fig. 2.70.2. Moreover, as can be seen in Fig. 2.70.3, a test voltage source is connected to the terminal, and the
independent current source is turned off to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit. In both, nodal analysis is
applied.
To find the Thevenin voltage of the circuit (see Fig. 2.70.2):
V oc e1
4 þ ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V oc 4 ð1Þ
1
Defining the voltage of the dependent voltage based on the node voltages:
I 1 ¼ e2 e1 ð2Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 1 Ω resistor in the horizontal branch:
V1 ¼ 4 1 ¼ 4 V ð3Þ
e1 Using ð2Þ e Using ð1Þ

I1 ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) e2 e1 ¼ 1 ) e2 ¼ 1:5e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e2 ¼ 1:5ðV oc 4Þ ¼ 1:5V oc 6
¼
¼
¼ ð4Þ
2 2
e1 V oc e Using ð2Þ, ð3Þ

þ 2V 1 þ I 1 þ 2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e1 V oc þ 2ð4Þ þ ðe2 e1 Þ þ e2 ¼ 0
¼
1 1
Using ð4Þ
) V oc þ 8 þ 2e2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V oc þ 8 þ 2ð1:5V oc 6 Þ ¼ 0 ) 2V oc ¼ 4 ) V Th ¼ V oc ¼ 2 V
To find the Thevenin resistance of the circuit (see Fig. 2.70.3):

V t e1
I t þ ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V t I t ð1Þ
1
Defining the voltage of the dependent voltage based on the node voltages:
I 1 ¼ e2 e1 ð2Þ
Using Ohm’s law for the 1 Ω resistor in the horizontal branch:
V 1 ¼ It 1 ¼ It ð3Þ
e1 Using ð2Þ e Using ð1Þ

I1 ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e2 e1 ¼ 1 ) e2 ¼ 1:5e1 ¼
¼
¼
¼ ¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) e2 ¼ 1:5ðV t I t Þ
¼
¼
¼ ð4Þ
2 2
e1 V t e Using ð2Þ, ð3Þ

þ 2V 1 þ I 1 þ 2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) e1 V t þ 2I t þ ðe2 e1 Þ þ e2 ¼ 0
1 1
Using ð4Þ
) V t þ 2I t þ 2e2 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼) V t þ 2I t þ 2ð1:5ðV t I t ÞÞ ¼ 0 ) 2V t I t ¼ 0
Vt V
) ¼ 0:5 ) RTh ¼ t ¼ 0:5 Ω
It It


Problems: First-Order Circuits
3
Abstract
This chapter helps both groups of underprepared and knowledgeable undergraduate students taking courses in electrical circuit
analysis. In this chapter, the basic and advanced problems of capacitive and inductive first-order circuits are presented. Each
type of the first-order circuit comprises one or one equivalent energy-saving component (a capacitor or inductor) and a
combination of other components including resistors, independent voltage and current sources, and dependent voltage and
current sources. Like the other chapters of this textbook, the problems are categorized in different levels based on their difficulty
levels (easy, normal, or hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal, or large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the
easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult problems with the largest calculations.
3.1. Determine the time constant of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.1.
1) 1.2 s
2) 2 s
3) 2.4 s
4) 5 s
3.2. What is the time constant of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.2?
1) 14.4 s
2) 15.5 s
3) 31.5 s
4) 33.5 s

116 3 Problems: First-Order Circuits
3.3. Calculate the time constant of the circuit of Fig. 3.3.

R1 R2 C
1) R1 þR2
2) R1R2C
R1
3) R2 C
R2
4) R1 C
3.4. How much is the time constant of the circuit of Fig. 3.4?
1) 2 s
2) 1 s
3) 0.05 s
4) 0.01 s
3 Problems: First–Order Circuits 117
3.5. In the circuit of Fig. 3.5, the switch has been in open position for a long time. Determine the current of the capacitor
exactly after closing the switch (Ic(0+)).
1) 6 A
2) 6 A
3) 4 A
4) 4 A
3.6. In the circuit of Fig. 3.6, calculate the absolute value of charge stored in the capacitor in the steady state condition.
1) 2.21 μC
2) 2.01 μC
3) 1.28 mC
4) 0.48 mC

3.7. How much is the time constant of the circuit illustrated in Fig. 3.7?
1) 1.5 s
2) 2 s
3) 3.5 s
4) 5 s
3.8. In the circuit of Fig. 3.8, the current source is a unit step, and the capacitor has the primary voltage of 0 V. Determine the
voltage across the current source.
1) 0.5(1 e0.5t)u(t) V
2) 0.5(1 e0.25t)u(t) V
3) 2(1 e0.5t)u(t) V
4) 2(1 e0.25t)u(t) V

3.9. In the circuit of Fig. 3.9, the initial voltage of the capacitor is zero. Determine its voltage for t 0.
1) 1 e21t V
5
2) 1 e21t V
10

3) 5 1 e21t V
5

4) 5 1 e21t V
10
3.10. In the circuit of Fig. 3.10, the primary voltage of the capacitor is zero. How much is the voltage of the capacitor after
1 ms?
1) 2(1 + e1) V
2) 2(1 e1) V
3) 3(1 + e1) V
4) 3(1 e1) V
3.11. In the circuit of Fig. 3.11, IL(0) ¼ 1 A. What is the equation of Vab(t) for t > 0?
1) 1.2e3.4t V
2) 0.2e3.4t V
3) 0.2e3.4t V
4) 3.4e3.4t V
3.12. What is the differential equation of VC(t) in the circuit of Fig. 3.12, assuming that the capacitor has an initial non-zero
voltage?
dV C ðt Þ
1) dt þ 0:5V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
dV C ðt Þ
2) dt þ 0:5V C ðt Þ ¼ I s ðt Þ
dV C ðt Þ
3) dt þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
dV C ðt Þ
4) dt þ V C ðt Þ ¼ I s ðt Þ
3.13. Calculate I(t) in the circuit of Fig. 3.13, assuming VC(0) ¼ 2 V.

1) 2.5 0.5e0.5t A
2) 2.5 4.5e2t A
3) 2.5 4.5e0.5t A
4) 2.5 0.5e2t A

3.14. In the circuit of Fig. 3.14, what must be the value of k to adjust the time constant of the circuit below 8 seconds?
1) 43
2) 185
3
3) 34
3
4) 185
3.15. In the circuit of Fig. 3.15, determine the resistance of the resistor R that will not change the time constant of the circuit if
the capacitor C is replaced by the inductor L that L ¼ C.
1) 0.8 Ω
2) 0.6 Ω
3) 1.2 Ω
4) 1.5 Ω
3.16. In the circuit of Fig. 3.16, VC(0+) ¼ 10 V. Calculate Vab for t 0.

2:1e36 V
t
1)
1:04e36 V
t
2)
1:04e24 V
t
3)
2:1e24 V
t
4)
3.17. The switch is closed at t ¼ 0 in the circuit of Fig. 3.17. Determine I(t) for t 0.
1) 5 A
2) 5e1000t A
3) 5(1 e1000t) A
4) 5(1 + e1000t) A
3.18. In the circuit of Fig. 3.18, how long will it take for the voltage of the capacitor to be halved? The primary voltage of the
capacitor is 2 V at t ¼ 0.
1) 5 ln 2 s
2) 4 ln 2 s
3) 43 ln 2 s
4) 34 ln 2 s

3.19. The capacitive network shown in Fig. 3.19 is infinite from the right side. Determine the equivalent capacitance of the
network.
1) 0.23 F
2) 0.36 F
3) 1 F
4) 3 F
3.20. In the circuit of Fig. 3.20, how much must be the resistance of R2 to not change the voltage of the current source due to
the switching operation at t1 ¼ R1C? The primary voltage of the capacitor is zero.
R1
1) e1
R1
2) e
3) eR1
4) (e 1)R1
3.21. The switch shown in the circuit of Fig. 3.21 is closed at t ¼ 0 after a long time. Determine its current at t ¼ 1 s.
1) 5(1 e1) A
2) 5(1 + e1) A
3) 5(1 2e1) A
4) 5(1 + 2e1) A
3.22. Calculate the output voltage (Vo(t)) in the circuit of Fig. 3.22 for t 0 assuming VC(0) ¼ 1 V and IL(0) ¼ 1 A.
1) 1 + et V
2) 1 e2t V
3) et e2t V
4) 0 V
3.23. In the circuit of Fig. 3.23, the switch has been open for a long time, and it is closed at t ¼ 0. Calculate the short-circuit
current at t ¼ 4 s assuming R2 ¼ 0.5 Ω, R1 ¼ 0.25 Ω, Is ¼ 6 A, L ¼ 0.5 H.
1) 8 A
2) 0 A
3) 4 A
4) 2 A

3.24. In the circuit of Fig. 3.24, how much energy is generated or consumed by the current source during the interval that the
capacitor voltage changes from its primary value of 4 V to 1 V?
1) 2.71 J, generated
2) 1.04 J, generated
3) 2.71 J, consumed
4) 1.04 J, consumed
3.25. In the circuit of Fig. 3.25, the switch is opened at t ¼ 0. Calculate the value of dVdtC j t¼0þ .
1) 0
2) 3E
3) 6E
4) 3αE
3.26. In the circuit of Fig. 3.26, the primary voltage of the capacitor is 4 V (VC(0) ¼ 4 V ). What relation needs to be between
Vs and Is to not charge or discharge the capacitor for t > 0?
1) Vs ¼ 2Is
2) Vs + 2Is > 4
3) Vs + 2Is > 12
4) Vs + 2Is ¼ 12
3.27. What is the equation of IL(t) for t 0 in the circuit of Fig. 3.27?
1) 7.5et V
2) 2.5(1 et) V
3) (7.5 5et) V
4) (7.5 2.5et) V

t
3.28. In the resistive circuit of Fig. 3.28, if 1 F capacitor is connected to terminal A-B, V ðt Þ ¼ 2 1 e2 uðt Þ V is achieved.
If the capacitor is replaced by a 3 H inductor, what voltage will be acquired?
1) 2e2t uðt Þ V
3
2) 2e3t uðt Þ V
2

3) 1 2e3t uðt Þ V
2

4) 1 2e2t uðt Þ V
3

3.29. In the circuit of Fig. 3.29, the switch is opened at t ¼ 0. Calculate the value of dVdtC j t¼0þ .
1) 2 V/s
2) 1 V/s
3) 1 V/s
4) 2 V/s
3.30. In the circuit of Fig. 3.30, determine the voltage of the capacitor at t ¼ 0+, assuming V0(0) ¼ 1 V.
1) 6 V
2) 4 V
3) 5 V
4) 2 V
3.31. In the circuit of Fig. 3.31, the switch has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t ¼ 0. Calculate I(t) for t > 0.
1) 7.5e3t A
2) 5e2t A
3) 7.5et A
4) 5e0.5t A
3.32. In the circuit of Fig. 3.32, VC(0) ¼ 4 V. For what size of the resistor R will the energy of the capacitor be always
constant?
1) 34 Ω
2) 32 Ω
3) 23 Ω
4) 43 Ω
3.33. In the circuit of Fig. 3.33, there is no energy stored in the inductor for t < 0. The switch is closed at t ¼ 1 s. Determine the
current flowing through the short-circuit branch at t ¼ 4 s (Isc(t ¼ 4 s)).
1) 0.45 A
2) 2 A
3) 1.995 A
4) None of the above

3.34. In the circuit of Fig. 3.34, if the initial voltage of the capacitor is zero, V ðt Þ ¼ 14 ð1 e3t Þuðt Þ is achieved. Now, if the
capacitor is replaced by an inductor with the size of 2 H, determine its voltage.
1) 14 e6 uðt Þ V
t
2) 14 e3t uðt Þ V

3) 14 1 e 3 uðt Þ V
2t
t
4) 14 1 e6 uðt Þ V
3.35. The short-term voltage signal shown in Fig. 3.35.2 is applied to the circuit illustrated in Fig. 3.35.1. Determine the
output voltage at t ¼ 2.2 s, assuming IL(0) ¼ 0.
1) 0 V
2) 0.968 V
3) 0.586 V
4) 1.482 V
3.36. In the circuit of Fig. 3.36, the switch is set in “A” position at t ¼ 0. When V(t) reaches the 50% of its primary value, the
switch is moved to “B” position. Determine V(t) during the time that the switch is in “B” position.
1) 50e(t 2 ln 2)/2 V
2) 50e(t ln 2)/3 V
3) 50e(t ln 2)/2 V
4) 50e(t 2 ln 2)/3 V
3.37. In the circuit of Fig. 3.37, switch S1 is closed at t ¼ 0. Additionally, switch S2 is closed when its voltage reaches
9 V. Determine VC(t) after the second switching.
6 þ 1:8e 3 V
t2:2
1)
6 2:25e 3 V
t1:89
2)
6 þ 1:8e 0:75 V
t2:2
3)
6 þ 2:25e 0:75 V
t1:89
4)
3.38. The voltage pulse shown in Fig. 3.38.1 is applied to the circuit of Fig. 3.38.2. Determine the time-dependent current
equation of the circuit.
1) I(t) ¼ 20etu(t) 10e(t 2)u(t 1) A
2) I(t) ¼ 10etu(t) 10e(t 1)u(t 1) A
3) I(t) ¼ 20etu(t) 20e(t 1)u(t 1) A
4) I(t) ¼ 20etu(t) + 20e(t 1)u(t 1) A
3.39. In the circuit of Fig. 3.39, the switch has been in the closed position for a long time, but it is opened at t ¼ 0. Determine
V(t) for t > 0.
12e9t V
4
1)
6e4t V
9
2)
12e9t V
4
3)
7:5e4t V
9
4)
3.40. The circuit of Fig. 3.40 is in zero state at t ¼ 0. Calculate IC(t).

1 RCt
1) 4R e uðt Þ V.
1 2RC
t
2) 2R e uðt Þ V.
1 2RC
t
3) 4R e uðt Þ V.
4) It is impossible to calculate it without knowing Vs(t).
3.41. The network shown in Fig. 3.41 includes a resistor and a capacitor that have been connected in parallel. The response of

the circuit for a unit step function is V ðt Þ ¼ 43 1 e1:5t uðt Þ V . If the 2 Ω resistor is replaced by a 0.5 F capacitor,
determine the output voltage.
1) 2(1 e0.25t)u(t) V
2) 2(1 e0.5t)u(t) V
3) 4(1 e0.5t)u(t) V
4) 4(1 e0.25t)u(t) V

Solutions of Problems: First-Order Circuits
4
Abstract
In this chapter, the problems of the third chapter are fully solved, in detail and step-by-step. In solving the problems of the
first-order circuits, the subjects discussed in the first chapter, that is, the methods of circuit analysis and circuit theorems, are
applied. In this chapter, the concepts and the parameters of equivalent capacitance, equivalent inductance, time constant of a
capacitive first-order circuit, time constant of an inductive first-order circuit, transient response, voltage continuity principle of
capacitor, current continuity principle of inductor, primary value, final value, steady state condition, stored energy of circuit,
switching operation, and current-voltage and voltage-current relations of capacitor and inductor are explained.
4.1. First, we need to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit. As can be seen in Fig. 4.1.2, the independent voltage
and current sources need to be turned off.

64
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ ð1 þ 2 þ 3Þ4 ¼ 64 ¼ ¼ 2:4 Ω
6þ4
The time constant of the RC circuit:
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2:4 0:5 ¼ 1:2 sec
4.2. Although the circuit includes three energy-saving components, the circuit is a first-order circuit. To calculate the time
constant of an RC circuit, we need to determine the Thevenin resistance seen by the equivalent capacitor. Herein, we
must turn off the independent power source. In this problem, the capacitors have a parallel connection, as can be seen in
Fig. 4.2.2. Thus:

134 4 Solutions of Problems: First-Order Circuits
Ceq ¼ 2 þ 2 þ 3 ¼ 7 F ð1Þ
Calculating the Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor in the circuit of Fig. 4.2.3:

RTh ¼ 63 þ 1 3 þ 3 ¼ ð2 þ 1Þ3 þ 3 ¼ 1:5 þ 3 ¼ 4:5 Ω
τ ¼ RTh C eq ¼ 7 4:5 ¼ 31:5 sec

4 Solutions of Problems: First‐Order Circuits 135
4.3. The Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor is:

R R
RTh ¼ R1 R2 ¼ 1 2
R1 þ R2
The time constant of the circuit:
R1 R2 R R C
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ C ¼ 1 2
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
Fig. 4.3 The circuits of solution of problem 4.3.
4.4. To determine the time constant of the first-order RL circuit, we need to calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit
seen by the inductor. Since the circuit includes at least one independent source (independent current source), we must
apply a test source (test voltage source) to determine the value of VI tt, as can be seen in Fig. 4.4.2. In this problem, nodal
analysis is applied.
Defining i based on the node voltage, by using Ohm’s law:
Vt
i¼ ð1Þ
6
Vt V Using ð1Þ V V V
I t 2i þ i þ ¼ 0 ) It i þ t ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I t t þ t ¼ 0 ) I t þ t ¼ 0
¼
3 3 6 3 6
Vt
) ¼ 6 ) RTh ¼ 6 Ω ð2Þ
It
Time constant of the circuit:
Leq 0:06
τ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:01 sec
RTh 6

4.5. First, we need to determine the primary voltage of the capacitor before the switching operation. Figure 4.5.2 shows the
status of the circuit before the switch is closed. As can be seen, the independent current source is replaced by an open
circuit branch because I ¼ 0 before closing the switch. Moreover, since the switch has been open for a long time, the
capacitor has reached its steady state condition (open circuit). Therefore, the primary voltage of the capacitor is 6 V
(Vc(0) ¼ 6 V ), since there is no voltage drop across the 6 Ω resistor.
After closing the switch, the configuration of the circuit is updated, as is illustrated in Fig. 4.5.3. Due to the voltage
continuity of capacitor, the instant voltage of the capacitor will be 6 V even after the switching operation.
V c ð 0þ Þ ¼ V c ð 0 Þ ¼ 6 V ð1Þ
Now, by applying KCL in the indicated supernode, we have:
66 6 10
þ 5I ð0þ Þ þ I c ð0þ Þ þ ¼ 0 ) 5I ð0þ Þ þ I c ð0þ Þ 1 ¼ 0 ð2Þ
6 4
Defining I(0+) based on the node voltages:
6 10
I ð 0þ Þ ¼ ¼ 1 A ð3Þ
4
ð2Þ,ð3Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼) 5ð1Þ þ I c ð0þ Þ 1 ¼ 0 ) I c ð0þ Þ ¼ 6 A
¼

4.6. The circuit is in the steady state condition. Therefore, the capacitor can be modeled by an open circuit branch, as is
shown in Fig. 4.6.2.
Using the voltage division formula:

4 5 4 5 3
V C ð1Þ ¼ V a V b ¼ 24 24 ¼ 24 ¼ 24
4 þ 26 5 þ 10 30 15 15
) V C ð1Þ ¼ 4:8 V ð1Þ
Using the voltage-charge relation of the capacitor:
QC ð1Þ ¼ V C ð1ÞC ¼ 4:8 100 106 ¼ 0:48 mC ð2Þ
The absolute value of the charge stored in the capacitor is:
jQC ð1Þj ¼ j0:48 mC j ¼ 0:48 mC

4.7. To calculate the time constant of an RC circuit, we need to determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit seen by the
capacitor. As is shown in Fig. 4.7.2, all the independent sources are turned off, and a test source with the voltage and
current of Vt and It is connected to the terminal. In this problem, nodal analysis is applied.
Defining I1 based on the node voltage:
e2
I1 ¼ ð1Þ
3
e2 e2 V t Using ð1Þ 4
þ 3I 1 I 1 ¼ 0 ) 2e2 V t 4I 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 2e2 V t þ e2 ¼ 0
1 1 3
10 3
) Vt þ e ¼ 0 ) e2 ¼ V t ð2Þ
3 2 10
KCL in node 1:
V t e2 Using ð1Þ
I t þ þ 3I 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I t þ V t e2 e2 ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t 2e2 ¼ 0
1
Using ð2Þ
3 6 4
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I t þ V t 2
¼ V t ¼ 0 ) It þ V t V t ¼ 0 ) It þ V t ¼ 0
10 10 10
V t 10 V
) ¼ ¼ 2:5 ) RTh ¼ t ¼ 2:5 Ω ð3Þ
It 4 It
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2:5 2 ¼ 5 sec

4.8. Based on the given information:

V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
Due to the voltage continuity of the capacitor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
To calculate the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, the independent current source is turned off, as is shown in Fig. 4.8.2.
As can be noticed from Fig. 4.8.2, the circuit is symmetric if we calculate the Thevenin resistance seen from terminal
A-B. Thus, as is shown in Fig. 4.8.3, we can fold the circuit around the A-B axis. By doing this, the two ends of the 3 Ω
resistors are short-circuited; therefore, they are eliminated. However, the other resistors are paralleled two by two.
Figure 4.8.4 illustrates the simplified circuit of Fig. 4.8.3.
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 0:5 þ 1 þ 0:5 ¼ 2 Ω ð3Þ

τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2 2 ¼ 4 sec ð4Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor can be calculated by assuming the capacitor as the open circuit branch, as can be seen
in Fig. 4.8.5:
V C ð1Þ ¼ I s ð0:5 þ 1 þ 0:5Þ ¼ 1 2 ¼ 2 V ð5Þ
Now, by using the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply, we have:

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 2 þ ð0 2Þe4 ¼ 2 1 e4 V
t t t


V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor can be calculated by using the current division formula and Ohm’s law in the circuit
of Fig. 4.9.2.
2þ4
I 1,3 ¼ 5¼3A ð3Þ
2þ4þ1þ3
1þ3
I 2,4 ¼ 5¼2A ð4Þ
2þ4þ1þ3
V C ð1Þ ¼ V C þ V C ¼ 3I 1,3 4I 2,4 ¼ 3 3 4 2 ¼ 9 8 ¼ 1 V ð5Þ
To determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, we need to turn off the independent current source, as is shown in
Fig. 4.9.3.

21
RTh ¼ ð1 þ 2Þð3 þ 4Þ ¼ 37 ¼ Ω ð6Þ
10
The time constant of the circuit is:

21 21
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2¼ sec ð7Þ
10 5
Using the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply:
21t
¼ 1 e21t V
5
V C ðt Þ ¼ 1 þ ð0 1Þe 5

4.10. First, to simplify the problem, we should determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen by the capacitor. As is shown
in Fig. 4.10.2, the input resistance of the circuit can be calculated by using the series-parallel rule.

RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 1k1k þ 0:5k 1k ¼ ð0:5k þ 0:5k Þ1k ¼ 1k1k ¼ 0:5 kΩ ð1Þ
As can be seen in Fig. 4.10.3, we can use the voltage division formula, twice, to calculate the open circuit voltage.

1kð0:5k þ 1k Þ 1k1:5k 1:5k
e1 ¼ 8 ¼ 1kþ1:5k
8 ¼ 2:5k
8¼3V ð2Þ
1k þ 1k1:5k 4k
1k þ 1k ð0:5k þ 1kÞ 1kþ1:5k 2:5k
1k 1k
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ e ¼ 3¼2V ð3Þ
1k þ 0:5k 1 1:5k
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is illustrated in Fig. 4.10.4. Based on the given information:
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð4Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð5Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be 2 V, since the capacitor will behave like an open circuit. Thus:
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 2 V ð6Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 0:5 kΩ 2 μF ¼ 1 ms ð7Þ

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 2 þ ð0 2Þe1103 ¼ 2 1 e10 t
t t 3
ð8Þ
3

V C ðt ¼ 1msÞ ¼ V C t ¼ 103 s ¼ 2 1 e10 10 ¼ 2 1 e1 V
3

4.11. To simplify the problem, we can determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen by the inductor. The input resistance of
the circuit can be calculated by using the series-parallel rule, as is shown in Fig. 4.11.2.

46
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 1 þ ð1 þ 3Þð2 þ 4Þ ¼ 1 þ ¼ 3:4 Ω ð1Þ
4þ6
The Thevenin voltage of the circuit will be zero, since there is no power source in the circuit. Therefore, we have the
Thevenin equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 4.11.3.
I L ð0Þ ¼ 1 A ð2Þ
Due to the current continuity of the inductor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source):
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0Þ ¼ 1 A ð3Þ
The final current of the inductor will be 0 A, since there is no power source in the circuit. Thus:

L 1
τ¼ ¼ sec ð5Þ
RTh 3:4
Using the general form of the inductor current in a first-order circuit with DC power supply:
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð1 0Þe3:4t ¼ e3:4t

t
ð6Þ
Now, by using the current division formula and Ohm’s law, we can calculate Vab(t) in the circuit of Fig. 4.11.4.
2þ4
I 1,3 ¼ e3:4t ¼ 0:6e3:4t A ð7Þ
2þ4þ1þ3
1þ3
I 2,4 ¼ e3:4t ¼ 0:4e3:4t A ð8Þ
2þ4þ1þ3
V ab ðt Þ ¼ V a ðt Þ V b ðt Þ ¼ 3I 1,3 4I 2,4 ¼ 3 0:6e3:4t 4 0:4e3:4t ¼ ð1:8 1:6Þe3:4t
) V ab ðt Þ ¼ 0:2e3:4t V

4.12. First, we should determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit seen by the capacitor.
Using the current division formula and Ohm’s law to calculate the open circuit voltage in Fig. 4.12.2:
Is I
V Th ¼ V oc ¼ V þ
oc V oc ¼ 1 s1¼0V ð1Þ
2 2
Calculating the Thevenin resistance of the circuit seen by the capacitor (see Fig. 4.12.3):

RTh ¼ Rin ¼ ð1 þ 1Þð1 þ 1Þ ¼ 22 ¼ 1 Ω ð2Þ
Now, we have the Thevenin equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 4.12.4.
KCL in the indicated node:
I C ðt Þ þ I R ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð3Þ
d d d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼ 1 V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ ð4Þ
dt C dt dt
V C ðt Þ
I R ðt Þ ¼ ¼ V C ðt Þ ð5Þ
1
Solving (3), (4), and (5):
d
V ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt C

V C ð0 Þ ¼ 2 V ð1Þ
Due to the voltage continuity of capacitor:
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 2 V ð2Þ
To determine the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, we need to turn off the voltage source, as can be seen in Fig. 4.13.2.

RTh ¼ 11 ¼ 0:5 Ω ð3Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 0:5 1 ¼ 0:5 sec ð4Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor can be calculated by using the voltage division formula in Fig. 4.13.3.
1
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 5 ¼ 2:5 V ð5Þ
1þ1
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 2:5 þ ð2 2:5Þe0:5 ¼ 2:5 4:5e2t

t t
ð6Þ
Now, by applying KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of Fig. 4.13.4, we have:
V C ðt Þ 5
þ I C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ þ 5 I C ðt Þ ð7Þ
1
The voltage-current relation of the capacitor:
d Using ð6Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I C ðt Þ ¼ 1 2:5 4:5e2t ¼ ð4:5Þ 2e2t
dt C dt
) I C ðt Þ ¼ 9e2t ð8Þ
Solving (6), (7), and (8):

I ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ þ 5 I C ðt Þ ¼ 2:5 4:5e2t þ 5 9e2t ¼ 2:5 4:5e2t

4.14. To calculate the time constant of the circuit, first, we need to determine the Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor, as
is shown in Fig. 4.14.2. Herein, since the circuit includes a dependent source, we must apply a test source. Moreover,
the independent current source must be turned off.
Using Ohm’s law for the 4 Ω resistor:
Vt
Ix ¼ ð1Þ
4

Vt V
I x I t þ kI x þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ ðk 1ÞI x þ t ¼ 0
3 3

Using ð1Þ Vt Vt 1k 1
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I t þ ðk 1Þ
¼ þ ¼ 0 ) It þ þ Vt ¼ 0
4 3 4 3
3 3k þ 4 V 12 12
) It þ Vt ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) RTh ¼ ð2Þ
12 It 7 3k 7 3k
As we know, the time constant of an RC circuit is:
12 24
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2¼ ð3Þ
7 3k 7 3k
τ ¼ 8 sec ð4Þ
24 4
¼ 8 ) 3 ¼ 7 3k ) 3k ¼ 4 ) k ¼
7 3k 3

4.15. As we know, the time constant of first-order RC and RL circuits can be calculated by using (1) and (2), respectively:
τRC ¼ RTh C ð1Þ
L
τRL ¼ ð2Þ
RTh
τRC ¼ τRL ð3Þ
and L ¼ C ð4Þ
Solving (1), (2), and (3):
L Using ð4Þ
RTh C ¼ ) RTh 2 C ¼ L ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) RTh 2 ¼ 1 ð5Þ
RTh
Therefore, we just need to calculate the Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor. The circuit includes a dependent
source; thus we need to apply a test source. Additionally, the independent sources must be turned off, as can be seen in
Fig. 4.15.2.
e1
Ix ¼ ¼ e1 ð6Þ
1
KCL in the top node of the test source:
V t e1
I t þ ¼ 0 ) e1 ¼ V t RI t ð7Þ
R
e1 e1 e1 2I x Using ð6Þ
I t þ þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ 3e1 2I x ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I t þ 3e1 2ðe1 Þ ¼ 0
1 1 1
Using ð7Þ V 1
) I t þ 5e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I t þ 5ðV t RI t Þ ¼ 0 ) 5V t I t ð1 þ 5RÞ ¼ 0 ) t ¼ R þ
It 5
1
) RTh ¼ R þ ð8Þ
5

1 2 1 4 6
Rþ ¼ 1 ) R þ ¼ 1 ) R ¼ Ω, Ω
5 5 5 5
Negative value of R is not acceptable. Thus:
4
R¼ ¼ 0:8 Ω
5

V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 10 V ð1Þ
The Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor (see Fig. 4.16.2):

12 4
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 9 þ ð4 þ 8Þð3 þ 1Þ ¼ 9 þ ¼ 9 þ 3 ¼ 12 Ω ð2Þ
12 þ 4
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 12 3 ¼ 36 sec ð3Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be zero, since there is no power source in the circuit.
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 0 V ð4Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð10 0Þe36 ¼ 10e36 V

t t t
ð5Þ
Using the voltage division formula in the circuit of Fig. 4.16.1:

8 1 5
V ab ðt Þ ¼ V a ðt Þ V b ðt Þ ¼ V ðt Þ V x ðt Þ ¼ V x ðt Þ ð6Þ
8þ4 x 1þ3 12

ð4 þ 8Þð3 þ 1Þ 3 30 t
10e36 ¼ 10e36 ¼ e36
t t
V x ðt Þ ¼ ð7Þ
ð4 þ 8Þð3 þ 1Þ þ 9 3 þ 9 12

5 30 36t 150 36t
e ¼ 1:04e36 V
t
V ab ðt Þ ¼ e ¼
12 12 144
4.17. Before closing the switch at t ¼ 0, the circuit is like the one shown in Fig. 4.17.2. As can be seen, the inductor is
modeled by an open circuit branch, since the circuit is in its steady state condition.
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 5 A ð1Þ
After the switching operation, the circuit is changed to the one illustrated in Fig. 4.17.3. Due to current continuity of
the inductor:
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 5 A ð2Þ
To calculate the Thevenin resistance seen by the inductor, we need to turn off the independent current source, as is
shown in Fig. 4.17.4.
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 100 Ω ð3Þ

1
L 1
τ¼ ¼ 10 ¼ sec ð4Þ
RTh 100 1000
Figure 4.17.5 shows how to calculate the final current of the inductor. As can be seen, the final current will be zero,
since the whole current will pass through the short-circuit branch.
Using the general form of the current of an inductive first-order circuit with DC power supply:
t
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð5 0Þe ¼ 5e1000t

t
ð6Þ
1
1000
Now, by applying KCL in the indicated node of the circuit of Fig. 4.17.3, we have:

5 þ I ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I ðt Þ ¼ 5 I L ðt Þ ¼ 5 5e1000t ¼ 5 1 e1000t A


V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 V ð1Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 V ð2Þ
To calculate the Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor, we need to apply a test source, since the circuit includes a
dependent power source, as can be seen in Fig. 4.18.2.
Defining i based on the node voltages:
V t e1
i¼ ¼ V t e1 ð3Þ
1
e1 1 Using ð3Þ 1 10
i þ 2i ¼ 0 ) e1 3i ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) e1 3ðV t e1 Þ ¼ 0 ) e 3V t ¼ 0
3 3 3 3 1
9
) e1 ¼ V ð4Þ
10 t
V t V t e1 3 Using ð4Þ 3 9
I t þ þ ¼ 0 ) I t þ V t e1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I t þ V t V t ¼ 0
2 1 2 2 10
6 V 5 5
) It þ V ¼ 0 ) t ¼ ) RTh ¼ Ω ð5Þ
10 t It 3 3

5
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 3 ¼ 5 sec ð6Þ
3
The final voltage of the capacitor will be zero, since there is no power source in the circuit, as can be seen in 3.38.1.
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 0 V ð7Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð2 0Þe5 ¼ 2e5 V

t t t
ð8Þ

V C ðt 0 Þ ¼ 0:5 2 ¼ 1 V ð9Þ
t0 t0 t0
2e 5 ¼ 1 ) e 5 ¼ 0:5 ) ¼ ln ð0:5Þ ) t 0 ¼ 5 ln ð2Þ sec
5
4.19. As can be seen in the circuit of Fig. 4.19.2, the equivalent capacitance of the circuit seen by terminal a0 b0 (C 0eq ) is
approximately equal to the one seen by terminal a b (Ceq), since the size of the circuit is infinite. Therefore, we can
write:
C 0eq ffi Ceq ð1Þ
Now, we can calculate the total capacitance of the circuit by using the circuit of Fig. 4.19.3:
1 1 1 1 1 2C0eq þ 3 C0eq þ 1
ffi þ 0 þ ¼2þ 0 ¼ 0 ) C eq ffi 0 ð2Þ
Ceq 1 Ceq þ 1 1 Ceq þ 1 Ceq þ 1 2Ceq þ 3
Ceq þ 1
C eq ffi ) 2C eq 2 þ 3Ceq ffi Ceq þ 1 ) 2C eq 2 þ 2Ceq 1 ffi 0
2Ceq þ 3
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi
2 22 4 2 ð1Þ 2 12
) Ceq ffi ¼ ¼ 1:36 F, 0:36 F
22 4
Ceq ffi 1.36 F is not acceptable. Therefore:
C eq ffi 0:36 F

4.20. First, we need to find the voltage of the capacitor before the switching operation by using the circuit of Fig. 4.20.2.
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
Because of the voltage continuity of the capacitor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
After a long time, the capacitor will be an open circuit, and its voltage can be calculated by using Ohm’s law:
V C ð1Þ ¼ 1 R1 ¼ R1 ð3Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ R1 C ð4Þ

R t C t
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ R1 þ ð0 R1 Þe
t
1 ¼ R1 1 e R1 C ð5Þ
After closing the switch at t ¼ t1 ¼ R1C, the circuit is updated and converted to the one shown in Fig. 4.20.3. The
primary voltage of the capacitor for the circuit of Fig. 4.20.3 can be calculated as follows:
t R C
1 1
V C ðt 1 þ Þ ¼ V C ðt 1 Þ ¼ R1 1 e R1 C ¼ R1 1 e R1 C ¼ R1 1 e1 ð6Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor can be determined by using Ohm’s law and assuming the capacitor as the open circuit
branch after a long time:
R1 R2 RR
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 1 ¼ 1 2 ð7Þ
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
By studying the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply (see equation (8)), it
is concluded that, to maintain the voltage of the capacitor constant, the transient part of the voltage must be eliminated,
as is presented in (9):
tt1
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ðt 1 þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞe τ ð8Þ
tt1
) ðV C ðt 1 þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞe τ ¼0 ð9Þ
In other words, the final voltage of the capacitor must be equal to its primary voltage.
Using ð7Þ, ð6Þ R1 R2 R2

) V C ð 1Þ ¼ V C ð t 1 þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) ¼ R1 1 e1 ) ¼ 1 e1
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2

) R2 ¼ R1 1 e1 þ R2 1 e1 ) R2 e1 ¼ R1 1 e1 ) R2 ¼ R1 ðe 1Þ

4.21. Figure 4.21.2 shows the circuit before closing the switch. Since the switch was open for a long time, the circuit has
reached its steady state condition, and the capacitor is like an open circuit. The voltage of the capacitor (before the
switching) can be calculated by using Ohm’s law in Fig. 4.21.2.
V C ð0 Þ ¼ 5 2 ¼ 10 V ð1Þ
The voltage of the capacitor, after the switching, can be determined based on the capacitor voltage continuity law
(in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source)):
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 10 V ð2Þ
Figure 4.21.3 illustrates the circuit after closing the switch. In this condition, the Thevenin resistance of the circuit is
1 Ω, since the 2 Ω resistor is short-circuited by the closed switch and the current source is turned off (see Fig. 4.21.4).
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 1 Ω ð3Þ

τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 1 1 ¼ 1 sec ð4Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be zero as can be noticed from Fig. 4.21.5, since the whole current flows through
the short-circuit branch. Or, by applying KVL in the right mesh, we have:
V C ð1Þ þ 0 ¼ 0 V ) V C ð1Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð10 0Þet ¼ 10et

t
ð6Þ
However, we are interested in the current of the switch at t ¼ 1 sec:
KCL in the supernode in the circuit of Fig. 4.21.6:
00
5 þ I þ I C ðt Þ þ ¼0 ð7Þ
2
Using the voltage-current relation of the capacitor:
d d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼ 1 ð10et Þ ¼ 10et ð8Þ
dt C dt
I ðt Þ ¼ 5 I C ðt Þ ¼ 5 þ 10et ) I ðt ¼ 1Þ ¼ 5 þ 10e1 ¼ 5ð1 þ 2Þe1 A


4.22. The circuit seems to be a second-order circuit, but it is the series connection of two first-order circuits. In other words,
we can individually analyze the first-order circuits.
Using KVL in the indicated mesh in the circuit of Fig. 4.22.2:
V o ðt Þ V C ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) V o ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ð1Þ
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð2Þ
source) in the RC circuit:
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð3Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be zero, since the RC circuit is not connected to any power source. Thus:
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 1 0:5 ¼ 0:5 sec ð5Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð1 0Þe0:5 ¼ e2t

t t
ð6Þ
Using the current-voltage relation of the inductor:
d d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ¼ 1 r ðt Þ ¼ uðt Þ ð7Þ
dt L dt
In (7), r(t) is ramp function with the following definition:

0 t<0
r ðt Þ ¼ ð8Þ
t t0
Solving (1), (6), and (7):
V o ðt Þ ¼ V C ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ e2t þ uðt Þ ¼ 1 e2t V for t 1

4.23. Since the switch has been open for a long time, the circuit is in the steady state condition. Therefore, the inductor is like
a short-circuit branch before closing the switch, as is shown in Fig. 4.23.2.
Using the current division formula:
R1 0:25
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ Is ¼ 6¼2A ð1Þ
R1 þ R2 0:25 þ 0:5
Due to the current continuity of the inductor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power
source):
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð2Þ
After switching, we have the circuit shown in Fig. 4.23.3. The final current of the inductor is zero (IL(1) ¼ 0), since
the first-order circuit does not include anything other than the inductor (the two ends of the inductor have been
connected to each other). Moreover, as can be seen in Fig. 4.23.3, the Thevenin resistance seen by the inductor is zero,
since the inductor is short-circuited by the switch. Thus:
L 0:5
τ¼ ¼ ¼1 ð3Þ
RTh 0
Equation (3) means that the current of the inductor will remain constant forever. This can be proved by using the
general form of the inductor current in a first-order circuit with DC power supply:
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð2 0Þe1 ¼ 2e0 ¼ 2 A

t t
ð4Þ
Now, by applying KCL in the supernode:
R1 R1 0:25
I s þ I sc þ I L ¼ 0 ) I sc ¼ Is IL ¼ 62¼22¼0A
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2 0:25 þ 0:5
4.24. First, we need to determine the time-dependent voltage equation of the capacitor. Based on the given information:
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð1Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð2Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor can be calculated by using Ohm’s law and assuming the fact that the capacitor will be
open circuit after a long time. Thus:
1
V C ð1Þ ¼ 2 ¼ 1 V ð3Þ
2
1
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 2 ¼ 1 sec ð4Þ
2
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 1 þ ð4 ð1ÞÞe1 ¼ 1 þ 5et

t t
ð5Þ
Now, we need to determine the time that the voltage of the capacitor drops to 1 V.
V C ðt 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð6Þ

2 2
1 þ 5et0 ¼ 1 ) 5et0 ¼ 2 ) et0 ¼ ) t 0 ¼ ln ) t 0 ¼ 0:91 sec ð7Þ
5 5
To calculate the energy of the independent current source, we need to integrate its power over the interval of
[0, t0] ¼ [0,0.91], as follows:
Z Z Z 0:91 0:91
t0 0:91
t 1 1 5 t t 5 t
W¼ VI ¼ ð1 þ 5e Þ dt ¼ þ e dt ¼ e
0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0

0:91 5 0:91 0 5 0 5
)W¼ e e ¼ ð1:46Þ ¼ 1:04 J
2 2 2 2 2
On the other hand, since the value of energy is positive, we conclude that the independent source has consumed the
energy during the period.
4.25. Figure 4.25.2 shows the circuit before opening the switch. Since the circuit has reached its steady state condition, the
capacitor is like an open circuit branch.
V 1 αV 1 þ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ) V C ð0 Þ ¼ ð1 þ αÞV 1 ð1Þ

V1 ¼ E ð2Þ

V C ð0 Þ ¼ ð1 þ αÞE ð3Þ
For t ¼ 0+, we need to use the circuit of Fig. 4.25.3.
source):
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ ð1 þ αÞE ð4Þ

KVL in the mesh:
V C ð0þ Þ Using ð4Þ ð1 þ αÞE ð5Þ

V 1 ð0þ Þ αV 1 ð0þ Þ þ V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼
¼ ¼E
1þα 1þα
Using Ohm’s law for the resistor:
V 1 ð0þ Þ Using ð5Þ E

I R ð 0þ Þ ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I R ð0þ Þ ¼
¼ ð6Þ
2 2
KCL in the node:
Using ð6Þ E
I R ð0þ Þ þ I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ I R ð0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ ¼
¼ ð7Þ
2
d 1 d d
I C ð 0þ Þ ¼ C V ð0þ Þ ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ V ð0þ Þ ) V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 6I C ð0þ Þ
dt C 6 dt C dt
Using ð7Þ d
E
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 6
¼ ¼ 3E
dt 2
4.26. By studying the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply (see (1)), it is realized
that, to prevent the capacitor from charging and discharging, the transient term of the voltage equation must be removed.
In other words, the final voltage of the capacitor must be equal to its primary voltage, as is presented in (2):
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ

t
ð1Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 1 Þ ð2Þ

V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð3Þ
Due to the voltage continuity of the capacitor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð4Þ
To calculate the final voltage of the capacitor, the capacitor is assumed to be an open circuit branch, as can be seen in
Figs. 4.26.2 and 4.26.3. Herein, superposition theorem is applied to analyze the circuit.
Using Ohm’s law in Fig. 4.26.2:

2
V C1 ð1Þ ¼ 12 I s ¼ I s ð5Þ
3
Using voltage division in Fig. 4.26.3:

1 1
V C2 ð1Þ ¼ V ¼ V ð6Þ
1þ2 s 3 s
2 1
) V C ð1Þ ¼ V C1 ð1Þ þ V C2 ð1Þ ¼ I s þ V s ð7Þ
3 3
Solving (2), (4), and (7):

2 1
4 ¼ I s þ V s ) 2I s þ 3V s ¼ 12
3 3

4.27. The circuit includes more than one power source; thus we can use the superposition theorem to solve the problem, as
can be seen in Figs. 4.27.2 and 4.27.4.
In the circuit of Fig. 4.27.2, the voltage source with any size is not able to excite the inductor, since the inductor does not
sense any voltage difference across itself. This type of circuit is called Wheatstone bridge if the condition of
R1 R3 ¼ R2 R4 holds in the circuit of Fig. 4.27.3. To prove this phenomenon, we need to apply the voltage
division formula as follows:

R2 R3 R2 R3 þ R2 R4 R1 R3 R2 R3
V ab ¼ V a V b ¼ V V ¼ Vs
R1 þ R2 s R3 þ R4 s ðR1 þ R2 ÞðR3 þ R4 Þ

R2 R4 R1 R3 Using the condition 0
) V ab ¼ V ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V ab ¼ V ¼0 ð1Þ
ðR1 þ R2 ÞðR3 þ R4 Þ s ðR1 þ R2 ÞðR3 þ R4 Þ s
Since the circuit of Fig. 4.27.2 is a Wheatstone bridge, the primary and final current of the inductor will be zero.
Therefore:
I L1 ðt Þ ¼ 0 A ð2Þ
In the circuit of Fig. 4.27.4, the initial current of the inductor is zero, since the current source was off before t ¼ 0. Thus:
I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð3Þ
I L2 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð4Þ
To calculate the final current of the inductor, we should simplify the circuit, as can be seen in Figs. 4.27.5 and 4.27.6. By
using the current division formula and assuming that the inductor will be short circuit after a long time, we have:
1
I L2 ð1Þ ¼ 5 ¼ 2:5 A ð3Þ
1þ1
The time constant of the RL circuit:
L 2
τ2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 sec ð4Þ
RTh2 2
τt
I L2 ðt Þ ¼ I L2 ð1Þ þ ðI L2 ð0þ Þ I L2 ð1ÞÞe ¼ 2:5 þ ð0 2:5Þe1 ¼ 2:5ð1 et Þ A
t
2
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L1 ðt Þ þ I L2 ðt Þ ¼ 0 þ 2:5ð1 et Þ A ¼ 2:5ð1 et Þ A


4.28. Based on the given information, the voltage equation of 1 F capacitor is:

V ð t Þ ¼ 2 1 e 2 uð t Þ
t
ð1Þ
Now, by comparing (1) and the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply (see
(2)), we can extract the time constant of the network, as can be seen in (3):

t
ð2Þ
) τ ¼ 2 sec ð3Þ
On the other hand, we know that the time constant of a capacitive first-order circuit is:
τ ¼ RTh C ð4Þ
Solving (3) and (4) and using C ¼ 1 F:

RTh 1 ¼ 2 ) RTh ¼ 2 Ω ð5Þ
In addition, since the capacitor will behave like an open circuit after a long time, the final voltage of the capacitor will be
equal to the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, as can be noticed from the circuits of Figs. 4.28.2 and 4.28.3. Thus, by using
(1) and assuming t ! 1:

V Th ¼ lim V C ðt Þ ¼ lim 2 1 e2 uðt Þ ¼ 2 V
t
ð6Þ
t!1 t!1
Now, after replacing the capacitor with the 3 H inductor, we have an inductive first-order circuit which is shown in
Fig. 4.28.4.

L 3
τ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:5 sec ð7Þ
RTh 2
The general form of current of an inductive first-order circuit with DC power supply is:
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ

t
ð8Þ
The current of the inductor, before connecting to the circuit, was zero (IL(0) ¼ 0 A). As we know, the current of the
inductor must be continuous in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source); therefore its
current, after the connection, will not change. Thus:
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð9Þ
In addition, the inductor will behave like a short circuit after a long time. Therefore, its final current can be calculated by
using Ohm’s law:
V Th 2
I L ð 1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼1A ð10Þ
RTh 2
Using (7), (8), (9), and (10):
I L ðt Þ ¼ 1 þ ð0 1Þe1:5 ¼ 1 e3t
t 2
ð11Þ

2
d d 2 3t
1 e 3t ¼ 3 e ¼ 2e3t V
2 2
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I L ðt Þ ¼ 3 ð12Þ
dt dt 3
Since the result is credible for t > 0, unit step function (u(t)) is applied in (12).
V L ðt Þ ¼ 2e 3t uðt Þ V
2

4.29. The circuit for t ¼ 0 is shown in Fig. 4.29.2. The circuit is in its steady state condition; thus, the capacitor is open
circuit.
By applying KVL in the left-side mesh:
4 þ V 1 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ) V 1 ð0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð1Þ

By applying KVL in the right-side mesh:
Using ð1Þ
V 1 ð0 Þ þ V C ð0 Þ þ 2V 1 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ) V C ð0 Þ ¼ V 1 ð0 Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V C ð0 Þ ¼ 4 V
¼ ð2Þ
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð3Þ
The circuit for t ¼ 0+ is illustrated in Fig. 4.29.3 while modeling the initial voltage of the capacitor by the 4 V
independent voltage source.
Applying KVL in the mesh:

V 1 ð0þ Þ þ ð4Þ þ 2V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 4 V ð4Þ
Applying Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor:
Using ð4Þ 1 1
V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 2I C ð0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 4 ¼ 2 A
¼
¼
¼ ð5Þ
2 2
Applying the voltage-current relation of the capacitor:
d d d d
I C ð0þ Þ ¼ C V ð0þ Þ ¼ 1 V C ð0þ Þ ) V C ð0þ Þ ¼ I C ð0þ Þ ) V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 V=sec
dt C dt dt dt

4.30. Figure 4.30.2 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0, where the capacitor is open circuit, since the circuit is in the steady state
condition.
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð1Þ
Due to the presence of the impulse voltage source (δ(t)) in the circuit, the voltage of the capacitor will not be continuous.
To calculate the value of VC(0+), we need to use the current-voltage relation of the capacitor, as follows:
Z0þ Z0þ Z0þ

1 1
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 1 þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 1 þ 2 I C ðt Þ:dt ð2Þ
C 0:5
0 0 0
As we know, in the presence of the impulse voltage source, capacitors and inductors behave like short-circuit and open
circuit branches, respectively. Therefore, we have the circuit of Fig. 4.30.3 for t ¼ 0+, where the whole current will flow
through the capacitor. Using Ohm’s law:
3δðt Þ
I C ðt Þ ¼ ð3Þ
2

Z0þ Z0þ
3δðt Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ 1 þ 2 :dt ¼ 1 þ 3 δðt Þ:dt ð4Þ
2

0 0
As we know:
Z0þ
δðt Þ:dt ¼ 1 ð5Þ

0

V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ 1 þ 3 1 ¼ 4 V

4.31. The circuit seems to be a third-order circuit; however, it is a first-order RL circuit that needs to be simplified, as is shown
in Fig. 4.31.2.

36
Leq ¼ 36 þ 3 ¼ þ3¼2þ3¼5H ð1Þ
3þ6
The circuit for t ¼ 0 is illustrated in Fig. 4.31.3, where the inductor has been replaced by a short-circuit branch, since
the circuit is in the steady state condition.
15
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼5A ð2Þ
3
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 5 A ð3Þ
The final current of the inductor is zero because the circuit lacks a power source, as can be seen in Fig. 4.31.4. Therefore:
Moreover, the Thevenin resistance of the circuit is:
RTh ¼ 3 þ 7 ¼ 10 Ω ð5Þ
Leq 5
τ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 sec ð6Þ
RTh 10
Using the general form of the current of an inductive first-order circuit with DC power supply:
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ ð5 0Þe0:5 ¼ 5e2t

t t
ð7Þ
From the circuit:
I ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ¼ 5e2t

4.32. The energy of a capacitor will not change if its voltage remains constant, as can be noticed from (1):
1
W C ðt Þ ¼ C ðV C ðt ÞÞ2 ð1Þ
2
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð2Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð3Þ
To have a constant energy in the capacitor:
Using ð3Þ
V C ð 1 Þ ¼ V C ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V C ð1Þ ¼ 4 V ð4Þ
To calculate the final voltage of the capacitor, we need to assume that the capacitor is an open circuit branch, as can be
seen in Fig. 4.32.2. This circuit can be analyzed by using the superposition theorem.
Using the voltage division formula in Fig. 4.32.3:
4þ2 12
V C1 ð1Þ ¼ 2¼ ð5Þ
4þ2þR 6þR
Using the current division formula and Ohm’s law in Fig. 4.32.4:

4 12R
V C2 ð1Þ ¼ 3 R¼ ð6Þ
4þ2þR 6þR
12 12R 12 þ 12R
V C ð1Þ ¼ V C1 ð1Þ þ V C2 ð1Þ ¼ þ ¼ ð7Þ
6þR 6þR 6þR
12 þ 12R 3
¼ 4 ) 12 þ 12R ¼ 24 þ 4R ) 8R ¼ 12 ) R ¼ Ω
6þR 2

4.33. As can be seen in Fig. 4.33.2, since there is no energy stored in the inductor and no power source exists in the circuit for
t < 0, we have:
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
Between 0 < t < 1, we have the circuit of Fig. 4.33.3, which is a first-order circuit. Due to the current continuity of the
inductor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source):
I L ð0þ Þ ¼ I L ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
To determine the time constant of the circuit, we need to calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit seen by the
inductor. Thus, we need to turn off the independent current source, as is shown in Fig. 4.33.4.
Req ¼ 0:25 þ 0:5 ¼ 0:75 Ω ð3Þ
The time constant of an inductive first-order circuit is:
L 0:5 2
τ¼ ¼ ¼ sec ð4Þ
Req 0:75 3
Now, we need to determine the final current of the inductor (see Fig. 4.33.5), assuming that the configuration of the
circuit will remain the same. As we know, the inductor will behave like a short-circuit branch in its steady state
condition, as can be seen in Fig. 4.33.5. Therefore, by using the current division formula, we have:
0:25
I L ð 1Þ ¼ 6¼2A ð5Þ
0:25 þ 0:5
Next, by using the general form of the inductor current in a first-order circuit with DC power supply, we can determine
the time-dependent current of the inductor.
2t
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ) I L ðt Þ ¼ 2 þ ð0 2Þe ¼ 2 1 e 2t A
t 3
3 ð6Þ
Since the switch is closed at t ¼ 1 sec, we need to determine the current of the inductor after the switching operation.
Using the current equation of the inductor:

I L ð1 Þ ¼ 2 1 e2 ¼ 1:55 A
3
ð7Þ
The current of the inductor is contiguous during any short interval, therefore:
I L ð1þ Þ ¼ I L ð1 Þ ¼ 1:55 A ð8Þ
After the switching operation at t ¼ 1, the inductor is parallel to a short-circuit branch, as is shown in Fig. 4.33.6.
By using the voltage-current relation of the inductor, we can find out that the current of the inductor will remain constant
for t > 1.
Zt Zt
1 1
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L t
0 þL V L ðt Þ:dt ) I L ðt Þ ¼ 1:55 þ 0:dt ) I L ðt Þ ¼ 1:55 A for t > 1 ð9Þ
0:5
t
0 1
Now, by applying KCL in the indicated supernode at t ¼ 4:
0:25
6 þ I L ðt ¼ 4Þ þ I sc ðt ¼ 4Þ ¼ 0 ) 2 þ 1:55 þ I sc ðt ¼ 4Þ ¼ 0
0:25 þ 0:5
) I sc ðt ¼ 4Þ ¼ 0:45 A
4.34. The voltage equation of the capacitor is as follows:
1
V ðt Þ ¼ 1 e3t uðt Þ ð1Þ
4
By comparing (1) and the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply (see (2)),
we can extract the time constant of the network, as is presented in (3):

t
ð2Þ
1
)τ¼ sec ð3Þ
3
On the other hand, we know that the general form of time constant of a capacitive first-order circuit is:
τ ¼ RTh C ð4Þ
Solving (3) and (4) and using C ¼ 1 F:

1 1
RTh 1 ¼ ) RTh ¼ Ω ð5Þ
3 3
Moreover, since the capacitor will behave like an open circuit after a long time, the final voltage of the capacitor will be
equal to the Thevenin voltage of the circuit, as can be noticed from Fig. 4.34.3.
1 1
V Th ¼ V C ð1Þ ¼ lim 1 e3t uðt Þ ¼ V ð6Þ
t!1 4 4
Now, we know the parameters of the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the network (RTh and VTh) connected to the 2 H
inductor. This circuit is an inductive first-order circuit, which is shown in Fig. 4.34.4.
Calculating the time constant of the circuit:
L 2
τ¼ ¼ ¼ 6 sec ð7Þ
RTh 13
The general form of the current of an inductive first-order circuit with DC power supply is:
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ

t
ð8Þ
The current of the inductor before connecting to the circuit was zero (IL(0) ¼ 0 A). Since the current of the inductor
must be continuous in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source), its current, after the
connection, will not change. Hence:
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð9Þ
Moreover, after a long time, the inductor will behave like a short circuit. Therefore, its final current can be calculated as
follows:
V Th 14 3
I L ð 1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ A ð10Þ
RTh 13 4
Using (7), (8), (9), and (10):

t
3 3 3
I L ð t Þ ¼ þ 0 e6 ¼ 1 e 6
t
ð11Þ
4 4 4
We know that the voltage of an inductor can be calculated by using V L ðt Þ ¼ L dIdtL ðtÞ. Thus:

d 3 3 1 t 1 t
1 e 6 ¼ 2 e 6 ¼ e 6 V
t
V L ðt Þ ¼ 2 ð12Þ
dt 4 4 6 4
Since (12) is credible for t > 0, we need to use a unit step function (u(t)) in (12), as follows:
1 t
V L ð t Þ ¼ e 6 uð t Þ V
4

4.35. To solve this problem, we need to write the differential equation of the circuit. As is given in Fig. 4.35.2, the input
voltage is a sign wave.
V s ðt Þ ¼ 10 sin ð2t Þ ð1Þ
To formulate the differential equation of the problem, we can write KVL in the mesh of the circuit of Fig. 4.35.3.
d
V s ðt Þ þ L I ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
dt L
I R ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ð3Þ
Solving (1), (2), (3), and the given information in the problem:
d d
10 sin ð2t Þ þ 2:5 I ðt Þ þ 5I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I L ðt Þ þ 2I L ðt Þ ¼ 4 sin ð2t Þ ð4Þ
dt L dt
Equation (4) is a first-order differential equation that has the solution of:
I L ðt Þ ¼ sin ð2t Þ cos ð2t Þ þ e2t ð5Þ

Equation (5) is valid just for the period of 0, π2 . After t ¼ π2 sec , the voltage source is turned off, and the circuit is
converted to the one shown in Fig. 4.35.4. Now, we need to determine the primary current of the inductor.

π
IL t ¼ ¼ sin ðπ Þ cos ðπ Þ þ eπ ¼ 0 ð1Þ þ 0:0432 ¼ 1:0432 A ð6Þ
2

πþ π
IL t ¼ ¼ IL t ¼ ¼ 1:0432 A ð7Þ
2 2
Moreover, the final current of the inductor will be zero, since there is no power source in the circuit. In other words, the
whole energy of the inductor will be wasted in the resistor.
I L ð 1Þ ¼ 0 ð8Þ
In addition, the time constant of the circuit is:
L 2:5
τ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 sec ð9Þ
R 5
Using the general form of the inductor current in a first-order circuit with DC power supply for the circuit of Fig. 4.35.4
(π2 < t < 1):
þ tπ2 tπ
π
I L ð1Þ e τ ¼ 0 þ ð1:0432 0Þe 0:5
2
I L ð t Þ ¼ I L ð 1Þ þ I L
2
tπ
π
) I L ðt Þ ¼ 1:0432e 0:5 for
2
<t<1 ð10Þ
2
To find Vo(t), use Ohm’s law for the resistor:
tπ tπ
π
V o ðt Þ ¼ RI L ðt Þ ¼ 5 1:0432e 0:5 ) V o ðt Þ ¼ 5:21e 0:5 for
2 2
<t<1 ð11Þ
2
To calculate the output voltage at t ¼ 2.2 sec:
2:2π
V o ð2:2Þ ¼ 5:21e
2
0:5 ¼ 1:48 V

4.36. For 0 < t < t0, the switch is in the position of “A,” and we have the circuit shown in Fig. 4.36.2. At t ¼ t0, the position of
switch is changed to the “B” position, and the circuit is updated, as can be seen in Fig. 4.36.3. Herein, t0 is the time that
the voltage of the capacitor reaches 50% of its primary value.
Before the switching operation (Fig. 4.36.2):
Based on the given information, VC(0) ¼ 0. The voltage of the capacitor is continuous, since there is no power source
with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source) in the circuit. Therefore:
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ ð1 þ 1Þ 1 ¼ 2 sec ð2Þ
Herein, RTh is the Thevenin resistance of the circuit seen by the capacitor.
To calculate the final voltage of the capacitor, we need to know that the capacitor will behave like an open circuit after a
long time. Thus, the current of the circuit will be zero. By applying KVL in the loop, we have:
V C ð1Þ ¼ 300 1 0 þ 1 0 ¼ 300 V ð3Þ
Now, we have all the parameters of the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply.

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 300 þ ð0 300Þe2 ¼ 300 1 e2
t t t
ð4Þ
V C ðt 0 Þ ¼ 0:5 V C ð0Þ ¼ 150 ð5Þ
To determine the value of t0, we need to solve (4) and (5):

t0 t0 t0 t
300 1 e 2 ¼ 150 ) 1 e 2 ¼ 0:5 ) e 2 ¼ 0:5 ) 0 ¼ ln ð0:5Þ
2
t0
) ¼ ln ð2Þ ) t 0 ¼ 2 ln ð2Þ ð6Þ
2
After the switching operation (Fig. 4.36.3):
The voltage of the capacitor will not change due to the switching. Thus:
V C ðt 0 þ Þ ¼ V C ðt 0 Þ ¼ 150 V ð7Þ
The time constant of the circuit will change, since the Thevenin resistance of the circuit, seen by the capacitor, is
different, as can be seen in Fig. 4.36.3.
RTh ¼ 2 þ 1 ¼ 3 Ω ð8Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 3 1 ¼ 3 sec ð9Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be zero, since there is no power source in the circuit and the whole energy of the
capacitor will be wasted in the resistors. Therefore:
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 0 V ð10Þ
By using the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply:
tt 0 t2 ln ð2Þ

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ðt 0 þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞe τ ¼ 0 þ ð150 0Þe 3
t2 ln ð2Þ
) V C ðt Þ ¼ 150e 3 ð11Þ
Now, we can use the voltage division formula to calculate the voltage of 1 Ω resistor:
1 t2 ln ð2Þ t2 ln ð2Þ

V 1 ðt Þ ¼ 150e 3 ¼ 50e 3
1þ2
4.37. Before closing the first switch, the voltage of the capacitor is zero, since it is not connected to any power source. Thus:
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
After closing the first switch and before closing the second switch, the circuit is like the one shown in Fig. 4.37.2. The voltage
of the capacitor is continuous in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source); therefore:
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
As is illustrated in Fig. 4.37.3, the final value of the capacitor voltage can be calculated by using the voltage division
formula, since the capacitor will be open circuit after a long time. Herein, the capacitor voltage will be the same as the
6 Ω resistor’s voltage, since there is no voltage drop across the 2 Ω resistor.
6
V C ð1Þ ¼ V 6Ω ð1Þ ¼ 12 ¼ 9 V ð3Þ
6þ2
Figure 4.37.4 illustrates how to calculate the input resistance seen by the capacitor. As can be seen, the independent
voltage source is turned off. Figure 4.37.5 shows the simplified circuit of Fig. 4.37.4.

62
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 2 þ 62 ¼ 2 þ ¼ 3:5 Ω ð4Þ
6þ2

τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 3:5 1 ¼ 3:5 sec ð5Þ
Now, we can use the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply, as follows:

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 9 þ ð0 9Þe3:5 ¼ 9 1 e3:5
t t t
ð6Þ
But we need to calculate the voltage of the second switch. Thus, as can be seen in Fig. 4.37.6, we need to write a KVL,
as follows:
V S ðt Þ 2I C ðt Þ þ 12 ¼ 0 ) V S ðt Þ ¼ 2I C ðt Þ þ 12 ð7Þ
From the voltage-current relation of the capacitor, we know that:

d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ð8Þ
dt C
Using (6) and (8):

d 9 3:5t
9 1 e3:5
t
I C ðt Þ ¼ 1 ¼ e ð10Þ
dt 3:5
9 3:5t 18 3:5t
V S ðt Þ ¼ 2 e þ 12 ¼ e þ 12 ð11Þ
3:5 3:5
Now, we can determine the time that the voltage of the second switch is 9 V.
18 3:5t 18 3:5t 3:5 t

¼ 3 ) e3:5 ¼
t
e þ 12 ¼ 9 ) e ) ¼ 0:539 ) t ¼ 1:89 sec ð12Þ
3:5 3:5 6 3:5
After t ¼ 1.89 sec, the second switch is closed, and we have the circuit shown in Fig. 4.37.7. For the new circuit, we
need to know the primary voltage of the capacitor that can be calculated by using the capacitor voltage continuity rule
and Equation (6).

V C ð1:89þ Þ ¼ V C ð1:89 Þ ¼ 9 1 e 3:5 ¼ 3:75 V
1:89
ð13Þ
To calculate the final voltage of the capacitor, we can use the voltage division formula, as is shown in Fig. 4.37.8.
6 2
V C ð 1Þ ¼ V þ ð 1Þ V ð 1Þ ¼ 12 12 ¼ 6 V ð14Þ
6þ2 2þ6
To calculate the input resistance seen by the capacitor, we need to turn off the independent voltage source, as is shown
in Fig. 4.37.9. The simplified circuit of Fig. 4.37.9 is shown in Fig. 4.37.10.

62 62
RTh ¼ Rin ¼ 62 þ 62 ¼ þ ¼3Ω ð15Þ
6þ2 6þ2
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 3 1 ¼ 3 sec ð16Þ
Now, by using the general form of the capacitor voltage in a first-order circuit with DC power supply, we have:
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð1:89þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞe ¼ 6 þ ð3:75 6Þe

t1:89 t1:89
τ 3
V C ðt Þ ¼ 6 2:25e
t1:89
3

4.38. Before t ¼ 0, the circuit is like the one shown in Fig. 4.38.3. As can be seen, there is no power source in the circuit,
hence:
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
For the interval of 0 < t < 1, the circuit is converted to the one illustrated in Fig. 4.38.4. Due to the voltage continuity of
the capacitor in lack of a power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ

τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 0:5 2 ¼ 1 sec ð3Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be 10 V, since the capacitor will behave like an open circuit branch after it is fully
charged.
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð0þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 10 þ ð0 10Þet

t
OR
) V C ðt Þ ¼ 10ð1 et Þ for 0 < t < 1 ) V C ðt Þ ¼ 10ð1 et Þðuðt Þ uðt 1ÞÞ ð4Þ
In (4), u(t) is the unit step function with the following definition:

0 t<0
uðt Þ ¼ ð5Þ
1 t0
d d
I ðt Þ ¼ I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼ 2 ð10ð1 et ÞÞ
dt C dt
) I C ðt Þ ¼ 20et ðuðt Þ uðt 1ÞÞ ð6Þ
For t > 1, we have the circuit shown in Fig. 4.38.5. This circuit does not have any power source, thus:
V C ð 1Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
Using the voltage continuity of the capacitor at t ¼ 1:

V C ð1þ Þ ¼ V C ð1 Þ ¼ 10 1 e1 V ð8Þ
The time constant is the same, that is, τ ¼ 1 sec.

V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð1Þ þ ðV C ð1þ Þ V C ð1ÞÞe τ ¼ 0 þ 10 1 e1 0 eðt1Þ
t1
OR
) V C ðt Þ ¼ 10 1 e1 eðt1Þ for t > 1 ) V C ðt Þ ¼ 10 1 e1 eðt1Þ uðt 1Þ

) V C ðt Þ ¼ 10eðt1Þ 10et uðt 1Þ ð9Þ

d d
I ðt Þ ¼ I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼ 2 10eðt1Þ 10et
dt dt

) I ðt Þ ¼ 20eðt1Þ þ 20et uðt 1Þ ð10Þ
Combining (6) and (10):

I ðt Þ ¼ 20et ðuðt Þ uðt 1ÞÞ þ 20eðt1Þ þ 20et uðt 1Þ
) I ðt Þ ¼ 20et uðt Þ 20eðt1Þ uðt 1Þ


4.39. After the switching operation, two inductors are connected in series. Therefore, the circuit is a first-order circuit,
although it seems to be a second-order circuit. The switch has been in the closed position for a long time; therefore, the
circuit is in the steady state condition and the inductors are like the short-circuit branches, as can be seen in Fig. 4.39.2.
The current of the voltage source:
9 9
I ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼1þ2¼3A ð1Þ
1 þ 36

6
I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 3¼2A ð2Þ
6þ3
3
I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 3¼1A ð3Þ
6þ3
After opening the switch, the circuit is converted to the one shown in Fig. 4.39.3. After the switching operation, the
inductors are connected in series; thus, the rule of the current continuity of the inductor will not be applicable. Instead,
we must use the magnetic flux conservation law for the inductors.
φL ð0þ Þ ¼ φL ð0 Þ ) Leq I L ð0þ Þ ¼ L1 I L1 ð0 Þ þ L2 I L2 ð0 Þ
5
) ð1 þ 3Þ I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 3 ð2Þ þ 1 1 ) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ A ð4Þ
4
The circuit of Fig. 4.39.3 can be simplified, as is shown in Fig. 4.39.4. In other words, we have a circuit with a single
inductor (4 H), with the initial current of 54 A, in series with a single resistor (9 Ω). The final current of the inductor
will be zero (IL(1) ¼ 0), since the circuit does not include any power source.
The time constant of the RL circuit:
L 4
τ¼ ¼ ð5Þ
RTh 9
Using the general form of the inductor current in a first-order circuit:

t
5 4 5 9
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð1Þ þ ðI L ð0þ Þ I L ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 0 þ 0 e 9 ¼ e4t
t
ð6Þ
4 4
To calculate the voltage of 6 Ω resistor, we can use Ohm’s law in the circuit of Fig. 4.39.5.
V ðt Þ ¼ 6I L ðt Þ ¼ 7:5e4t
9

4.40. As can be seen in Figs. 4.40.2 and 4.40.3, we can use the superposition theorem to solve the problem, since the circuit
includes more than one power source. The circuit shown in Fig. 4.40.2 includes a Wheatstone bridge; therefore, the
capacitor will not be charged by the voltage source. Hence:
I C1 ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
To analyze the circuit illustrated in Fig. 4.40.3, we can use the source transformation technique, as is shown in
Figs. 4.40.4–4.40.10. In the circuit of Fig. 4.40.3, the parallel connection of the current source (R1 V ) and the resistor
(R) is transformed into the series connection of the voltage source (1 V) and the resistor (R), as can be seen in Fig. 4.40.4.
In the circuit of Fig. 4.40.5, the series resistors (R and R) are combined.
In Fig. 4.40.6, the circuit is folded about the axis of the capacitor; thus, the 2R resistors become parallel.
Then, the series connection of the voltage source (1 V) and the resistor (2R) is transformed into the parallel connection
1
of the current source (2R V) and the 2R resistor, as is shown in Fig. 4.40.7.
After that, the parallel resistors (2R) are combined, and the circuit is converted to the one shown in Fig. 4.40.8.
1
Next, the parallel connection of the current source (2R V) and the resistor (R) is transformed into the series connection of
1
the voltage source (2 V) and the resistor (R), as can be seen in Fig. 4.40.9. Finally, the circuit is simplified and shown in
Fig. 4.40.10, which is an RC circuit in series with the voltage source (12 V).

V C2 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
source):
V C2 ð0þ Þ ¼ V C2 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð3Þ
The final voltage of the capacitor will be 12 V, since the capacitor will be an open circuit after a long time. Thus:
1
V C2 ð1Þ ¼ V ð4Þ
2
τ2 ¼ RTh2 C ¼ 2R C ¼ 2RC ð5Þ
t
τt 1 1
V C2 ðt Þ ¼ V C2 ð1Þ þ ðV C2 ð0þ Þ V C2 ð1ÞÞe 2 ¼ þ 0 e2RC
2 2

1
1 þ e2RC
t
) V C2 ðt Þ ¼ ð6Þ
2

t
d d 1 C 1 1
1 þ e2RC e2RC ¼ e2RC ð7Þ
t t
I C2 ðt Þ ¼ C V C2 ðt Þ ¼ C ¼
dt dt 2 2 2RC 4R
Since the result is valid for t > 0, we can use unit step function (u(t)) in (7), as follows:
1 2RC
t
I C2 ðt Þ ¼ e uð t Þ ð8Þ
4R

1 1
I C ðt Þ ¼ I C1 ðt Þ þ I C2 ðt Þ ¼ 0 þ e2RC uðt Þ ¼ e2RC uðt Þ
t t
4R 4R



4.41. As can be noticed from Fig. 4.41.1, the circuit is a first-order RC circuit with DC power supply that has the general
equation below for the voltage of the capacitor:
V ðt Þ ¼ V ð1Þ þ ðV ð0þ Þ V ð1ÞÞeτ

t
ð1Þ
4
V ðt Þ ¼ 1 e1:5t uðt Þ ð2Þ
3
By comparing (1) and (2), we can calculate the time constant of the circuit, as can be seen in (3).
1 2
)τ¼ ¼ sec ð3Þ
1:5 3
In addition, by using the circuit of Fig. 4.41.1, we can determine the final voltage of the capacitor. As we know, the
capacitor will be like an open circuit after a long time. By using Ohm’s law:

2R
V ð1Þ ¼ 1 2R ¼ ð4Þ
2þR
Now, by comparing (4) and the final value of voltage in (2), we have:
2R 4 2R 4
¼ lim 1 e1:5t uðt Þ ) ¼ ) 6R ¼ 8 þ 4R ) R ¼ 4 Ω ð5Þ
2 þ R t!1 3 2þR 3
Moreover, by using (5) and equating (3) with the equation of time constant of a capacitive first-order circuit, we can
calculate the capacitance of the capacitor (C) in the circuit of Fig. 4.41.1.
2 2R 2 24 1
τ ¼ RTh C ) ¼ C ) ¼ C )C ¼ F ð6Þ
3 2þR 3 2þ4 2
After replacing the 2 Ω resistor with the 12 F capacitor, we have a different capacitive first-order circuit shown in
Fig. 4.41.2. The circuit of Fig. 4.41.2 is simplified and illustrated in Fig. 4.41.3.
Since the current source was off before t ¼ 0:

V ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
Because of the voltage continuity of the capacitor:
V ð0þ Þ ¼ V ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ð8Þ

The final voltage of the capacitor:
V ð 1Þ ¼ 1 4 ¼ 4 V ð9Þ
τ ¼ RTh C ¼ 4 1 ¼ 4 sec ð10Þ

V ðt Þ ¼ V ð1Þ þ ðV ð0þ Þ V ð1ÞÞeτ ¼ 4 þ ð0 4Þe4 ¼ 4 1 e0:25t
t t


Problems: Second-Order and Higher-Order
Circuits 5
Abstract
This chapter helps both groups of underprepared and knowledgeable undergraduate students taking courses in electrical
circuit analysis. In this chapter, the basic and advanced problems of second-order and higher-order circuits are presented. A
second-order circuit comprises two energy-saving components (two capacitors, two inductors, or a combination of one
capacitor and one inductor) and a combination of other components including resistors, independent and dependent voltage
sources, and independent and dependent current sources. Like the other chapters of this textbook, the problems are
categorized in different levels based on their difficulty levels (easy, normal, or hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal,
or large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult
problems with the largest calculations.
5.1. Determine the value of Vo(t) in the steady state condition of the circuit of Fig. 5.1.
1) 6 V
2) 7 V
3) 8 V
4) 10 V
5.2. In the circuit of Fig. 5.2, how much energy can be stored in the circuit in the steady state condition?
1) 5 mJ
2) 20 mJ
3) 15 mJ
4) 10 mJ

196 5 Problems: Second-Order and Higher-Order Circuits

þ
5.3. In the circuit of Fig. 5.3, I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0, V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0, dV Cdtð0 Þ ¼ 10 V= sec. Determine the capacity of the capacitor.
1) 0.25 F
2) 0.5 F
3) 1 F
4) 2 F
5.4. In the circuit of Fig. 5.4, determine the value of R so that I R ðt Þ ¼ 23 δðt Þ for Vs(t) ¼ δ(t).
1) 1 Ω
2) 2 Ω
3) 12 Ω
4) 13 Ω

5 Problems: Second–Order and Higher–Order Circuits 197
5.5. In the circuit of Fig. 5.5, the switch has been in “A” position for a long time, and then it is turned to “B” position at t ¼ 0.
Determine VL(0+).
1) 0 V
2) 32 V
3) 80 V
4) 1
5.6. Calculate the value of IC(0+) and VL(0+) in the circuit of Fig. 5.6 for the given waveform of Vs(t).
1) 1 A, 24 V
2) 4 A, 24 V
3) 1 A, 12 V
4) 4 A, 12 V

dI L ð0þ Þ
5.7. The circuit of Fig. 5.7 has reached its steady state condition before t ¼ 0. Calculate the value of V(0+) and dt .
1) 4 V, 4 A/sec
2) 4 V, 0 A/sec
3) 16 V, 4 A/sec
4) 16 V, 0 A/sec
dV 1 ð0þ Þ
5.8. The circuit of Fig. 5.8 is in the steady state condition before t ¼ 0. Determine the value of V1(0+) and dt .
1) 0 V, 3 V/sec
2) 0 V, 3 V/sec
3) 3 V, 3 V/sec
4) 3 V, 3 V/sec
þ
5.9. In the circuit of Fig. 5.9, IL(0) ¼ 5 A, VC(0) ¼ 6 V. Calculate the value of dI Ldtð0 Þ.
1) 13 A= sec
2) 12 A= sec
3) 14 A= sec
4) 15 A= sec
5.10. What is the behavior of the second-order circuit of Fig. 5.10?

1) Unstable
2) Oscillating
3) Overdamped
4) Critically damped

þ
5.11. In the circuit of Fig. 5.11, calculate the value of dV Cdtð0 Þ.
1) 7 V/sec
2) 5 V/sec
3) 7 V/sec
4) 5 V/sec

5.12. Determine the time-dependent deferential equation of IR for the circuit of Fig. 5.12.
1) L dIdtR ðtÞ RI R ðt Þ ¼ L dIdtS ðtÞ V S ðt Þ
2) L dIdtR ðtÞ þ RI R ðt Þ ¼ L dIdtS ðtÞ þ V S ðt Þ
3) LC d dtI R2ðtÞ þ RL dI R ðt Þ
þ I R ðt Þ ¼ L dIdtS ðtÞ þ V S ðt Þ
2
dt
4) LC d dtI R2ðtÞ RL dI R ðt Þ
þ I R ðt Þ ¼ L dIdtS ðtÞ V S ðt Þ
2
dt
5.13. In the circuit of Fig. 5.13, how much energy is delivered to the RLC circuit by the current source in the interval of
[0, 1] sec? In this problem, assume that C ¼ 0.1 F, L ¼ 1 H, R ¼ 1.5 Ω, IS(t) ¼ 10t for t 0, VC(0) ¼ 20 V.
1) 275 J
2) 325 J
3) 345 J
4) 375 J

5.14. In the circuit of Fig. 5.14, the switch has been closed for a long time. How much must be the value of voltage V0 so that
no impulse voltage (Dirac Delta Function) is created across terminal a-b when the switch is opened at t ¼ 0?
1) 4 V
2) 12 V
3) 16 V
4) 24 V
5.15. In the circuit of Fig. 5.15, the circuit has reached its steady state condition. Determine the voltage across the switch
when it is opened.
1) 0 V
2) 2 V
3) 4 V
4) 8 V

5.16. The linear time-invariant (LTI) circuit of Fig. 5.16 is in zero state. Determine Io(0+) if Vs(t) ¼ δ(t).
1) 13 A
2) 14 A
3) 16 A
4) 18 A
5.17. In the circuit of Fig. 5.17, at t ¼ 0, the switches S1, S2 are closed, and the switches S3, S4 are opened simultaneously.
Calculate dVdtC at t ¼ 0+.
1) 72 V=s
2) 11
4 V=s
5
3) 2 V=s
7
4) 4 V=s

5.18. In the circuit of Fig. 5.18, all the resistors are 1 Ω, and the circuit goes to infinity from each side. For what size of the
inductor is the quality factor of circuit 1.2?
1) 0.5 H
2) 1 H
3) 1.2 H
4) 1.96 H
5.19. In the circuit of Fig. 5.19, determine the primary condition of the circuit (VC1(0), VC2(0), IL(0)) to not excite any variable
of the circuit.
1) (1, 1, 1)
2) (1, 0, 1)
3) (1, 1, 1)
4) (1, 0, 0)
Fig. 5.19 The circuit of problem 5.19.

5.20. In the circuit of Fig. 5.20, the switch is closed at t ¼ 0. What must be the size of the inductor to have a critically damped
response for VL(t) for t > 0?
1) 0.08 H
2) 0.04 H
3) 0.16 H
4) 0.32 H
5.21. The circuit of Fig. 5.21 is in the steady state condition. The switch is closed at t ¼ 0. Determine the value of e(0+) and
deð0þ Þ
dt .
1) 8 V, 0 V/sec
2) 3 V, 12 V/sec
3) 8V, 6 V/sec
4) None of them

5.22. How much is the quality factor (Q) of the circuit of Fig. 5.22?
pffiffi
1) Q ¼ 2193
pffiffi
2) Q ¼ 193
3) Q ¼ 24
19
4) Q ¼ 12
19
5.23. In the circuit of Fig. 5.23, the switch is closed at t ¼ 0. Calculate the time-dependent equation of IL considering
IL(0) ¼ 0, VC(0) ¼ 0.
1) (et + e2t)u(t) A
2) (et + e2t)u(t) A
3) (10et 10e2t)u(t) A
4) (10et + 10e2t)u(t) A

5.24. In the circuit of Fig. 5.24, calculate the complete response of VC(t) for unit step input assuming
VC(0) ¼ 1 V, IL(0) ¼ 2 A.

1) 1 þ 13 e2t e0:5t V
2) 1 + 3(e2t e0.5t) V

3) 1 þ 13 e0:5t e2t V
4) 1 + 3(e0.5t e2t) V
5.25. What must be the value of k to put the circuit of Fig. 5.25 in critically damped condition?
1) 1
2) 2
3) 3
4) 4
þ
5.26. In the circuit of Fig. 5.26, calculate the value of d IdtL ð20 Þ and V0(0+), assuming 0 V and 0 A for the initial voltage of the
2
capacitor and the primary current of the inductor, respectively.

2
2 ðA= sec Þ
35
1) 1 V,
2
4 ðA= sec Þ
35
2) 1 V,
2
3) 1 V, 352 ðA= sec Þ
2
4) 1 V, 354 ðA= sec Þ
þ
5.27. In the circuit of Fig. 5.27, if I(0) ¼ 2 A, VC1(0) ¼ 3 V, and VC2(0) ¼ 1 V, calculate the value of dI ðdt0 Þ.
1) 54 A= sec
2) 1112 A= sec
11
3) 12 A= sec
4) 54 A= sec
5.28. In the circuit of Fig. 5.28, if IL(0) ¼ 2 A and VC(0) ¼ 4 V, calculate VC(t) for t > 0.
1) 2 + 6et + 4e2t
2) 2 + 8et 6e2t
3) 2 6et + 6e2t
4) 2 6et + 8e2t
5.29. In the circuit of Fig. 5.29, after closing the switch at t ¼ 0, a critically damped general response is achieved for the
circuit. Determine the value of IL(t) after the switching operation.
1) (0.4 + 2.25t)e500tu(t) A
2) (0.4 + 0.225t)e200tu(t) A
3) (0.4 + 225t)e1000tu(t) A
4) (0.4 + 225t)e500tu(t) A
5.30. In the circuit of Fig. 5.30, the switch has been open for a long time. Calculate the time-dependent equation of the current
of the switch (I ), if it is closed at t ¼ 0.
I ðt Þ ¼ 10 2e4 4 sin ð2t Þ A
t
1)
2) I(t) ¼ 8 + 2e4t + 4 sin (2t) A
3) I(t) ¼ 10 2e4t 4 sin (2t) A
4) I(t) ¼ 10 2e4t + 4 sin (2t) A

Solutions of Problems: Second-Order
and Higher-Order Circuits 6
Abstract
In this chapter, the problems of the fifth chapter are fully solved, in detail and step-by-step. In solving the problems of this
chapter, all the subjects of the previous chapters are applied. Moreover, the concepts of quality factor, circuit responses,
impulse function, time-dependent second-order homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations, characteristic
equation, and general solution of a second-order differential equations are explained.
6.1. To analyze a circuit in the steady state condition, we need to replace the capacitors and inductors by the open circuit and
short-circuit branches, respectively, as can be seen in Fig. 6.1.2. By simplifying the circuit of Fig. 6.1.2, we can get the
circuit shown in Fig. 6.1.3. To determine the output voltage, we can use the superposition theorem.
1 1
Vo ¼ 10 þ 41¼5þ2¼7V
1þ1 1þ1

210 6 Solutions of Problems: Second-Order and Higher-Order Circuits
6.2. To calculate the energy stored in the energy-saving components of the circuit, we need to analyze the circuit in the
steady state condition. As can be seen in Fig. 6.2.2, in the steady state condition, the capacitor and inductor must be
replaced with the open circuit and short-circuit branches, respectively.
Since the capacitor is an open circuit branch, the whole current of the current source flows through the inductor.
Therefore:
IL ¼ 2 A ð1Þ
Using Ohm’s law:
V C ¼ 10 2 ¼ 20 V ð2Þ
Energy stored in the inductor:
1 1
W L ¼ LI L 2 ¼ 5 103 22 ¼ 102 J ¼ 10 mJ ð3Þ
2 2
Energy stored in the capacitor:
1 1
W C ¼ CV C 2 ¼ 25 106 202 ¼ 5 103 J ¼ 5 mJ ð4Þ
2 2
Total energy stored in the circuit:
W ¼ W L þ W C ¼ 10 mJ þ 5 mJ ¼ 15 mJ
6.3. Figure 6.3.2 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0+. As can be seen, the capacitor has been replaced by a short-circuit branch, since
it has the primary voltage of zero. Moreover, the inductor has been replaced by an open circuit branch because it has the
primary current of zero.
d
V ð0þ Þ ¼ 10 V= sec ð1Þ
dt C

6 Solutions of Problems: Second‐Order and Higher‐Order Circuits 211
d Using ð1Þ
I C ð 0þ Þ ¼ C V C ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ C 10 ¼ 10C
¼ ð2Þ
dt
Applying KVL in the indicated loop:
10 þ 2I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 5 A ð3Þ
1
10C ¼ 5 ) C ¼ F
2
6.4. Since the voltage source is an impulse function, the inductor and capacitor will behave like an open circuit and short
circuit, respectively, as is shown in Fig. 6.4.2.
V s ðt Þ ¼ δðt Þ ð1Þ
2
I R ðt Þ ¼ δ ðt Þ ð2Þ
3
Applying KVL in the circuit:
V s ðt Þ Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ 2 δ ðt Þ

V s ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ þ 1 I R ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I R ðt Þ ¼ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) δðt Þ ¼
Rþ1 3 Rþ1
2 1 1
) ¼ ) 2R þ 2 ¼ 3 ) R ¼ Ω
3 Rþ1 2
Choice (3) is correct.
6.5. First, we need to analyze the circuit for t < 0, shown in the circuit of Fig. 6.5.2, where the inductor has been replaced by a
short-circuit branch.
Using Ohm’s law:
32
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼4A ð1Þ
8
Moreover, since the capacitor is not connected to a power source, its primary voltage is zero.
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
Due to the continuity of the capacitor voltage and inductor current in lack of power source with an infinite size (e.g.,
impulse power source), we can conclude that:
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 A ð3Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð4Þ
To analyze the circuit at t ¼ 0+, we can model the capacitor and inductor by using a voltage source (with the size of 0 V)
and a current source (with the size of 4 A), respectively, as is shown in Fig. 6.5.3. Now, we can calculate the voltage of
the inductor by applying KVL in the loop:
V L ð0þ Þ 8 4 12 4 ¼ 0 ) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 80 V

6.6. First, we need to analyze the circuit for t ¼ 0. Since the circuit has reached its steady state, the capacitor and inductor
are open circuit and short circuit, respectively, as can be seen in Fig. 6.6.3. Herein, the 6 Ω resistor is eliminated because
its two ends are short-circuited. By using Ohm’s law for the whole circuit, we have:
12
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼ 3 A ð1Þ
4þ0
V C ð0 Þ ¼ 4 ð3Þ ¼ 12 V ð2Þ
Due to the current continuity of the inductor:
I L ð0þ Þ ¼ I L ð0 Þ ¼ 3 A ð3Þ
Due to the voltage continuity of the capacitor:
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 12 V ð4Þ
The circuit for t ¼ 0+ is shown in Fig. 6.6.4, where the primary voltage of the capacitor and the initial current of the
inductor have been modelled by using 12 V voltage source and 3 A current source, respectively. By applying KVL
in the indicated mesh, we have:
12 þ ð12Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 24 V ð5Þ

KCL in the indicated supernode:
12 V ð0þ Þ Using ð5Þ 24

I C ð0þ Þ þ ð3Þ þ L ¼0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ þ 3 3 þ
¼ ¼0
4 6 6
) I C ð 0þ Þ þ 4 ¼ 0 ) I C ð 0þ Þ ¼ 4 A ð6Þ

6.7. As can be seen in Fig. 6.7.2 that shows the circuit for t ¼ 0, the whole current of the current source passes through the
inductor; therefore:
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 A ð1Þ
V C ð0 Þ þ 1 4 ¼ 0 ) V C ð0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð2Þ
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 A ð3Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð4Þ
Figure 6.7.3 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0+, where the 4 V voltage source and the 4 A current source are applied to show the
primary voltage of the capacitor and the initial current of the inductor, respectively.
KCL in the indicated supernode:
4 12 þ I C ð0þ Þ 4 ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 12 ð5Þ
KVL in loop 1:
Using ð5Þ
V ðt Þ þ I C ð0þ Þ 1 þ 4 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V ðt Þ þ 12 1 þ 4 ¼ 0 ) V ðt Þ ¼ 16 V ð6Þ
KVL in loop 2:
Using ð3Þ, ð6Þ

V ðt Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ þ I L ð0þ Þ 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼¼) 16 þ V L ð0þ Þ þ 4 1 ¼ 0
) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 12 V ð7Þ
d d d V ð0þ Þ
V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ L I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ 3 I L ð 0þ Þ ) I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ L
dt dt dt 3
Using ð7Þ d 12
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼
¼ ¼ 4 A= sec
dt 3


6.8. Figure 6.8.2 illustrates the circuit for t ¼ 0. As can be seen, since the power source of the circuit is short-circuited, the
initial voltage of the capacitor and the primary current of the inductor are zero. In other words:
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð1Þ
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
source):
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð3Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð4Þ
Therefore, the capacitor and the inductor need to be modeled by a short-circuit branch and an open circuit branch for
t ¼ 0+, respectively, as is shown in Fig. 6.8.3.
In Fig. 6.8.3, the whole current of the current source flows through the left-side 1 Ω resistor. Therefore:
V 1 ð 0þ Þ ¼ 3 1 ¼ 3 V ð5Þ
KVL in the indicated loop of Fig. 6.8.3:
V 1 ð0þ Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ þ 0 ¼ 0 ) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ V 1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 3 V ð6Þ
The current-voltage relation of the inductor:
d d Using ð6Þ d
V L ð0þ Þ ¼ L I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 1 I L ð0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 3 A= sec
¼ ð7Þ
dt dt dt
The circuit for t > 0 is shown in Fig. 6.8.4. By applying KCL in node “A,” we have:
V 1 ðt Þ d
dt d d d d
3 þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) V ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) V 1 ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ¼ 3 V=sec
1 dt 1 dt dt dt


V C ð0Þ ¼ 6 V ð1Þ
Due to the continuity of the voltage of the capacitor and the current of the inductor:
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0Þ ¼ 6 V ð3Þ
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0Þ ¼ 5 A ð4Þ
KVL in the indicated mesh of the circuit of Fig. 6.9.2:
I L ðt Þ 1 þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
d d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ¼ 3 I L ðt Þ ð6Þ
dt L dt
Solving (5) and (6) for t ¼ 0+:
d Using ð3Þ, ð4Þ d

I L ð 0þ Þ þ 3 I L ð 0þ Þ þ V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 5 þ 3 I L ð0þ Þ þ ð6Þ ¼ 0
¼
dt dt
d 1
) I ð0þ Þ ¼ A= sec
dt L 3

6.10. To determine the behavior of a second-order circuit, its characteristic equation must be known. Therefore, first, we need
to formulate the differential equation of the circuit. Herein, we can write the differential equation based on the voltage of
the capacitor or the current of the inductor.
Applying KVL in the indicated mesh of the circuit of Fig. 6.10.2:
V L ðt Þ þ 1:5I L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) V C ðt Þ ¼ V L ðt Þ 1:5I L ðt Þ ð1Þ
Applying KCL in the supernode:
V L ðt Þ V ðt Þ
I L ðt Þ þ þ I C ðt Þ þ C ¼ 0 ð2Þ
1 2
d d d
dt C dt dt
Applying (3) in (2):
d V ðt Þ
I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ V ðt Þ þ C ¼ 0 ð4Þ
dt C 2
Using ð1Þ d 1
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ ðV L ðt Þ 1:5I L ðt ÞÞ þ ðV L ðt Þ 1:5I L ðt ÞÞ ¼ 0
dt 2
1 3 d 3 d
) I ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
4 L 2 dt 2 dt L
d d d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ¼ 1 I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ð6Þ
dt L dt dt

1 3 d d d 3 d d2 1
I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) 2 I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
4 2 dt dt dt 2 dt dt 4
The characteristic equation of (7) and its roots are:
1 1
s2 þ ¼ 0 ) s1,2 ¼ j ð8Þ
4 2
Since the characteristic equation has pure imaginary roots, the circuit has undamped or oscillating behavior.
6.11. First, we need to analyze the circuit for t ¼ 0, as is shown in Fig. 6.11.2. Since the circuit has reached its steady state
condition, the capacitor is open circuit and the inductor is short circuit.
1
V C ð0 Þ þ 1 1 V C ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ) V C ð0 Þ ¼ V ð1Þ
2
As can be seen in the circuit, the whole current of the current source flows through the inductor.
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 A ð2Þ
Due to the continuity of voltage of the capacitor and the current of the inductor:
1
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ V ð3Þ
2
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 A ð4Þ
Figure 6.11.3 illustrates the circuit for t ¼ 0+, where the primary voltage of the capacitor and the primary current of the
inductor are modeled by the voltage and current sources, respectively.
Now, by applying KVL in the indicate mesh, we have:
V C ð0þ Þ þ ð1 I C ð0þ ÞÞ 1 V C ð0þ Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0
Using ð3Þ
1
) 2V C ð0þ Þ þ 1 I C ð0þ Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 2 þ 1 I C ð 0þ Þ þ V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ 0
2
) V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I C ð 0þ Þ ð5Þ
V L ð0þ Þ 10
1 þ I C ð0þ Þ þ 1 þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ þ V L ð0þ Þ 10 ¼ 0 ð6Þ
1
I C ð0þ Þ þ I C ð0þ Þ 10 ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 5 V ð7Þ
d d d Using ð7Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼ 1 V C ðt Þ ) V C ðt Þ ¼ I C ð0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V C ðt Þ ¼ 5 V= sec
dt dt dt dt

6.12. We need to define all the variables of the differential equations of the circuit based on IR(t).
KVL in the left-side mesh of the circuit of Fig. 6.12.2:
V S ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ð2Þ
dt L
I R ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ 2I R ðt Þ I S ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I L ðt Þ ¼ I R ðt Þ þ I S ðt Þ ð3Þ
d Using ð3Þ d
V S ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ þ L I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V S ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ þ L ðI R ðt Þ þ I S ðt ÞÞ ¼ 0
dt dt
d d
) V S ðt Þ þ RI R ðt Þ L I ðt Þ þ L I S ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt R dt
d d
)L I ðt Þ RI R ðt Þ ¼ L I S ðt Þ V S ðt Þ
dt R dt

6.13. To calculate the energy of a current source, its time-dependent voltage equation must be known.
V S ðt Þ þ V R ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
The current-voltage relation of the resistor:
V R ðt Þ ¼ RI R ðt Þ ¼ RI S ðt Þ ¼ 1:5 10t ¼ 15t V ð2Þ
d d d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ¼ L I S ðt Þ ¼ 1 ð10t Þ ¼ 10 V ð3Þ
dt L dt dt
The current-voltage relation of the capacitor:
ðt ðt ðt
1 1 1
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð0Þ þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ V C ð0Þ þ I S ðt Þ:dt ¼ 20 þ 10t:dt ¼
C C 0:1
0 0 0
2

t
V C ðt Þ ¼ 20 þ 10 10 ¼ 20 þ 50t 2 V ð4Þ
2
Applying (2), (3), and (4) in (1):
V S ðt Þ þ 15t þ 10 þ 20 þ 50t 2 ¼ 0 ) V S ðt Þ ¼ 15t þ 30 þ 50t 2 ð5Þ
Now, we can calculate the energy of the current source for the given interval, that is, [0, 1]:
ðt ð1

W S ¼ V S ðt ÞI S ðt Þ:dt ¼ 15t þ 30 þ 50t 2 10t:dt
0 0
ð1
1
W S ¼ 150t 2 þ 300t þ 500t 3 :dt ¼ 50t 3 þ 150t 2 þ 125t 4 0
0
W S ¼ ð50 þ 150 þ 125Þ ð0 þ 0 þ 0Þ ¼ 325 J

6.14. Before the switching operation, the circuit is in the steady state situation. Therefore, the inductors can be replaced by the
short-circuit branches, as can be seen in Fig. 6.14.2. To calculate the inductors’ currents before opening the switch, we
can use the superposition theorem in Fig. 6.14.2.
R 12 R V 12 V 0 12 þ V 0
I L1 ðt ¼ 0 Þ ¼ þ 0 ¼ þ ¼ ð1Þ
R þ R R þ R2 R þ R R þ R2 3R 3R 3R
R 12 V 12 V 0 12 2V 0
I L2 ðt ¼ 0 Þ ¼ 0 ¼ ¼ ð2Þ
R þ R R þ R2 R þ R2 3R 32 R 3R
From the circuit of Fig. 6.14.3, it is clear that right after the switching (t ¼ 0+), the inductors’ currents are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
I L1 ðt ¼ 0þ Þ ¼ I L2 ðt ¼ 0þ Þ ð3Þ
To avoid having any impulse voltage across the switch, the abovementioned relation between them must be held before
the switching (t ¼ 0) as well. Therefore:
I L1 ðt ¼ 0 Þ ¼ I L2 ðt ¼ 0 Þ ð4Þ
Solving (1), (2), and (4):
12 þ V 0 12 2V 0
¼ ¼ 0 ) 12 þ V 0 ¼ 12 þ 2V 0 ) V 0 ¼ 24 V
3R 3R

6.15. Before the switching operation, since the circuit is in the steady state condition, the capacitor and inductors behave like
an open circuit branch and short-circuit branches, respectively, as is shown in Fig. 6.15.2. By analyzing the circuit, we
can calculate the voltage of the capacitor and the current of each inductor.
By simplifying the circuit of Fig. 6.15.2 and showing in Fig. 6.15.3, the total current of the circuit is:
18
I ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼6A ð1Þ
1þ2
The current division for the inductors (see Fig. 6.15.2):
2
I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 6¼4A ð2Þ
1þ2
1
I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 6¼2A ð3Þ
1þ2
Using (1) and Ohm’s law for the 2 Ω resistor in the circuit of Fig. 6.15.2:
V C ð0 Þ ¼ 2I ð0 Þ ¼ 2 6 ¼ 12 V ð4Þ
Since there is no power source with an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source) in the circuit, the voltage of the
capacitor and the current of each inductor will continue during the switching operation. Hence:
I L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 4 A ð5Þ
I L2 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð6Þ
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 12 V ð7Þ
For a very short interval, that is, [0, 0+], we can model the capacitor and the inductors by using a voltage source and
current sources, as is illustrated in Fig. 6.15.4. Now, by applying KVL in the indicated mesh, we can calculate the
voltage of the switch right after the switching operation.
V S ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 4 þ 12 ¼ 4 V

6.16. Due to the presence of the voltage source with an infinite size (Vs(t) ¼ δ(t)) in the circuit, for the interval of [0, 0+], the
capacitors and inductors will behave like the short-circuit and open circuit branches, respectively, as can be seen in
Fig. 6.16.2. The requested output is the current of 2 H inductor. To calculate its current, we need to use the voltage-
current relation of the inductor for that inductor as follows:
8 0 9
ðt <ð 0ðþ
= 0ðþ
1 1 1
I L ðt Þ ¼ V L ðt Þ:dt ) I 2H ð0þ Þ ¼ 0:dt þ V 2H ðt Þ:dt ¼ V 2H ðt Þ:dt ð1Þ
L 2: ; 2
1 1
0 0
Using the voltage division formula in the circuit of Fig. 6.16.3, which is the simplified circuit of Fig. 6.16.2:
1 1
V 2H ðt Þ ¼ δðt Þ ¼ δðt Þ ð2Þ
1þ1þ1 3
ð 0þ ð 0þ
1 1 1 1 1
) I 2H ð0þ Þ ¼ δðt Þ:dt ¼ δðt Þ:dt ¼ 1¼ A
2 0 3 6 0 6 6
1
) I o ð0þ Þ ¼ I 2H ð0þ Þ ¼ A
6

6.17. The circuit for t ¼ 0 is illustrated in Fig. 6.17.2. Since the circuit is in the steady state condition, the capacitor and
inductor are open circuit and short circuit, respectively.
Using Ohm’s law for the left-side circuit:
2
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼2A ð1Þ
1
Using the voltage division formula for the right-side circuit:
1
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 2¼1V ð2Þ
1þ1
Due to the current continuity of the inductor and the voltage continuity of the capacitor in lack of a power source with
an infinite size (e.g., impulse power source):
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð3Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð4Þ
Figure 6.17.3 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0+ while modeling the primary current of the inductor and initial voltage of the
capacitor by the 2 A independent current source and the 1 V independent voltage source, respectively.
Now, by applying KCL in the indicated supernode:
12 1 11
þ 2 þ I C ð0þ Þ þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ A ð5Þ
4 1 4
d Using ð5Þ 11 d
I C ð 0þ Þ ¼ C V ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) A ¼ 1 V C ð 0þ Þ
dt C 4 dt
d 11
) V ð 0þ Þ ¼ V =s
dt C 4


6.18. To calculate the quality factor of the circuit, we need to determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit seen by the LC
circuit, as can be noticed from (1):
rffiffiffiffi
1 L
Q¼ ð1Þ
Req C
To calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit, we need to apply a test source (e.g., a test current source with the
voltage and current of Vt and It), and then Req ¼ VI tt , as is shown in Fig. 6.18.2.
Since the circuit has infinite dimension, instead of the current source connected between nodes “A” and “D” (Fig. 6.18.2), we
can use the superposition theorem and connect the current source to each node separately, as is shown in Figs. 6.18.3 and
6.18.4.
In Fig. 6.18.3, due to the infinite size of the circuit, the current of It entering node “A” will be equally divided; thus:
1
I AB ¼ I t ð2Þ
3
Moreover, due to the same reason, IAB will be equally divided. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
I BC ¼ I AB ¼ I t ¼ I t ð3Þ
2 2 3 6
Similarly:
1 1 1 1
I CD ¼ I BC ¼ I t ¼ I t ð3Þ
2 2 6 12
Now, by applying KVL in the loop, we have:
1 1 1 7
V t1 þ I t 1 þ I t 1 þ I t 1 ¼ 0 ) V t1 ¼ I t ð4Þ
3 6 12 12
Additionally, in Fig. 6.18.4, the current of It exiting from node “D” will be equally divided because the circuit has an
infinite distance from each side. Therefore:
1
I CD ¼ I t ð5Þ
3
Likewise:
1 1 1 1
I BC ¼ I CD ¼ I t ¼ I t ð6Þ
2 2 3 6
1 1 1 1
I AB ¼ I BC ¼ I t ¼ I t ð7Þ
2 2 6 12
Applying KVL in the loop:

1 1 1 7
V t2 þ I 1 þ I t 1 þ I t 1 ¼ 0 ) V t2 ¼ I t ð8Þ
12 t 6 3 12
Based on the superposition theorem:
7 7 14 V 14 14
V t ¼ V t1 þ V t2 ¼ I þ I ¼ I ) t¼ ) Req ¼ Ω ð9Þ
12 t 12 t 12 t It 12 12
Q ¼ 1:2 ð10Þ
Solving (1), (9), and (10):

rffiffiffi
1 L pffiffiffi
1:2 ¼ 14 ) 1:4 ¼ L ) L ¼ ð1:4Þ2 ¼ 1:96 H
12
1


6.19. To prevent the problem variables form any excitation, their first derivative must be adjusted to zero. In other words:
d
V ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
dt C1
d
V ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
dt C2
d
I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð3Þ
dt L
KVL in the indicated loop of the circuit of Fig. 6.19.2:
V C1 ð0Þ þ V C2 ð0Þ þ V L ð0Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
d Using ð3Þ
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I L ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
dt
V C1 ð0Þ þ V C2 ð0Þ þ 0 ¼ 0 ) V C1 ð0Þ ¼ V C2 ð0Þ ð6Þ
KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of Fig. 6.19.2:
I C2 ð0Þ þ V C1 ð0Þ þ I L ð0Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
Applying the voltage-current relation of the capacitor for the second capacitor:
d Using ð2Þ
I C2 ð0Þ ¼ C 2 V C2 ð0Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) I C2 ð0Þ ¼ 0 ð8Þ
dt
0 þ V C1 ð0Þ þ I L ð0Þ ¼ 0 ) V C1 ð0Þ ¼ I L ð0Þ ð9Þ
V C1 ð0Þ ¼ V C2 ð0Þ ¼ I L ð0Þ

6.20. The general response of a circuit only depends on the configuration of the circuit, and it is totally independent of the
primary condition of the circuit. Therefore, we do not need to know the primary value of the variables. Figure 6.20.2
illustrates the circuit for t > 0.
The components are in parallel; thus:
V C ðt Þ ¼ V L ðt Þ ð1Þ
d d Using ð1Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼ 200 106 V C ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ðt Þ ¼ 2 104 V L ðt Þ
¼ ð2Þ
dt dt dt
d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ð3Þ
dt L
1
I C ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ V ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
20 L
d 1
2 104 V ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt L 20

Using ð3Þ d d 1 d
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 2 104
¼ L I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ L I L ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt dt 20 dt
d2 L d
) 2 104 L I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt 2 20 dt L
d2 d 5000
) I ðt Þ þ 250 I L ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
dt 2 L dt L L
Hence, the characteristic equation of the circuit is:
5000
s2 þ 250s þ ¼0 ð6Þ
L
Based on the given information, the response of the circuit is critically damped; thus, the delta (discriminant) of the
quadratic characteristic equation is zero.
Δ¼0 ð7Þ

5000 4 5000
ð250Þ2 4ð1Þ ¼0)L¼ ¼ 0:32 H ð8Þ
L 2502

6.21. First, we need to analyze the circuit for t ¼ 0. Since the circuit is in the steady state condition, the capacitor and the
inductors are open circuit branch and short-circuit branches, respectively, as is shown in Fig. 6.21.2.
Using Ohm’s law for the whole circuit:
12 12
I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ ¼ ¼1A ð1Þ
3 þ 2 þ 6 þ 1 12
V C ð0 Þ ¼ 3I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 3 1 ¼ 3 V ð2Þ
I L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 1 A ð3Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 3 V ð4Þ
For t ¼ 0+, the switch is closed and the circuit is updated, as is illustrated in Fig. 6.21.3.
Applying KVL in the indicated mesh:
eð0þ Þ þ 1 1 12 þ 3 ¼ 0 ) eð0þ Þ ¼ 8 V ð5Þ
To determine the value of dtd eð0þ Þ, we need to analyze the circuit for t > 0, as can be seen in Fig. 6.21.4.
Applying KVL in the left-side mesh:
eðt Þ þ 1 I L1 ðt Þ 12 þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð6Þ
Applying derivate operator to (6):
d d d for t ¼ 0þ d d d
eðt Þ þ I L1 ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) eð0þ Þ þ I L1 ð0þ Þ þ V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ð7Þ
dt dt dt dt dt dt
KCL in the supernode for t ¼ 0+:
V C ð 0þ Þ Using ð3Þ, ð4Þ 3

I L1 ð0þ Þ I C ð0þ Þ ¼0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼¼) 1 I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 A ð8Þ
3 3
d for t ¼ 0þ d d 1
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 V C ð0þ Þ ) V C ð0þ Þ ¼ I C ð0þ Þ
dt dt dt 2
d 1
) V ð 0þ Þ ¼ 0 ¼ 0 ð9Þ
dt C 2
for t ¼ 0þ
eðt Þ 2 I L1 ðt Þ V L1 ðt Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) eð0þ Þ 2I L1 ð0þ Þ V L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 0
Using ð3Þ, ð5Þ

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 8 2ð1Þ V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ 6 V
¼ ð10Þ
d d for t ¼ 0þ d
V L1 ðt Þ ¼ L1 I L1 ðt Þ ) V L1 ðt Þ ¼ 1 I L1 ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L1 ð0þ Þ ð11Þ
dt dt dt
d
I ð0þ Þ ¼ 6 A= sec ð12Þ
dt L1
Solving (7), (9), and (12):
d d
eð0þ Þ þ 6 þ 0 ¼ 0 ) eð0þ Þ ¼ 6 V= sec
dt dt


6.22. First, we need to calculate the characteristic equation of the circuit. Then, the quality factor of the circuit can be
calculated by using (1):
ω0
Q¼ ð1Þ
2α
Applying KVL in the left-side mesh of the circuit in Fig. 6.22.2:
d2
d
d dt d d
2I 1 þ 3 I1 þ V C ¼ 0 ) 2 I1 þ 3 2 I1 þ V C ¼ 0 ð2Þ
dt dt dt dt
KCL in node “A”:
IC ¼ I1 I2 ð3Þ
d d d 1 Using ð3Þ d 1
IC ¼ C V C ¼ 2 V C ) V C ¼ IC ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V C ¼ ðI 1 I 2 Þ
¼ ð4Þ
dt dt dt 2 dt 2
d d2 1 d d2
2 I 1 þ 3 2 I 1 þ ðI 1 I 2 Þ ¼ 0 ) 4 I 1 þ 6 2 I 1 þ I 1 I 2 ¼ 0 ð5Þ
dt dt 2 dt dt
KVL in the right-side mesh of the circuit:
d
dt d d Using ð4Þ d 1
4I 2 V C ¼ 0 ) 4 I2 V C ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 4 I 2 ðI 1 I 2 Þ ¼ 0
dt dt dt 2
d
) I1 ¼ 8 I þ I2 ð6Þ
dt 2

d d d2 d d
4 8 I2 þ I2 þ 6 2 8 I2 þ I2 þ 8 I2 þ I2 I2 ¼ 0
dt dt dt dt dt
d2 d d3 d2 d
) 32 I 2 þ 4 I 2 þ 48 I 2 þ 6 I þ 8 I2 ¼ 0
dt 2 dt dt 3 dt 2 2 dt
Ð
dt
d3 d2 d d2 d
) 48 3 I 2 þ 38 2 I 2 þ 12 I 2 ¼ 0 ) 48 2 I 2 þ 38 I 2 þ 12I 2 ¼ 0
dt dt dt dt dt
d2 19 d 1
) I þ I þ I ¼0 ð7Þ
dt 2 2 24 dt 2 4 2
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the circuit is:
19 1
s2 þ sþ ¼0 ð8Þ
24 4
As we know, the general form of the characteristic equation of a circuit is:
s2 þ 2αs þ ω20 ¼ 0 ð9Þ
Now, by comparing (8) and (9):
19 1
α¼ , ω0 ¼ ð10Þ
48 2
Therefore, by using (1), we have:
1
ω0 12
Q¼ ¼ 19
2
¼
2α 24 19

6.23. Figure 6.23.2 illustrates the circuit for t > 0.
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð1Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð2Þ
Applying KCL in the indicated node of the circuit of Fig. 6.23.2:
I C ðt Þ I L ðt Þ 2I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ðt Þ ¼ 3I L ðt Þ ð3Þ
Applying KVL in the indicated loop:
Using ð3Þ
10 þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ 1 ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 10 þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ 3I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
d
dt d d d
) V ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ 3 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
dt L dt dt
d d d
V L ðt Þ ¼ L I ðt Þ ¼ 1 I L ðt Þ ) V L ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ð6Þ
dt L dt dt
d d d 2 Using ð3Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼ 1:5 V C ðt Þ ) V C ðt Þ ¼ I C ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V C ðt Þ ¼ 2I L ðt Þ ð7Þ
dt dt dt 3 dt
Solving (5), (6), and (7):

d d d d2 d
I L ðt Þ þ 2I L ðt Þ þ 3 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) 2 I L ðt Þ þ 3 I L ðt Þ þ 2I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð8Þ
dt dt dt dt dt
The characteristic equation of the circuit is:
s2 þ 3s þ 2 ¼ 0 ) s1,2 ¼ 1, 2 ð9Þ
The general form of the solution of equation (8) is:
I L ðt Þ ¼ Aet þ Be2t ð10Þ
Ae0 þ Be20 ¼ 0 ) A þ B ¼ 0 ð11Þ
Solving (4) for t ¼ 0+:
Using ð1Þ, ð2Þ

10 þ V L ð0þ Þ þ V C ð0þ Þ þ 3I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) 10 þ V L ð0þ Þ þ 0 þ 3 0 ¼ 0
¼
) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 10 V ð12Þ
d Using ð12Þ d
V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 10 A= sec
¼
¼ ð13Þ
dt L dt
Calculating the first derivate of (10):
d
I ðt Þ ¼ Aet 2Be2t ð14Þ
dt L
10 ¼ Ae0 2Be20 ) 10 ¼ A 2B ð15Þ
10 ¼ A 2ðAÞ ) A ¼ 10, B ¼ 10 ð16Þ

I L ðt Þ ¼ 10et 10e2t uðt Þ

6.24. We need to write the differential equation of the circuit based on the voltage of the capacitor. Figure 6.24.2 illustrates the
circuit for t > 0.
Applying KCL in node “A”:
V C ðt Þ
I L ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ þ ¼ 0 ) I L ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ þ 2:5V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
0:4
d
dt d d d
) I ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ þ 2:5 V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
dt L dt dt
d d d
dt C dt dt
V s ðt Þ ¼ 1 for t > 0 ð4Þ
KVL in the indicated mesh:
1 þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
d d d
dt L dt dt
d
I ðt Þ ¼ 1 V C ðt Þ ð7Þ
dt L
Solving (7), (3), and (2):

d d d
ð1 V C ðt ÞÞ þ V C ðt Þ þ 2:5 V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt dt dt
d2 d
) V ðt Þ þ 2:5 V C ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 1 ð8Þ
dt 2 C dt
Equation (8) is a second-order nonhomogeneous differential equation; thus, it has both common and particular
solutions. Its characteristic equation is:
s2 þ 2:5s þ 1 ¼ 0 ) s1,2 ¼ 0:5, 2 ð9Þ
Therefore, the general solution of (8) is:
V C,c ðt Þ ¼ Ae0:5t þ Be2t ð10Þ
Additionally, a constant quantity is chosen as the particular solution of (8), since “1” is a constant value, as follows:
V C,p ðt Þ ¼ k ð11Þ
Now, by putting (11) in (8), we have:
d2 d
k þ 2:5 k þ k ¼ 1 ) k ¼ 1 ð12Þ
dt 2 dt
The total solution is the sum of the common solution and particular solution:
) V C ðt Þ ¼ V C,c ðt Þ þ V C,p ðt Þ ¼ Ae0:5t þ Be2t þ 1 ð13Þ
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð14Þ
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð15Þ
Due to the continuity of the voltage of the capacitor and the current of the inductor:
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð16Þ
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð17Þ
þ þ
1 ¼ Ae0:50 þ Be20 þ 1 ) A þ B ¼ 0 ð18Þ
I L ð0þ Þ þ I C ð0þ Þ þ 2:5V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ I L ð0þ Þ 2:5V C ð0þ Þ ð19Þ
Solving (16), (17), and (19):
I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 2:5 1 ¼ 0:5 A ð20Þ
d d 0:5t
I C ðt Þ ¼ V ðt Þ ¼ Ae þ Be2t þ 1 ¼ 0:5Ae0:5t 2Be2t
dt C dt
for t ¼ 0þ þ þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ð0þ Þ ¼ 0:5Ae0:50 2Be20 ¼ 0:5A 2B ð21Þ
0:5 ¼ 0:5A 2B ð22Þ
1 1
0:5 ¼ 0:5A 2ðAÞ ) 0:5 ¼ 1:5A ) A ¼ , B ¼ ð23Þ
3 3
1 0:5t
) V C ðt Þ ¼ 1 þ e þ e2t
3

6.25. We need to determine the characteristic equation of the circuit based on the preferred variable (I(t)).
Defining the voltage of the independent voltage source based on the node voltages in the circuit of Fig. 6.25.2:
kI ðt Þ ¼ V L ðt Þ V C ðt Þ ) V L ðt Þ ¼ kI ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ð1Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ 2I ðt Þ ð2Þ
V L ðt Þ 7
I L ðt Þ þ 4
þ I C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð3Þ
7
4
d d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼ 2 V C ðt Þ ð4Þ
dt C dt
The voltage-current relation of the inductor:
ðt ðt ðt
1 1
I L ðt Þ ¼ I L ð0 Þ þ V L ðt Þ:dt ¼ 0 þ V L ðt Þ:dt ¼ V L ðt Þ:dt ð5Þ
L 1

0 0 0
In (5), IL(0) is assumed to be zero, since the general response of a circuit does not depend on its primary condition.
Using (4) and (5) in (3):
ðt
7 d
V L ðt Þ:dt þ V L ðt Þ þ 2 V C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0
4 dt
0
d2
d
dt 7 d d
) V L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ þ 2 2 V C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0
4 dt dt dt
Using ð1Þ 7 d d2 d
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) kI ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ ðkI ðt Þ þ V C ðt ÞÞ þ 2 2 V C ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0
4 dt dt dt

7 d 7 d d2
) kI ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ kþ1 I ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ 2 2 V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
4 dt 4 dt dt
Using ð2Þ
7 d 7 d d2
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) kI ðt Þ þ 2I ðt Þ þ k þ 1
¼ I ðt Þ þ ð2I ðt ÞÞ þ 2 2 ð2I ðt ÞÞ ¼ 0
4 dt 4 dt dt

d2 7 9 d
)4 2
I ðt Þ þ k þ I ðt Þ þ ðk þ 2ÞI ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt 4 2 dt

d2 7 9 d kþ2
) I ð t Þ þ k þ I ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð6Þ
dt 2 16 8 dt 4
The characteristic equation of (6) is:

7 9 kþ2
s2 þ kþ sþ ¼0 ð7Þ
16 8 4
To adjust the circuit in the critically damped condition, the delta (discriminant) of the quadratic characteristic equation
must be zero (Δ ¼ 0). Therefore:
2
7 9 kþ2 49 2 63 81
Δ¼ kþ 4ð 1Þ ¼0) k þ kþ k2¼0
16 8 4 256 64 64
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
49 47 qffiffiffiffi
49 2 1 47 64
1 1 2
64 þ 4 256 64
1
64 9
16
) k k ¼0)k¼ 98
¼ 98
256 64 64 256 256
1
3 4 192 94
) k ¼ 64 98 4 ¼ ¼ ,2
256
98 49
Therefore, k ¼ 2 is one of the answers. Choice (2) is correct.

V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð1Þ
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð2Þ
source):
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 V ð3Þ
source):
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð4Þ
Figure 6.26.2 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0+. As can be seen, the capacitor and the inductor have been modeled by a short-
circuit branch and an open circuit branch, respectively, due to (3) and (4).
1 þ I R¼1Ω ð0þ Þ þ 0 ¼ 0 ) I R¼1Ω ð0þ Þ ¼ 1 ð5Þ
Applying KVL in the loop:
V o ð0þ Þ þ 0 þ 1 I R¼1Ω ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V o ð0þ Þ þ 1 1 ¼ 0 ) V o ð0þ Þ ¼ 1 V ð6Þ
Figure 6.26.3 shows the circuit for t > 0. Using the current-voltage relation of inductor:
d d
dt L dt
Using ð7Þ d
V o ðt Þ þ 4I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) V o ðt Þ þ 4I L ðt Þ þ 2 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt
for t ¼ 0þ d 1
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ V o ð0þ Þ 2I L ð0þ Þ
dt 2
Using ð4Þ, ð6Þ d 1 1

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 1 2 0 ¼ A= sec
¼ ð8Þ
dt 2 2
Applying KCL in the supernode 1:
1 þ I R¼1Ω ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I R¼1Ω ðt Þ ¼ 1 I L ðt Þ ð9Þ
Applying KCL in supernode 2:
10V o ðt Þ I C ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ 10V o ðt Þ ð10Þ

Applying KVL in the middle mesh:
I R¼1Ω ðt Þ 1 þ V C ðt Þ þ 4I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0
Using ð9Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) ð1 I L ðt ÞÞ þ V C ðt Þ þ 4I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0
¼
) 1 þ V C ðt Þ þ 5I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð11Þ
Using the current-voltage relation of the capacitor and (1):
ðt ðt ðt
1 1
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 0 þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 2 I C ðt Þ:dt
C 0:5

0 0 0
ðt
Using ð10Þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) V C ðt Þ ¼ 2
¼ ð10V o ðt Þ þ I L ðt ÞÞ:dt ð12Þ

0
Applying (12) and (7) in (11):
ðt
d
1 þ 2 ð10V o ðt Þ þ I L ðt ÞÞ:dt þ 5I L ðt Þ þ 2 I ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt L
0
d2
d
dt d
) 20V o ðt Þ þ 2I L ðt Þ þ 5 I L ðt Þ þ 2 2 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt dt
for t ¼ 0þ d d2
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼)20V o ð0þ Þ þ 2I L ð0þ Þ þ 5 I L ð0þ Þ þ 2 2 I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0
dt dt
Using ð4Þ, ð6Þ, ð8Þ 1 d2

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼) 20 1 þ 2 0 þ 5 þ 2 2 I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0
¼
2 dt
35 d2 d2 35
) þ 2 2 I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) 2 I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ ðA= sec Þ2
2 dt dt 4


6.27. First, we should note that the circuit is not in the steady state condition for t ¼ 0. Now, by using the current division
formula in node “B” in the circuit of Fig. 6.27.2, we can write:
1
I ð0 Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ð1Þ
1þ2
I ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð2Þ
1
2¼ I L ð 0 Þ ) I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 6 A ð3Þ
1þ2
V C1 ð0 Þ ¼ 3 V ð4Þ
V C2 ð0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð5Þ
V C1 ð0þ Þ ¼ V C1 ð0 Þ ¼ 3 V ð6Þ
V C2 ð0þ Þ ¼ V C2 ð0 Þ ¼ 1 V ð7Þ
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 6 A ð8Þ
Figure 6.27.3 shows the circuit for t ¼ 0+. As can be seen, the capacitors have been modeled by the voltage sources with
the sizes of 3 V and 1 V. Additionally, the inductor has been modeled by a current source of 6 A.
Applying KCL in node “A”:
V A ð0þ Þ ð3Þ V A ð0þ Þ 1 3V A ð0þ Þ þ 9 þ V A ð0þ Þ 1 þ 36

þ þ6¼0) ¼0
2 6 6
) 4V A ð0þ Þ þ 44 ¼ 0 ) V A ð0þ Þ ¼ 11 V ð9Þ
Using the current division formula in node “B”:
1 Using ð8Þ 1
I ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I ð0þ Þ ¼ 6 ¼ 2 A
¼ ð10Þ
1þ2 3
Using Ohm’s law for the right-side 2 Ω resistor:
V B ð0þ Þ ¼ 2I ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 2 ¼ 4 V ð11Þ
Defining the voltage of the inductor based on the node voltages:
Using ð9Þ, ð11Þ

V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ V A ð 0þ Þ V B ð 0þ Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼
¼¼) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 11 4 ¼ 15 V
¼
¼ ð12Þ
Using the current-voltage relation of the inductor for t ¼ 0+:
d d d V ð0þ Þ Using ð12Þ d 15 ð13Þ

V L ð 0þ Þ ¼ L I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ 4 I L ð 0þ Þ ) I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ L ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼
¼
dt dt dt 4 dt 4
Using the current division formula in node “B”:
1
d
d 1 d for 0þ d 1 d
¼) I ð0þ Þ ¼ I L ð0þ Þ
dt
I ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ) I ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
1þ2 dt 3 dt dt 3 dt

Using ð13Þ d þ 1 15 5
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼) I ð0 Þ ¼ ¼ A=sec
dt 3 4 4

6.28. To solve this problem, we need to determine the characteristic equation of the circuit.
V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð1Þ
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð2Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 4 V ð3Þ
I L ð 0þ Þ ¼ I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð4Þ
KVL in the loop:
2 þ V L ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ þ 3I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
d d d
dt L dt dt
The current-voltage relation of the capacitor:
ðt ðt ðt
1 1
V C ðt Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 4 þ I C ðt Þ:dt ¼ 4 þ 2 I C ðt Þ:dt ð7Þ
C 0:5
0 0 0
Solving (5), (6), and (7):
ðt
d2
d
d dt d
2 þ I L ðt Þ þ 4 þ 2 I C ðt Þ:dt þ 3I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I ðt Þ þ 2I C ðt Þ þ 3 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð8Þ
dt dt 2 L dt
0
From the circuit, we see that:
I C ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ð9Þ
d2 d
I ðt Þ þ 3 I L ðt Þ þ 2I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð10Þ
dt 2 L dt
Thus, the characteristic equation of the circuit and its roots are:
s2 þ 3s þ 2 ¼ 0 ) s ¼ 1, 2 ð11Þ
Therefore, the general form of the current of the inductor is:
I L ðt Þ ¼ Aet þ Be2t ð14Þ
Now, we need to determine the value of the parameters (“A,” “B,” and “C”):
þ þ
2 ¼ Ae0 þ Be20 ) A þ B ¼ 2 ð15Þ
2 þ V L ð0þ Þ þ V C ð0þ Þ þ 3I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 V C ð0þ Þ 3I L ð0þ Þ
Using ð3Þ, ð4Þ

¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼¼) V L ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 4 3 2 ¼ 8
¼ ð16Þ
d d t
V L ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ¼ Ae þ Be2t ¼ Aet 2Be2t ð17Þ
dt dt
þ þ
8 ¼ Ae0 2Be20 ) A þ 2B ¼ 8 ð18Þ
A þ 2ð2 AÞ ¼ 8 ) A ¼ 4, B ¼ 6 ð19Þ
I L ðt Þ ¼ 4et þ 6e2t ð20Þ
ðt ðt
Using ð20Þ
V C ðt Þ ¼ 4 þ 2 I L ðt Þ:dt ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 4 þ 2 4et þ 6e2t :dt
0 0
h it
1
¼ 4 þ 2 4ðet Þ þ 6 e2t ¼ 4 þ 2 4et 3e2t ð4 3Þ
2 0
V C ðt Þ ¼ 2 þ 8et 6e2t

6.29. Based on the given information, the circuit will be in critically damped condition if the switch is closed (t > 0).
Therefore, the delta (discriminant) of the characteristic equation of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.29.2 must be zero (Δ ¼ 0).
Now, we need to determine the differential equation of the circuit.
V C ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) V C ðt Þ ¼ V L ðt Þ ð1Þ
d d Using ð1Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V C ðt Þ ¼ 106 V C ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I C ðt Þ ¼ 106 V L ðt Þ
¼ ð2Þ
dt dt dt
d d
dt L dt
1
I C ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð4Þ
R
d 1
106 V ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ V L ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt L R

Using ð3Þ 6 d d 1 d
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼) 10 4 I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ 4 I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð5Þ
dt dt R dt
d2 4 d
) 4 106 I ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt 2 L R dt L
d2 106 d 106
) I L ðt Þ þ I L ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð6Þ
dt 2 R dt 4 L
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the circuit is:
106 106
s2 þ sþ ¼0 ð7Þ
R 4
2 6 6 2
106 10 10 106
Δ¼0) 4ð 1Þ ¼0) ¼ 106 ) ¼ 103 ) R ¼ 1000 Ω ð8Þ
R 4 R R
In (8), just the positive value of the resistor, that is, R ¼ 1000 Ω, is acceptable.
Now, we can analyze the circuit for t ¼ 0, shown in Fig. 6.29.3.
1000
I L ð 0 Þ ¼ 0:5 ¼ 0:4 A ð9Þ
1000 þ 250
V C ð0 Þ ¼ I L ð0 Þ 250 ¼ 0:4 250 ¼ 100 V ð10Þ
I L ð0þ Þ ¼ I L ð0 Þ ¼ 0:4 A ð11Þ
V C ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0 Þ ¼ 100 V ð12Þ
Now, we need to come back to the main problem (analyzing the circuit for t > 0), shown in Fig. 6.29.4.
106 106
s2 þ sþ ¼ 0 ) s2 þ 1000s þ 250000 ¼ 0 ) ðs þ 500Þ2 ¼ 0
1000 4
) s ¼ 500, 500 ð13Þ
Therefore, the general form of the current of the inductor is:
I L ðt Þ ¼ ðA þ Bt Þe500t uðt Þ ð14Þ
Now, we need to determine the value of its parameters (“A” and “B”):
þ
0:4 ¼ ðA þ B 0þ Þe5000 ) A ¼ 0:4 ð15Þ
As can be seen in Fig. 6.29.4, the inductor and the capacitor are in parallel and by using (12):
V L ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 100 V ð16Þ
Using (3) and (16) for t ¼ 0+:
d d
100 ¼ 4 I ð0þ Þ ) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ 25 A= sec ð17Þ
dt L dt
Calculating the first derivative of (14):
d d
I ðt Þ ¼ ðA þ Bt Þe500t ¼ Be500t 500e500t ðA þ Bt Þ
dt L dt
for 0þ d þ þ
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ Be5000 500e5000 ðA þ B 0þ Þ ¼ B 500A
¼
¼
dt
Using ð15Þ d
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼) I L ð0þ Þ ¼ B 500 0:4 ¼ B 200
¼
¼ ð18Þ
dt
25 ¼ B 200 ) B ¼ 225 ð19Þ
Applying (15) and (19) in (14):
I L ðt Þ ¼ ð0:4 þ 225t Þe500t uðt Þ

6.30. The status of the circuit for t ¼ 0 is illustrated in Fig. 6.30.2. As can be seen, the capacitor and the inductors are open
circuit and short circuits, respectively, since the circuit has reached its steady state condition.
KVL in the indicated loop:
10
10 þ I L2 ð0 Þ 1 þ 4 I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 ) I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ ¼2A ð1Þ
5
V C ð0 Þ ¼ 4I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 4 2 ¼ 8 V ð2Þ
As can be noticed from the circuit of Fig. 6.30.2, the current of the first inductor is zero.
I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð3Þ
I L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L1 ð0 Þ ¼ 0 A ð4Þ
I L2 ð0þ Þ ¼ I L2 ð0 Þ ¼ 2 A ð5Þ
V C ð 0þ Þ ¼ V C ð 0 Þ ¼ 8 V ð6Þ
Applying KCL in the indicated supernode of Fig. 6.30.3:
I 0 ðt Þ þ I L1 ðt Þ þ I L2 ðt Þ þ I ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I ðt Þ ¼ I 0 ðt Þ I L1 ðt Þ I L2 ðt Þ ð7Þ
Therefore, we need to calculate the value of I0(t), IL1(t), and IL2(t). As can be noticed from Fig. 6.30.3, due to the
existence of the short-circuit branch, the circuit includes three separate circuits including zero-order circuit, first-order
circuit, and second-order circuit.
Zero-order circuit: The zero-order circuit includes the series combination of the voltage source and the 1 Ω resistor, as
can be seen in Fig. 6.30.4.
10 0
I 0 ðt Þ ¼ ¼ 10 A ð8Þ
1
First-order circuit: The first-order circuit includes the series combination of the 4 Ω resistor and the 1 H inductor, as
can be seen in Fig. 6.30.5.
The primary current of the inductor:
I L2 ð0þ Þ ¼ 2 A ð9Þ
The final current of the inductor is zero, since its circuit does not include any power source.
I L2 ð1Þ ¼ 0 A ð10Þ
The time constant of the first-order circuit:
L 1
τ¼ ¼ Ω ð11Þ
RTh 4
I L2 ðt Þ ¼ I L2 ð1Þ þ ðI L2 ð0þ Þ I L2 ð1ÞÞeτ ) I L2 ðt Þ ¼ 0 þ ð2 0Þe4t ¼ 2e4t

t
ð12Þ
Second-order circuit: The second-order circuit includes the series combination of the 1 H inductor and the capacitor,
as can be seen in Fig. 6.30.6.
Applying KVL in the mesh:
V L1 ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð13Þ
d d
) L1 I ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) 1 I L1 ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0
dt L1 dt
d2
d
dt d
) I ðt Þ þ V C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð14Þ
dt 2 L1 dt
KCL in the indicated node:
I L ðt Þ þ I C ðt Þ ¼ 0 ) I C ðt Þ ¼ I L ðt Þ ð15Þ
d d d Using ð15Þ d
I C ðt Þ ¼ C V ðt Þ ¼ 0:25 V C ðt Þ ) V C ðt Þ ¼ 4I C ðt Þ ¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼) V C ðt Þ ¼ 4I L ðt Þ ð16Þ
dt C dt dt dt
d2
I ðt Þ þ 4I L ðt Þ ¼ 0 ð17Þ
dt 2 L1
Equation (17) is a second-order homogeneous differential equation; therefore, it only has a common solution. Its
characteristic equation and the related roots are:
s2 þ 4 ¼ 0 ) s ¼ 2j ð18Þ
Therefore, the general form of the solution of equation (17) is:
I L1 ðt Þ ¼ Acosð2t Þ þ Bsinð2t Þ ð19Þ
To determine the value of the parameters (A and B), we need to apply the primary value of the variables (IL1(t) and
VC(t)), that is, IL1(0+) ¼ 0 A and VC(0+) ¼ 8 V.
Acosð2 0þ Þ þ Bsinð2 0þ Þ ¼ 0 ) A 1 þ B 0 ¼ 0 ) A ¼ 0 ð20Þ
V L1 ð0þ Þ ¼ V C ð0þ Þ ¼ 8 V ð21Þ
Using the current-relation of the inductor:
d d d
V L1 ðt Þ ¼ L1 I ðt Þ ¼ 1 I L1 ðt Þ ¼ I L1 ðt Þ
dt L1 dt dt
Using ð19Þ d
¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼
¼¼
¼
¼) V L1 ðt Þ ¼ ðAcosð2t Þ þ Bsinð2t ÞÞ ¼ 2Asinð2t Þ þ 2Bcosð2t Þ ð22Þ
dt
2Asinð2 0þ Þ þ 2Bcosð2 0þ Þ ¼ 8 ) 2A 0 þ 2B 1 ¼ 8 ) B ¼ 4 ð23Þ
Solving (19), (20), and (23):
I L1 ðt Þ ¼ 4 sin ð2t Þ ð24Þ
Now, solving (7), (8), (12), and (24):

I ðt Þ ¼ I 0 ðt Þ I L1 ðt Þ I L2 ðt Þ ¼ 10 ð4 sin ð2t ÞÞ 2e4t
I ðt Þ ¼ 10 2e4t þ 4 sin ð2t Þ



Index
A inductor, 161, 175

Analysis, see Mesh analysis; Nodal analysis inductor current, 145, 166
series connection, 160
time constant, 168, 175–177
C First-order RC and RL circuits, 150
Capacitive first-order circuit, 192 First-order RL circuit, 116, 135
Capacitive network, 123
Capacitor, 117–123, 125–127, 132
Capacitor constant, 157 H
Capacitor voltage, 140, 154, 156–158 Heuristic method, 7, 15, 42, 44, 59, 68
Capacitor voltage continuity rule, 182
Characteristic equation, 207, 251, 252
Circuit components, 5 I
Constant energy, 173 Impulse function, 196, 211
Constant quantity, 242 Impulse power source, 169, 172, 173, 175, 177, 178, 180, 181
Continuity law, 158 Impulse voltage, 201, 225
Conventional methods, 1, 33, 42 Impulse voltage source, 171
Critically damped condition, 208, 253–255 Independent current source, 5, 15, 18, 40, 41, 66, 80, 139, 152, 163, 175
Critically damped response, 204, 234 Independent voltage source, 19, 41, 56, 170, 182, 206, 229, 244
Current continuity of inductor, 144, 152, 161, 166, 172, 175, 178, 187, Inductor, 121, 126, 128, 129
203, 206, 217, 235, 240, 246, 247 Inductor and voltage continuity, 202, 229
Current division formula, 45, 141, 145, 146, 161, 166, 174, 175, 187,
207, 249
Current-relation of inductor, 258 K
Current sources, 118, 125, 226 Kirchhoff current law (KCL)
Current-voltage relation, 160, 169, 171, 198, 219, 242 nodal analysis, 11, 26, 30, 52–54, 56, 85, 86, 100, 111
Current-voltage relation of capacitor, 224 node voltage, 98, 107
Current-voltage relation of inductor, 233, 240, 251, 253 supernode, 3, 4, 34, 35, 37, 38, 43, 46, 54, 59, 64, 65, 67–69, 71, 74,
76–78, 88, 94, 102, 103, 108, 113
Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL)
D bottom mesh, 89
Dependent current source, 17, 62, 68 circuit loop, 4, 23, 37, 46, 56, 91
Dependent voltage, 113 current source vs. mesh currents, 48
Dependent voltage source, 67, 71, 76, 88, 103, 108 mesh, 42
Derivate operator, 204, 236 mesh analysis, 12, 24, 36, 49, 54, 55, 57, 62, 64, 92, 93
Differential equation, 178 mesh current, 48
Dirac Delta Function, 201 supermesh, 9, 36, 47, 68, 81, 82, 95
top loop, 44
top mesh, 81, 88, 102
E
Energy conservation law, 5, 40
Energy-saving components, 133 L
Equivalent capacitance, 123, 155 LC circuit, 203, 231–233
Linear time-invariant (LTI), 202, 227
F
Final value, 182, 192 M
First-order circuit, 143, 208, 257 Magnetic flux conservation law, 187
capacitor voltage, 140, 142, 147, 151, 163, 164, 180–183 Mesh analysis, 3, 9, 12, 15, 17, 19–21, 24, 25, 36, 37, 49, 54, 57, 62, 64,
DC power supply, 179, 181–183, 185, 186, 189, 192 68, 73, 78, 80, 82, 83, 92, 95
inductive, 153, 168, 172, 177 Mesh current, 9, 78, 80, 82, 83, 92, 95

M. Rahmani-Andebili, DC Electrical Circuit Analysis, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50711-4
262 Index
N Switching operation, 136, 152, 156, 158, 161, 175, 180, 187
Negative R value, 150 Symmetric nodes, 30, 110
Nodal analysis, 2, 11, 16–19, 25, 26, 30, 34, 35, 37, 40, 43, 46, 52, 54,
56, 58, 60, 65, 66, 69, 72, 74, 76, 79, 85, 86, 94, 98, 111, 138
Node voltage, 18, 35, 43, 53, 60, 65, 69, 71, 74–77, 79, 85, 98–100, 103, T
108, 113, 135, 136, 138, 154 Thevenin circuit, 28, 106
Norton equivalent circuit, 14, 27, 29, 62 Thevenin equivalent circuit, 9, 14, 21–24, 46, 62, 64, 73, 83–85, 92,
Norton resistance, 12, 19, 55, 56, 77, 102 109, 143, 144, 146
Thevenin resistance, 4, 6–8, 10, 12, 13, 15–17, 31, 38, 41–43, 46, 49,
55, 56, 69, 83, 91, 106, 108, 109, 112, 133, 138, 139
O capacitor, 116, 134, 135, 138, 146, 151
Ohm’s law, 2, 17, 20, 28, 35, 46, 54, 56, 73, 76, 78, 82, 83, 88, 94, 95, circuit, 172, 180
98, 103, 113, 141, 145, 146, 148, 156–158, 162, 164, 165, circuit constant, 148
169–172, 179, 187, 197, 210, 213, 226, 229, 235 dependent source, 150, 154
Open circuit branch, 140, 152, 157, 185 independent current source, 142
independent voltage, 133
inductor, 152, 161
P resistor, 158
Parallel connection, 188 time constant, 180
Parallel current sources, 51 voltage source, 147
Parallel resistors, 51, 188 Thevenin voltage, 6, 13, 15–17, 22, 31, 42, 58, 64, 68–70, 74, 83, 88,
Power source, 4, 39 91, 109, 112, 113, 168, 177
Primary value, 125, 129, 180 Time constant, 115, 116, 118, 121, 133, 135, 139, 142, 143, 145, 149,
Primary voltage, 119, 122, 123, 125, 136, 157, 164, 182, 213 151, 154, 156, 166, 169, 172, 192
Time-dependent current, 175
Time-dependent deferential equation, 200, 223
Q Time-dependent equation, 205, 208, 240, 241, 256
Quadratic characteristic equation, 204, 206, 234, 245 Time-dependent first-order differential equation, 130, 178
Quality factor (Q), 205, 238, 239 Time-dependent voltage equation, 162, 200, 224
R U
Ramp function, 160 Unit step function, 177
Red-color boundary, 25, 96 Unstable response, 199
Resistive circuit, 126
Resistors, 22, 23, 27, 37, 49, 80, 83, 92, 100, 121, 128, 132
RLC circuit, 200 V
Voltage-charge relation, 137
Voltage continuity of capacitor, 119, 127, 129, 136, 139, 141, 143, 147,
S 154, 156, 160, 162, 163, 165, 170, 173, 184, 186, 189, 192, 203,
Second-order circuit, 160, 199, 220, 257, 258 206, 217, 235, 240, 246, 247
Second-order homogeneous differential equation, 258 Voltage-current relation, 147, 158, 164, 170, 182, 185, 189, 196,
Second-order nonhomogeneous differential equation, 206, 242 210, 242
Series connection, 188 Voltage-current relation of capacitor, 229, 233, 234, 236, 238, 244
Series-parallel rule, 10, 30, 49, 110, 143, 144 Voltage division, 165
Short-circuit branch, 25, 96, 152, 158, 161, 172, 175, 187, 197, 212 Voltage division formula, 4, 38, 61, 137, 143, 147, 151, 166, 174, 181,
Short-circuit current, 56, 100, 124 182, 228, 229
Short-circuited nodes, 23, 90 Voltage equation, 168, 176
Short-term voltage signal, 129 Voltage nodes, 8, 45
Source transformation technique, 188 Voltage pulse, 130
Source transformation theorem, 11, 13, 28, 50, 51, 61, 104 Voltage source, 6, 24, 43, 60, 91, 92, 98, 178, 212, 226, 227
Steady state condition, 117, 136, 137, 158, 161, 163, 171, 172, 175, 187
current continuity, 198, 215, 217
current-voltage relation, 217 W
Ohm’s law, 195, 210 Wheatstone bridge, 166, 188
superposition theorem, 195, 209
voltage continuity, 198, 215, 217
voltage-current relation, 199, 222 Z
Supermesh, 36 Zero-order circuit, 208, 256
Superposition theorem, 15, 66, 126, 165, 166, 173, 188, 225
Switching, 123, 130, 201, 226, 227

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DC Electrical Circuit Analysis

ISBN 978-3-030-50710-7 ISBN 978-3-030-50711-4 (eBook)

# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

[1] Iranian National Organization of Educational Testing, www.sanjesh.org.

Buffalo, NY, USA Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili

1 Problems: Circuit Components, Methods of Circuit Analysis, and Circuit

Dr. Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili is an Assistant Professor in the Engineering Technology Depart-

1.1. What is the value of I in the circuit of Fig. 1.1?

Fig. 1.1 The circuit of problem 1.1

# Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Fig. 1.2 The circuit of problem 1.2

1.3. Determine the value of Ia in the circuit of Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 The circuit of problem 1.3

Fig. 1.4 The circuit of problem 1.4

1.5. How much is the value of Ix in the circuit of Fig. 1.5?

Fig. 1.5 The circuit of problem 1.5

Fig. 1.6 The circuit of problem 1.6

Fig. 1.7 The circuit of problem 1.7

Fig. 1.8 The circuit of problem 1.8

1.9. In the circuit of Fig. 1.9, which source is absorbing power?

Fig. 1.9 The circuit of problem 1.9

Fig. 1.10 The circuit of problem 1.10

Fig. 1.11 The circuit of problem 1.11

Fig. 1.12 The circuit of problem 1.12

Fig. 1.13 The circuit of problem 1.13

Fig. 1.14 The circuit of problem 1.14

Fig. 1.15 The circuit of problem 1.15

1.16. How much is Vo in the circuit of Fig. 1.16?

Fig. 1.16 The circuit of problem 1.16

1.17. How much is Vab in the circuit of Fig. 1.17?

Fig. 1.17 The circuit of problem 1.17

Fig. 1.18 The circuit of problem 1.18

Fig. 1.19 The circuit of problem 1.19

Fig. 1.20 The circuit of problem 1.20

Fig. 1.21 The circuit of problem 1.21

Fig. 1.22 The circuit of problem 1.22

Fig. 1.23 The circuit of problem 1.23

Fig. 1.24 The circuit of problem 1.24

1.25. Determine the value of I in the circuit of Fig. 1.25.

Fig. 1.25 The circuit of problem 1.25

Fig. 1.26 The circuit of problem 1.26

Fig. 1.27 The circuit of problem 1.27

Fig. 1.28 The circuit of problem 1.28

Fig. 1.29 The circuit of problem 1.29

Fig. 1.30 The circuit of problem 1.30

Fig. 1.31 The circuit of problem 1.31

Fig. 1.32 The circuit of problem 1.32

1.33. In the circuit of Fig. 1.33, how much is the Req?

Fig. 1.33 The circuit of problem 1.33

Fig. 1.34 The circuit of problem 1.34

Fig. 1.35 The circuit of problem 1.35

Fig. 1.36 The circuit of problem 1.36

Fig. 1.37 The circuit of problem 1.37

Fig. 1.38 The circuit of problem 1.38

Fig. 1.39 The circuit of problem 1.39

Fig. 1.40 The circuit of problem 1.40

Fig. 1.41 The circuit of problem 1.41

Fig. 1.42 The circuit of problem 1.42

Fig. 1.43 The circuit of problem 1.43

Fig. 1.44 The circuit of problem 1.44

Fig. 1.45 The circuit of problem 1.45

Fig. 1.46 The circuit of problem 1.46