VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HOCHIMINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

Course: Techniques in TESOL

Lecturer: Nguyễn Hoàng Tuấn, Ph.D.

LITERATURE REVIEW

LEARNING STYLES

Class: TESOL 13B

Student’s name: Hà Thúy Uyển

December 2013
 Techniques in TESOL _ Literature Review

LEARNING STYLES

Abstract: This paper reviews accessible literature on learning styles explored in

relation to learning strategies, learners’ personalities and culture rather than in
isolation itself. Some researchers investigated the gap between learning and teaching
preferences of styles which cause both students and teachers frustration and possibly
failure in their course (Bacha, Bahous, Nabhani, & Sabeh, 2011.; Kara, 2009.;
Gilakjani, 2012). In other words, language teachers should consider learners’ learning
styles as careful as other issues.

Keywords: learning styles; strategies; personality; cultural background.

I. Introduction:

The history of language learning and teaching has gone along with that of civilization
of mankind. Recently, researchers’ educational concerns have been mostly shifted
from teaching to learning field (Luu, 2011). Learning styles have been investigated by
many researchers (Al-Tamimi, & Shuib, 2009; Luu, 2011; Boyle, Duff, Dunleavy, &
Ferguson, 2004; DeCapua, Verna, & Wintergerst, 2009; Chiya, 2003; Kara, 2009;
Alen, Karau, Komarraju, & Schmeck, 2011). Each learner has different styles and
strategies in their learning process. These distinctive features of learners are
reasonably believed to derive from their individual variables. Second language
acquisition (SLA) research has attempted to name factors that contribute to learners’
success in learning from many perspectives (Saville-Troike, 2006). Psychologically
differences in learners, one of those factors, are explored in SLA studies concerning
age, sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, personality, and learning strategies. Due
to subjective and objective limitations, learners’ characteristics, learning strategies,
and cultural background are involved in accordance with learning styles.

During the course of information collection, the writer hoped that the review would be
beneficial to Vietnamese teachers in general and herself in particular. Although the
topic chosen is not new in educational research field, students’ learning styles are

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 Techniques in TESOL _ Literature Review

deemed to be neglected in learning and teaching process in Vietnam (Luu, 2011).

Therefore, the review is to not only merely present the literature regarding learning
styles but also hopefully raise Vietnamese teachers’ attention on this issue so as to
improve learning and teaching in Vietnam.

II. Literature review

2.1. Learning style:

The term “learning style” has no one definition. It is often used interchangeable with
terms such as cognitive style, personality type sensory and preference modality
(Ehrman, Leaver & Oxford, 2003).

Learning styles have been widely referred to as cognitive styles by many researchers
(Brown, 2007; Ellis, 1985; Saville-Troike, 2006; Swanson, as cited in Luu, 2011).
They are manners of processing information, namely perceiving, conceptualizing,
organizing and recalling, of individual learner (Ellis, 1985). Saville-Troike (2006)
added that cognitive styles are preferred ways of learning. According to Ellis (1985),
the most concerned dimension of cognitive styles is that of filed dependence/
independence. Major features of this dimension are summarized as follows:

Field dependence Field independence

1. Personal orientation 1. Impersonal orientation

i.e. reliance on external frame of reference i.e. reliance on internal frame of reference
in processing information in processing information
2. Holistic 2. Analytic

i.e. perceives a field as a whole; parts are i.e. perceives a field in terms of its
fussed with background component parts; parts are distinguished
from background
3. Dependent 3. Independent

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i.e. the self-view is derived from others i.e. sense of separate identity
4. Socially sensitive 4. Not socially aware

i.e. greater skill in interpersonal/ social i.e. less skilled in interpersonal/ social
relationships relationships

Table 1: Principal characteristics of a field-dependent and a field-independent

cognitive style (Ellis, 1985: 115)

Some researchers such as Dulay, Burt and Krashen (as cited in Ellis, 1985) have
considered cognitive styles as personality traits. Rather similarly, Brown (2007)
displayed cognitive styles as the link between personality and cognition. He continued
that cognitive styles are called learning strategies when they are involved in an
educational context.

Learning style is defined as “the way in which an individual characteristically

acquires, retains and retrieves information” (Felder & Henriques, 1995). Likewise,
Oxford (2003) called learning style the general approach by which learners acquire
language. In her study, she explored aspects of learning style, including sensory
preferences which are divided into four main areas (visual, auditory, kinaesthic and
tactile); personality types of which aspects are extraverted vs. introverted, intuitive-
random vs. sensing-sequential, thinking vs. feeling, and closure-oriented/ judging vs.
open/perceiving; desired degree of generality ( holistic vs. analytic); and biological
differences (biorhythms, sustenance and location). Spolsky (1989) maintained that
learners’ preferences for learning style and mode (individual or group) are varied.

According to Irwin, Kolb and Osland (1995), each learner’s learning style is identified
by four modes: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization
and active experimentation. These modes mark four dominant learning styles:
accommodator, diverger, assimilator, and converger. Willing (as cited in Harmer,
2007) suggested the first three ones other names as communicative learners, concrete

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learners, and conformists respectively. Learners with accommodative style have bias
toward concrete experience and active experimentation. Therefore, they are often
willing to take risk, quickly adapt to new circumstances and enjoy social interaction.
With divergent style, learners underscore concrete experience and reflective
observation. They possess an ability of imagination and awareness of meaning and
values. For those invested with assimilation, their learning abilities indicate abstract
conceptualization and reflective observation. They prefer independence and have
interests in theories. In convergent learning style, the main focus is on the ability of
abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Learners with this kind of style
rely on their own abilities and prefer individual tasks.

Later, Conffield et al. (as cited in Harmer, 2007) proposed the description of learners
with much more different styles oppositely listed in table 2.

Convergers vesus divergers initiators versus reasoners

Verbalisers versus imagers intuitionists versus analysts

Holists versus serialists extroverts versus introverts

Activists versus reflectors left brainers versus right brainers

Pragmatists versus theorists theorists versus humanitarians

Adaptors versus innovators activists versus theorists

Pragmatists versus reflectors Assimilators versus explorers

Globalists versus analysts organizers versus innovators

Assimilators versus accommodators processors versus rights/ globals

Imaginative versus analytic learners Non-committers versus plungers

Concrete versus abstract learners Common-sense versus dynamic learners

executives/ hierarchics/ conservatives

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versus legislatives/ anarchics/ liberals Random versus sequential learners

Table 2: Different learner styles based on Conffield et al (Harmer, 2007)

Howard Gardner (1983) introduced the theory of multiple intelligences, by which

learners indicate their preferred learning styles. He proposed eight intelligences,
namely musical/ rhythmical, verbal/linguistic, visual/ spatial, bodily/ kinaesthic,
logical/ mathematical, intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalistic. Learners with
intrapersonal intelligence have a tendency of focusing and functioning on self-
knowledge, self-regulation and self-control whereas those with interpersonal
intelligence are skilled at negotiating, persuading, building relationship and able to
make their distinction among others concerning mood, motivation and intention, for
instance (Puchta & Rinvolucri, 2005).

2.2. Learning strategies

Learning strategies reflect students’ learning style preferences (Ehrman, Leaver &
Oxford, 2003).

Learning strategies are placed as the “specific action, behaviors, steps, or techniques –
such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a
difficult language task – used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella &
Oxford, 1992, as cited in Oxford, 2003). Nunan (1999) maintained that “learning
strategies are the mental and communicative procedures learners use in order to learn
and use language” (pp. 55). To be simple, any methods that students use to effectively
facilitate their learning are under the term learning strategies.

Ellis (1985) gave some examples of learning strategies as memorization,

overgeneralization, inferencing, and prefabricated patterns.

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Learning strategies are given many names such as learning skills, learning-to-learn
skills, thinking skills, and problem-solving skills (Oxford, 1990).

Joan Rubin claimed that learning strategies are those which develop the language
system and directly influence learning (Rubin & Wenden, 1987). She suggested two
major kinds of learning strategies: metacognitive and cognitive strategies. The former
deal with the knowledge about processes and regulation of cognition whereas the later
refer to operations or techniques how learners obtain or conceptualize knowledge and/
or understanding. She featured learning strategies as shown in table 3.

Language learning strategies

1. Contribute to main goal, communicative competence.

2. Allow learners to become more self-directed.

3. Expand the role of teachers.

4. Are problem-oriented.

5. Are specific actions taken by the learner.

6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive.

7. Support learning both directly and indirectly.

8. Are not always observable.

9. Are often conscious.

10. Can be taught.

11. Are flexible.

12. Are influenced by variety of factors.

Table 3: Features of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990).

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Oxford (2003) provided three conditions under which a strategy needs to satisfy in
order to be considered useful: it pertains to L2 tasks; suits students’ learning
preferences to some degree; and is effectively employed and relatable to other
strategies.

2.3. Personality

Learning styles and personalities are often thought of as correlation. In fact, learners’
characteristics contribute to their response to language and learning. Messick (as cited
in Boyle, Duff, Dunleavy & Ferguson, 2004) viewed learning styles as the
“characteristic self-consistency in information processing that develops in congenial
ways around underlying personality trends.” This definition partly lays learning styles
on personality. In addition, Saville-Troike (2006) claimed that personal variables are
sometimes taken into account to generalize learning style. She presented these traits as
in table 4 below.

Personality traits
Anxious - Self-confident

Risk-avoiding - Risk-taking

Shy - Adventuresome

Introverted - Extroverted

Inner-directed - Other-directed

Reflective - Impulsive

Imaginative - Uninquisitive

Creative - Uncreative

Empathetic - Insensitive to others

Tolerance of ambiguity - Close-oriented

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Table 4: Personal traits (Saville-Troike, 2006: 89)

Oxford (2003) suggested personality as one of style aspects which are concerned with
learners’ characteristics, such as extraverted, introverted, thinking, feeling and so
forth.

Some studies have been conducted to examine learning styles in relation to personality
(Busator, Prins, Elshout, & Hamaker, 1999, 2000, as cited in Duff et al., 2004;
Ibrahimoglu, Unaldi, Samancioglu, & Baglibel, 2013; Boyle, Duff, Dunleavy &
Ferguson, 2004). The results revealed that there stands an amorphous hinge between
them.

2.4. Culture

Edward B. Tylor (as cited in Thien, 2008) wrote in his book Primitive Culture that
culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society” (pp.5).

Reynolds (as cited in Sywelem et al., 2012) claimed that learning styles are acquired
during the long process of socialization. That is to say, learning styles are culturally
shaped by the context.

Research has investigated learning style preferences from culture to culture (Willing,
as cited in Luu, 2011; Chiya, 2003; Wong, 2004; Al-Harbi, Fathema, Sywelem, &
Witte, 2012; Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009; Bacha, Bahous, Nabhani, & Sabeh, 2011;
Luu, 2011).

Irwin, Kolb and Osland (1995) commented that students in Asia classrooms seldom
have a chance to speak up and would never say anything embarrassing the professor.
He continued that students from Latin American cultures “are [generally] less

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comfortable with unstructured, participative classes, and they expect professors to be

more dramatic and expressive” (pp. 56).

Xiao (2006) studied the mismatch between Chinese learning styles and Irish English
teachers’ teaching styles. The study revealed that the main cause of this problem lies
on differences in perceptions, expectations, attitudes, beliefs and preferences which are
generally shaped by culture.

Liu and Littlewood (as cited in Littrell, 2005) have asserted that most countries in Asia
are traditionally dominant with teacher-centered, grammar-translation method and an
emphasis on rote learning. In his study about learning styles of students in and from
Confucian cultures, Litttrel (2005) described Asian learning styles as introverted,
closure-oriented, visual, concrete-sequential, thinking-oriented, reflective, analytic,
and field-independent.

However, according to a study conducted by Wong (2004), the results revealed that
most of students would prefer a more student-centered learning style. This kind of
change in learning styles was found in recent research investigating Vietnamese
students’ learning styles preferences carried out by Luu (2011) and Dobinson (2013).

III. Conclusion

In this paper, I have been concerned the learning styles from different perspectives.
The hinge between personal traits, learning strategies and learning preferences of
styles has been approved from research presented in the literature review. It is
suggested that language teachers should consider students’ preferences of learning
styles carefully in order to improve teaching and learning. Moreover, it should not be
neglected that learners’ cultural background affects their preferred styles of learning.
Therefore, teachers are advised to take a full consideration into it in their teaching
process.

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