Learning Styles, Psychological Types and Adult Learning Theories:

A Review of Literature

By
Josiane Parrouty

A Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements of
ED828 Intellectual Development and Learning Styles Across the Lifespan

Address: 23201 - 124th Avenue

City, State, Zip: Maple Ridge, B.C., V2X 1R6
Phone: 604-466-0580
E-mail: josianep@shaw.ca
Instructor: Howard Jacobs, Ph. D.
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Table of Contents

Abstract 1

Introduction 2

Learning styles: a review of literature 3

Major components of learning styles 7

Learning styles in distance education 9

Theories of learning: a review of the literature 10

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 14

Implications of Constructivism on educational practices 17

Adult learning: a review of the literature 18

Staff Development 21

Motivating adult learners 23

Conclusion 24

References 25
 1.

Abstract

Educators are striving to understand how the brain works and they are learning more and more about

individual differences and learning styles. They are taking advantage of opportunities to improve their

teaching practice in the classroom and becoming lifelong learners to benefit from the latest research

on learning theories. The literature on learning styles, psychological types, and adult learning theory

provides a powerful knowledge base to teachers who are seeking to understand how students learn

in higher education. When planning for instruction, inspiring teachers take into account individual

differences in terms of knowledge levels, learning preferences and abilities displayed by learners.

Educators recognize the need to develop effective teaching strategies in schools and they want to be

aware of students’ learning styles. The following literature review focuses on principles of adult

learning theory and discusses the factors that contribute to successful teaching and learning in higher

education.
 2.

Introduction

A great deal of attention has been devoted to the topics of learning styles and adult

learning theory in the past twenty years. We have learned more about the brain in our day than

ever before in the history of mankind. To engage in critical reflection requires moving beyond the

acquisition of new knowledge and understanding, into questioning existing assumptions, values,

and perspectives (Cranton, 1996). Four elements are central to critical reflection: assumption

analysis, contextual awareness, imaginative speculation, and reflective skepticism (Brookfield,

1988). In reviewing the current literature about learning styles, psychological types, and adult

learning theory, instructional designers make themselves aware of individual differences in the

learning environment. There is no single way to describe the construct of learning styles and for

practitioners who are seeking a greater understanding of what has been written about teaching

and learning in the past decade, this literature review will be a meaningful resource.
 3.

Learning styles: a review of literature

Learning styles are rather stable characteristic behaviors in young children but they change

with maturity. Educators can identify learning style preferences by observing the choices learners

make and the behaviors they exhibit in the classroom. By identifying an individual learning style, the

teacher can deliver instruction that matches how he or she prefers to learn. During the majority of the

school day, learners are expected to listen, but listening is the least preferred sensory modality for

taking in information for the majority of the student population. Less than 30 percent of school age

children are auditory. When preferences are honored, learners demonstrate greater academic

achievement and stronger desires for learning. Students who interact with new and difficult

information tap into intellectual learning systems they possess and use in individual ways:

• Emotional
• Social
• Cognitive
• Physical
• Reflective
• Resources

In Learning Styles: A Guide for Teachers and Parents by Barbara Given, practical

applications of an interactive observational checklist for identifying preliminary learning styles are

given. A historical overview of learning styles and a critical analysis of learning style research are

provided and educators learn that the concept of learning styles has developed concomitantly with

the concept of cognitive style. Psychologists who were studying individual differences in the 90's

characterized learning styles as individual preferences for how to learn. Felder and Silverman

(1988) suggest that the concept of learning styles includes how a learner receives information as well
 4.

as how the learner processes the information received. Sarasin (1999) defines learning styles as

“The preference or predisposition of an individual to perceive and process information in a

particular way or combination of ways.” Moran (1991) identified the following three key

assumptions purported to be made in most research on learning styles:

1. People differ consistently from each other in their preferences

(e.g.: emotional, environmental) for certain ways of processing
Information (the ‘individual differences’ assumption).
2. These individual differences are measurable (the ‘measurement’
assumption)
3. Matching or mismatching students’ learning styles with instructional
techniques affects learning significantly (the ‘matching hypothesis’).

Anderson (1995) strongly suggests that the processes of learning are strongly influenced

by interactions between the learning styles of instructors, the learning styles of the learners, and a

variety of variables in the learning environment. Contrary to the assumption that learning style is a

relatively unchanging individual characteristic, a study by Vermunt and Minnaert (2003) provided

evidence that students’ learning styles, as measured by Vermunt’s (1994) Inventory of Learning

Styles (ILS), undergo change over a relatively short period of university study. They reported an

increase in the degree and types of dissonance in learning styles in samples of university students

studying a student-oriented learning program over a three-year period. Empirical studies of

learning styles necessarily involve the use of one instrument to provide a measure of one or more

aspects of individuals’ learning styles (e.g.: an inventory, often in the form of a self report).

Numerous and diverse inventories of learning styles are reported in the literature, for example by

Kolb, (1984), and Sarasin (1998). Many of the models of learning styles are multidimensional.

They identify several dimensions along each of which some measure pertaining to the individual
 5.

learner can be located. All teachers are aware that individuals learn in different ways and are
stimulated by different learning activities. Some students learn best by listening and others prefer to
watch or communicate. The term “learning styles” is used to describe individual’s attitudes and
behaviors towards learning. The literature relating to learning styles is vast and can be categorized
as follows:
1. Descriptions of learning styles and Test instruments.
2. Arguments relating to the validity and reliability of learning styles instruments.
3. Discussions about the relationship between learning styles and gender or race.
4. Results of research into how learning styles may affect outcomes at different
Phases of education including primary, secondary, and higher education levels.
5. Articles describing how learning styles may be integrated into the design of
courses.

The changing role of teachers is one of the main themes that emerges from the literature
relating to learning styles. In the traditional educational setting, teachers have some control over the
information they disseminate. With on-line learning, the role of the instructor is metamorphosing into
a facilitator who guides and directs students to appropriate resources (e.g.: the Internet). Many
studies have applied learning style theory to the design of learning materials. The most popular
instrument appears to be Direktor’s Learning Style Instrument. Kelly (1997) used Direktor’s LSI to
help students understand their learning styles and to assist teachers in the design of learning materials.
A wide variety of instruments are available for the measurement of learning styles:
• Rezler’s Learning Preference Inventory (LPI) - measures the learner’s preference
for instructional environments (Marienau & Loesch, 1988).
• Cranfield Learning Style Inventory (CLSI) - a thirty item instrument which
measures a number of variables including preferences for listening, reading,
iconics and hands-on experience (Coggins, 1988).
• Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Questionnaire - building on Direktor’s
 6.

LSI, Honey & Mumford defined four learning styles: activist, reflector, theorist
and pragmatist (Honey & Mumford, 1992).
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences - 70 question multiple intelligences Test.
• 4Mat learning styles
• Direktor’s Learning Style Instrument (LSI).
• Ridings Cognitive Styles Analysis, 1991 (McLoughlin, 1999).
• Felder’s Index of Learning Styles - a 44 item questionnaire.
• Soloman’s Inventory of Learning Styles - a 28 question inventory
(Montgomery, 1995).
• Gregorc Style Delineator.

One of the most powerful features of computer-aided learning (CAL) is its capacity to
individualize instruction to meet the specific needs of the learner (Rasmussen & Davidson, 1996).
The use of CAL in education has burgeoned in recent years (Price, 1997; Hawkridge, 1995).
Researchers have investigated the impact of learning styles on human-computer interaction. Based
on the review of literature and results found in that particular study, computer-aided learning may not
be the most appropriate method of instruction for all learners. Learning styles should not be
considered in isolation when examining individual differences and CAL. Computer anxiety levels,
motivation, domain knowledge acquired, and prior experience with CAL can impact achievement
as well.
According to Bloom (1971), the method of instruction employed may affect learners ‘
attitudes toward the instructional situation and its desired outcomes. Teachers may experience some
difficulty when they monitor student attitudes and levels of performance in the classroom. When a
student had a negative experience with a poorly designed program, his attitudes towards CAL is
adversely affected.
Marcoulides (1988) reported findings from Loyd and Gressard (1984) suggesting that as many
as one-quarter of students have anxiety towards computers and related computer technology. In her
study, Marcoulides found that the higher the level of computer anxiety, the lower the achievement
 7.

levels observed in her sample of university-aged students.

Liu and Reed (1995) conducted a study investigating the effects of individual differences on
human-computer interaction. Subjects were given the GEFT to determine cognitive styles as well as
a survey to determine computer anxiety and computer attitudes. The data revealed that achievement
levels were negatively correlated with anxiety levels. Participants who had higher levels of anxiety
did not perform as well than those who had lower levels of computer anxiety. Liu and Reed posit:
“Leaner performance has much to do with students’ degree of computer anxiety, their attitudes
toward computers and their learning styles”.

Major components of learning styles

The use of a variety of learning style measurement instruments to obtain measures of a range
of learning style dimensions within a particular higher education student group, is exemplified by
Sadler-Smith’s (1997) study. The aims of his study was to investigate relationships between the
students’ cognitive styles, learning styles and learning preferences. For the measurement of students’
information processing style Sadler-Smith used the Learning Styles Questionnaire developed by
Honey and Mumford from Kolb’s (1984) Learning Styles Inventory.
A study by Aragon et al (2002) provides a second example of the use of multiple measures
of learning styles in research with undergraduate students. The aim of the study was to investigate
possible relationships between learning styles, mode of studying and academic achievement. Aragon
et al. (2003) were interested in the effects of motivation, engagement in learning, and cognitive
control. Recently, instruments have been created to measure a range of dimensions that have been
identified in models of learning styles derived from previous work on the topic. Several learning style
inventories have been developed specifically for use in higher education in the past decade.
Felder and Silverman (1988) have identified five dimensions and corresponding aspects:
Sensory - intuitive: A perceptual dimension relating to the type of information
preferred by the person, which may be either sensory (external source) physical
sensations such as sights, sounds, or intuitive (internal source) such as speculations,
imaginations. This dimension is based on the ‘sensing’ and ‘intuition’ components of
 8.

the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, 1987), derived from Jung’s theory of
psychological types (Felder and Silverman, 1988).
Visual - auditory: An input dimension relating to the preferred sensory channel, either
visual such as diagrams, pictures, graphs or auditory such as words and other sounds.
This dimension is based on work on modality preferences in learning, as proposed by
by (Felder and Silverman, 1988).
Inductive - deductive: An organizing dimension relating to the preferred/habitual way
of organizing information, either inductively (e.g.: generalizing or inferring from
observations and facts) or deductively (e.g.: deducing outcomes and consequences
from given principles and generalizations). This dimension appears to be related to an
aspect of information processing that has been interpreted in terms of brain
hemisphere dominance theory (Lumsdaine and Lumsdaine, 1995).
Active - reflective: An information processing dimension relating to preferred/habitual
ways of processing information, either through active engagement in physical
activities such as interactions, discussions or through reflective/introspective thought.
This dimension relates to information processing predisposition as described by Kolb
(1984).
Sequential - global: a cognitive processing dimension relating to preferred/habitual
ways of achieving understanding, either sequentially (e.g.: small progressive steps to
build understanding incrementally or globally). This dimension related to the idea that
there are ‘global’ and ‘analytical’ aspects of cognitive functioning (Pask,1988).
Felder and Silverman (1988) drew attention to the potential usefulness of their model
of learning in identifying the match between the learning styles of students and those
of faculty. Similarly, Claxton and Murrell (1987) questioned the educational
importance of learner-teacher mismatches of learning styles, and concluded that
further research is needed into the hypothesized effects of such mismatching.
 9.

Learning styles in distance education

In our day, the use of technology in education is a growing trend. Technology makes
education more available to students around the world. Willis (2003) says that computer interaction
is usually in the form of computer-assisted instruction or computer mediated instruction (e.g.: e-mail,
computer conferencing and Internet applications). The first task in teaching a distance education
course is to learn more about the students taking the course. By determining students’ learning styles,
online learning preferences, and personalities, the instructor can tailor online learning to students’
acknowledge needs. It is equally important to provide students with the instructor’s teaching style.
Learning styles are important in distant education because students take in information in different
ways and use different cognitive schemes. There are no visual clues to let the instructors know that
students understand what they are learning. Therefore, knowing a student’s learning style can help
alleviate this barrier. A teacher can easily understand why a student did not perform well in a certain
activity if he or she knows the student’s learning style. When learners understand their learning style,
they are more focused on learning. Learning styles are not intended to “box” students into a mind set
into which they have been “diagnosed”. Passmore (1995) suggests that students reflect upon their
learning preferences and discuss them with teachers.
Learning styles can be assessed can be assessed through many ways in a distance education
course. A learning style survey may be posted online. Richard Felder’s Inventory of Learning Styles
is an example that is used online (http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.html). Learning style
surveys can be sent through the mail or through e-mail. Teachers should teach to as many learning
styles as possible in a distance-education course. When teachers present information in a variety of
ways, more learning styles are accommodated and more learning can take place. Collaborative
projects allow students to work together and share ideas. Knowing students’ online learning
preferences is crucial to the development of activities that appeal to them.
Technology plays a major role in education in our day. Educators can improve the quality of
learning and teaching by incorporating technology into their courses. When teachers make the effort
to determine students’ learning styles, they strengthen their relationships with students.
 10.

Theories of learning: a review of the literature

“...what we know and believe about human learning will determine how we use
instructional technologies...” Tiene, 2000

Teachers tend to be stereotyped into two categories: traditionalists who think that direct
instruction through teacher delivery is the best way to impart knowledge and constructivists who
believe that knowledge cannot be taught but must be constructed by the learner through authentic
learning experiences, discovery, collaboration, and problem solving.
To assist in creating master students who find relevance in their learning experience, the action
researchers have a firm grounding in learning theory. This literature review includes quotes and
supporting evidence from Skinner, Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky, and others. The literature written about
education interprets the impact of Behaviorism, Cognitive information processing, Constructivism,
and Problem Solving.
Behaviorism has its roots in the works of Ivan Pavlov who is famous for showing how a dog
can be conditioned to salivate at the prompting of an arbitrary stimulus (Tiene, 2000). It focuses on
observable behavior. Behaviorism was at the height of its popularity in the 1950's. The following
question was raised: “How might Pavlov’s theories translate to human behavior and from there into
educational behaviors?” B.F. Skinner is one of the most influential behaviorists to influence American
education. Working on Pavlov’s foundation, Skinner “concentrated on cause-and-effect relationships
that could be established by observation (Roblyer, 2000). Like his fellow behaviorists, “Skinner
focused on external, directly observable indicators of human learning (Roblyer, 2000).” He developed
what he called the “conditioned operant, three elements of the learning experience: discriminative
stimulus, the response, and the reinforcing stimulus, the building blocks of everything that we do
(Tiene, 2000).” Skinner identified three types of situations that can shape behavior: “positive
reinforcement (praise, good grades, etc.), negative reinforcement (avoiding a consequence results in
the desired behavior), and punishment (undesirable consequence) (Roblyer, 2000).” Skinner’s theories
influence many of the behavioral and classroom management practices that are used in many K 12
institutions today.
 11.

Behaviorist theories encourage the development of structure in classroom practices and lesson
planning. However, one of behaviorism major drawbacks is that it concentrates on only observable
behaviors. Many educational theorists find this approach “too limiting” and feel that it places too
much emphasis on lower-order skills such as memorization. Teaching higher thinking skills such as
synthesis, analysis, and evaluation based on behaviorist principles is difficult. By the 1970s, critics felt
that “behaviorism was unable to effectively address a critical issue: How do people think (Tiene,
2000)?” Since thinking cannot be directly observed, educational theorists need to investigate ways
in which people gain knowledge. Behaviorism does not address the “cognitive aspects such as
memory, problem solving, hypothesizing, and more could not be the sum total of behaviors engaged
in (Tiene, 2000)”. Theorists need something more flexible and expansive than behaviorism.
Cognitive theorists say there is a need “to address central cognitive processes like memory,
attention, and logical reasoning. Thus, cognitive psychology was born out of the need to understand
more about human thought process (Tiene, 2000). Information-processing theorists were the first to
hypothesize how humans learn and remember. The human information-processing model asserts the
basic idea that people process information through a series of different systems: the sensory system,
the short term memory, and the long-term memory. Our sensory systems, like sight, hearing, and so
on take in stimuli from the environment. Next an attention and control system helps determine which
information is processed and acted upon (Roblyer, 2000). The sensory register is very short, only a
few seconds and if the learner does not pay attention to the sensory information it is lost. Therefore,
attention getting is critical and has a significant impact on teaching practices (Roblyer, 2000).
Sensory information is “channeled through a limited-capacity system called working (or short-
term) memory (Tiene, 2000).” It is where we do most of our conscious thinking. It takes time and
effort to successfully transfer information from working memory to long-term memory (Tiene, 2000).
If information entering the short-term memory is not acted on (e.g.: rehearsal, meaningful learning,
organizing, elaborating, imagery), then it is lost (Roblyer, 2000). However, information acted upon
(processed or practiced) is transferred to long-term memory where we hold most of what we know
(Roblyer, 2000; Tiene, 2000). Tiene (2000) states that cognitive researchers hypothesize that
information is stored in long-term memory as three types of “memory: episodic (memory of events),
 12.

semantic (memory of meaning), and eidetic (memory of visual images). Information-process theorists
believe that new information must be linked in some way to prior knowledge that already exists in
the long-term memory for information transference to be successful (Roblyer, 2000). Thus, it is
crucial to design instruction to accommodate students’ connection to prior experience and knowledge
in the classroom. Ausubel, Gagne and other researchers understand the importance of these
connections. Gagne, who prefers a bottom-up approach to learning, believes that lesson design should
ensure “students learn lower-order skills first and build upon them (Roblyer, 2000)”. Like Skinner
before him, Gagne sees learning as a hierarchy of skills. He feels that “lower-level skills provide a
necessary foundation (building-blocks) for higher level-skills (Roblyer, 2000).” On the other hand,
Ausubel, who prefers a top-down approach, advocates the use of advanced organizers as a way to
provide learners with a frame of reference on “which to hang new information (Roblyer, 2000).”
These ideas are the beginning of implementation of formalized stages in the learning process.
Ausubel, Gagne and other cognitive psychologists believe that prerequisite skills are necessary
for further learning and built on behaviorist principles to develop their theories further. Cognitive
theorist Benjamin Bloom uses “Skinnerian principle to develop methods that became known as
mastery learning (Roblyer, 2000).” Bloom’s Taxonomy is well-know among educators. It classifies
cognitive skills into a hierarchical schematic. Bloom’s theory of learning hierarchy establishes
“ascending levels of thinking: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and
Evaluation (Tiene, 2000).” Educators often use Bloom’s Taxonomy in lesson planning as a linear and
sequential approach to achieving learning objectives. Robert Gagne manifests his version of learning
hierarchies in his Nine Events of Learning. In ascending order, those hierarchies are gaining attention,
informing the learner of the objective, presenting new material, providing learning guidance, eliciting
performance, providing feedback about correctness, assessing performance, and enhancing retention
and recall (Roblyer, 2000). Behaviorists and cognitivists share the belief that learning is sequential
and linear.
“The information-processing model implies certain things about how we should teach people
of all ages.” Additionally, “the goal is to get information and skills entered and consolidated into long-
term memory in such a way that learners can retrieve it when they need it (Tiene, 2000).” Cognitive
 13.

theory has significant impact on teaching practices. Teachers, whether advocates of direct instruction
or constructivism, must pay attention to developing activities that gain attention and aid the transfer
of data from short-term memory to long-term memory (Roblyer, 2000). They must balance their
lesson design to find an effective medium between too much and too little attention getting. “It
appears than most of us can hold only about seven discrete items in short-term memory at any one
time (Tiene, 2000).” Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to plan lesson content carefully, being sure
that critical material is present and extraneous material is limited. However, “cognitive sciences points
out that people must actively process the information and practice the skill in order to learn (Tiene,
2000).” Learning does not occur simply through passive receiving and storing of information. As
information-processing theorists point out, interaction with the information transmitted to the short-
term memory must be acted on or it is lost (Roblyer, 2000). Educators know that to facilitate the
interaction and transfer of information into knowledge, they have to use a variety of strategies. It is
critical to link new knowledge to prior knowledge in order to gain new knowledge through
information transference. Lesson designs need to include activities that enhance information transfer
to long-term memory such as applying new skills or centering around the episodic, semantic, or
eidetic memory to help give students context to new information. This way students are able to “link
new information and skills to what they already know, put them in context, develop their own
perspective about it and decide how meaningful this material is to them (Tiene, 2000).”
Piaget, Bloom, and Gagne have adapted a variety of programmed instruction ideas from
behaviorists in their theories. Behaviorists “stress the importance of practice in training people to
develop certain skills; cognitive psychologists emphasize the need to perform skills in real contexts
and to learn strategies, not simply to be trained to engage in specific behaviors (Tiene, 2000).” Critics
think that direct instruction is limiting in its scope (e.g.: breaking topics into small discrete skills
taught in isolation), and they contend that such instruction makes it more difficult for students to
engage in problem-solving activities that apply critical thinking skills. Researchers observe that many
students find this approach to content boring and of little relevance. In schools, teachers strive to
meet students needs and to adapt to those needs. Cognitive theory paves the way for constructivism.
Cognitive theorists are concerned with understanding how human beings think. Constructivists seek
 14.

to understand how to apply thinking and learning to gain new understanding. Connecting prior
knowledge to new information to construct new knowledge is an active process that leads to gaining
knowledge.
Constructivism is an evolving theory with many contributors. “The term constructivism refers
to the emphasis on students ‘constructing’ their own sense of the world, their own perspectives on
critical issues, their own professionalism in a field, and their own identities as learners (Tiene, 2000).”
Both behaviorism and cognitive science stress the structure and sequences of learning as well as the
role of the teacher in education (Tiene, 2000). Constructivism, on the other hand, emphasizes the
“learner’s initiative in the learning process through self-discovery, individuality, and independent
thinking (Tiene, 2000).” Constructivists say that learners develop and grow over time through their
interactions with the environment. They see children as learners not as blank slates “passively waiting
to receive knowledge (Roblyer, 2000).” Constructivists see learners as “active inquirers who are
shaped by their environment while simultaneously shaping their environment (Dewey, 1916).”
Constructivists hold that all learning is social (Dewey, 1916). Authentic learning cannot be
separated from the learner’s background (culture and family belief system), experiences, and attitudes
(Roblyer, 2000). Like Dewey, Vygotsky believes that learning occurs in a social context and
“knowledge is acquired through social interaction, becomes individual knowledge and individual
knowledge grows and becomes more complex (Roblyer, 2000).” Students learn in accordance to their
own potential, building knowledge through collaboration and social activities.

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Developed in 1983 by Dr Howard Gardner, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests that the
traditional notion of intelligence is far too limited. Dr Gardner proposes nine different intelligences
to account for a broader range of human potential. Gardner’s ideas on multiple intelligences
anticipate how students best process information into learning and influence how important
educational environment are to gaining knowledge. Gardner blends these ideas with his own
perspective on learning and he builds upon the social aspect of constructivism. He looks to what
the learner brings to the learning experience and “attempts to define the role intelligence plays in
 15.

learning (Roblyer, 2000).” Key to Gardner’s theory is the belief that “intelligence is culture-
dependent, intelligent behavior is likely to take different forms in children from different ethnic
backgrounds (Roblyer, 2000).” Gardner’s theory includes nine intelligences:
1. Linguistic: the use of language effectively
2. Logical-mathematical: the recognition patterns and logical reasoning
3. Musical: the understanding and use of musical structure
4. Spatial: perceptions of the world in visual terms
5. Bodily-kinesthetic: use and manipulation of body skills
6. Intrapersonal: awareness of one’s own motives and heightened
metacognitive abilities
7. Interpersonal: awareness of motivation in others’ behavior
8. Naturalist: discrimination among living things
9. Existential: What is the purpose of life?

The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a transformation in the way our schools are run.
It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways, using music,
cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, etc. The theory
of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many teachers around the world and many
schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the education of individuals of all ages.
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom by Thomas Armstrong. This is an excellent guide for
educators who want to incorporate new research from Gardner and others in their teaching. This best
selling guide will help teachers apply MI theory to curriculum development, lesson planning,
assessment, special education, cognitive skills, educational technology, educational policy, and more.
Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century by Howard Gardner.
Gardner updates his theory of multiple intelligences and how it has evolved. He offers practical
guidance on the educational uses of the theory and offers provocative ideas about creativity,
leadership, and moral excellence and speculates about the relationship between multiple intelligences
and the world of work in the future.
 16.

For constructivists, the environment is essential to learning and is twofold. On one hand, there
is the learner’s social environment mentioned above, and on the other hand there is the physical
learning environment that is designed to include atmosphere and artifacts that stimulate imagination
and inquiry (Dewey, 1916, Thornburg, 1994, Tiene, 2000). Dewey and others held that it is through
this interaction with their environment that learners work to construct new knowledge. Good learning
environments are conducive to learning. They encourage exploration and inquiry and enhance learning
experiences in schools.
The importance of social and physical environment dovetails into another major principle of
constructivism - that of shared intelligence. Children “learn by interaction with others, testing ideas,
and modifying those ideas as necessary (Tiene, 2000).” Distributed learning, collaborative learning
for sharing knowledge, is a primary attribute of constructivism. Through collaboration learners
develop a “learning community” based on shared interest, “add to one another’s knowledge, challenge
one another’s ideas, and work together to find solutions to their inquiry (Tiene, 2000).” By making
connections to prior knowledge and adapting new information to refine this knowledge, learners work
at constructing and reconstructing their knowledge through interaction and collaboration with others.
Jean Piaget studies children’s cognitive development. He identifies a series of stages through
which children progress as learners. Those stages include: sensory motor phase (birth to 2 years) in
which the child establishes a sense of self; preoperational phase (3 - 7years old) in which the child
uses simplistic and erroneous cues for determination of meaning; concrete operation phase (7 - 11
years) at which children develop more sophisticated concepts; and the formal thinking phase (11 years
and on) where the learner develops abstract thinking (Tiene, 2000). Key to Piaget’s theories is the
belief that children are innately active and motivated learners. As a child progresses from one
development stage to the next, he or she attempts to assimilate new information into his or her
schema (world view) of understanding or changes that schema to fit the new information (Roblyer,
2000). Vygotsky developed the learning principal called the zone of proximal development (ZoPD).
The zone of proximal development means “that at any given time, children are primed to learn and
develop in certain ways, if appropriately assisted by an adult (Tiene, 2000).”
 17.

According to constructivists students must challenge and master new content to move outside
one range and into another as they construct new knowledge. Vygotsky believed that teachers must
“provide good instruction by finding out where each child is in his or her development and build upon
the child’s experience (Roblyer, 2000).” Vygostski called this principle scaffolding.
Scaffolding provides an external supporting frame while a structure (knowledge) is built. With
scaffolding, the teacher facilitates the “novice learner while developing understanding of a new
concept then gradually removes supports as the learners construct their own knowledge (Tiene,
2000).” Scaffolding characteristics include clear directions, clarified purpose, clarified process,
clarified expectations, identified sources, focused inquiry, and momentum toward insight and
understanding (McKensie, 1999). Students gain more confidence as they progress and become more
independent learners.
Constructivism is also grounded in the principle that learning is situational. Thus, learning
occurs when “learners solve problems, perform tasks, and learn new material in a context that makes
sense to them (Roblyer, 2000).” Constructivism encourages a more interdisciplinary approach in
which the learners connect to integrated knowledge based in the long-term memory. This contributes
to the relevance of content. Clearly, constructivism has the potential to foster a radically different
approach to teaching as well as exciting new uses for technology in the classroom” (Tiene, 2000).

Implications of Constructivism on educational practices

In his work Democracy and Education, Dewey states,
To learn from experience is to make a backward and forward connection between
what we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things in consequence.
Under such conditions, doing becomes a trying; an experiment with the world to
find out what it is like; the undergoing becomes instruction - discovery of the
connection of things (1916).

Constructivists say that learners have to make new learning their own and go beyond
information processing to look at how information can be transferred from sensory to short-term to
 18.

long-term memory. Teachers cannot make students learn. Learners must initiate learning to gain
knowledge. Cognitive science aims at helping teachers understand how the mind processes
information for learning. Cognitivists and Behaviorists show how structure in presenting information
can aid learners in attaining mastery of new information and concepts. The constructivists show
educators how to facilitate learners in making connections between past learning and present learning.
“The teacher’s role has shifted from that of an authority who is a giver of knowledge to one of a
facilitator who asks questions, suggests, resources, encourages exportation, and learns alongside the
student (Tiene, 2000).” Most educators believe that our complex world is changing too rapidly to
define education in terms of specific information or skills. They believe that education should focus
on more general capabilities such as “learning to learn” skills that will help future citizens cope with
inevitable technological change (Roblyer, 2000).” Educators have to teach their students how to think
and they will be able to address any task. Constructivism emphasizes facilitating thinking rather than
memorization of collected data. Direct instruction methods no longer meet the needs of students in
the 21st century. In our day, educators will have to deal with issues that their predecessors could not
even have imagined and must have skills and knowledge not previously recognized (Roblyer, 2000).”

Adult learning: a review of the literature

Social changes influence the growth of a learning society. Neuroscience or brain research is
the study of the brain and discussion of the possible implications and applications of research findings.
Research confirms what experienced educators have known all along. It adds an understanding of
why certain strategies work and educators are able to articulate and explain the rationale for what
they do in the classroom:
• Brain research: How do we use it?
• Add emotion
• Create brain-friendly activities:
- Visuals
- Storytelling
- Real-life experiences
 19.

- Problem-based learning
- Simulations
- Multimodels approaches
- Integrate and synthesize
Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain by Renate Nummela Caine and
Geoffrey Caine explores how the human brain functions during learning with well-researched, brain-
based theory to help teachers design and orchestre enriching activities and ensure that students
process experiences to gain meaningful knowledge.
Mindshifts by Geoffrey Caine, Renate Nummela Caine and Sam Crowell. (Revised 2nd edition.
This book makes philosophical, psychological, biological, and theoretical concepts
palatable and interesting even for the person beginning to explore the brain, biology and its intimate
relationship to education.
Hodgins (2000) defines adults as “people who are in or about to enter the workforce” as
contrasted with people who are of traditional school-going age. Eduard Linderman and Malcolm
Knowles concerned themselves with studying how adults learn in the 20th century. Linderman
emphasized the importance of experience to adult learners, going so far as to put experience on the
same level as textbooks used by traditional school-aged students. (Conner, 2000a).
Knowles adapted the word andragogy to refer to the art and science of helping adults learn
in contrast to pedagogy, which strictly defined the art and science of teaching children. In practice,
pedagogy has become synonymous with teaching or with teacher-centered models, while andragogy
has been broadened by some people to include any learner-focused models.
Conner (2000a) summarizes the following principles to use with an andragogical model:
1. Learners must know why something is important to learn.
2. Learners need to be shown how to direct themselves through information.
3. The topic being taught should be related to the learners’ experiences.
4. People don’t learn until they are ready and motivated.
5. Learners may need help overcoming their inhibitions, behaviors and beliefs
about learning.
 20.

Conner (2000b) suggests that children and adult learners do have some fundamental
neurological differences related to learning. Children have few experiences. However, their brains can
create new neurological structures when learning occurs. Adults have existing neurological structures
due to their vast experiences. Therefore, new learning for adults tend to require new connections
between existing neurological structures. Higher-order brain functions must take place to facilitate
new learning.
Personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper
understanding of underlying concepts are some of the favorable intersections between adult learning
principles and constructivism. Harapnuik (1998) proposes a hybrid learning approach labeled
Inquisivism as an alternative for adult learners. Inquisivism is presented as a synthesis of
constructivism, discovery, active learning, functional context, and minimalism. The ten key concepts
of this approach reflect this synthesis:
- Fear removal
- Stimulation of inquisitiveness
- using the system to learn the system
- getting started fast
- discovery learning
- modules can be completed in any order
- supporting error recognition and recovery
- forum for discussions and exploiting prior knowledge
- real world assignments
and developing optimal training designs.

Inquisitivism appears to be little more than the result of cutting and pasting attributes of
several learning strategies and theories in our day. Adults learn in all kinds of settings such as the
home, the workplace, and community agencies. They learn for a variety of reasons- personal
development, increased job knowledge, and community problem-solving (Merriam & Caffarella,
1999). A rich and varied literature base related to adult learning exists.
 21.

Staff Development
School and district staff members are becoming more and more involved in seeking and taking
advantage of opportunities to grow personally and professionally. The literature on adult learning
theory and effective staff development programs provide a powerful knowledge base that offers
guidance in the design, development and implementation of effective staff development programs for
educators. Teachers and administrators are experienced professionals with extensive backgrounds in
educational practice. They are experienced, capable adult learners, and the variety of experiences they
bring with them to development programs affects how they learn. In reviewing the literature on adult
learning, the following common descriptors of adult learners emerge:

• Adults learn throughout their lives. Age does not reduce a person’s ability to learn but
may reduce the speed at which learning takes place. In addition, because of time
elapsed since earlier experiences, adults may underestimate their own abilities to learn
and may need additional time to adjust to new learning conditions.
• Adults exhibit a variety of learning styles, ad there is no one “right” way of learning.
They learn in different ways at different times and for varying reasons.
• The adult learner is a person with a sense of self, bringing all previous life experiences,
both personal and professional, to bear on new learning. Past experiences affect what
the learner learns and are the foundation for current learning. Adults learn best when
new learning is demonstrably tied to or built upon past experiences.
• Adult learners’ stages of development, whether personal (cognitive, moral, ego,
conceptual), chronological (early adulthood, mid-life, etc.) or professional (new or
experienced teacher, etc.), profoundly affect their learning.
• Adult learners exist in situations separate from the learning context. They are
motivated to learn by changes in their situations and learn best when new learning
applies in practical ways and are relevant to the changes in their situations.
• The adult learner controls what is learned, selecting new information and deciding
how to use it, and this takes place at both the conscious and unconscious levels.
 22.

• Adults tend to be problem-centered rather than subject-centered learners and learn

best through practical applications of what they have learned.
• Adult learners must be treated as adults and respected as self-directed persons. They
learn best in nonthreatening environments of trust and mutual respect.
• The optimum role of the adult learner in the learning situation is that of a self-
directed, self-motivated manager of personal learning who collaborates as an active
participant in the learning process and takes responsibility for learning.
• New learning is followed by a period of reflection to facilitate integration and
application of new knowledge and skills.
• Continued learning depends on achieving satisfaction, especially in the sense of
making progress toward learning goals that reflect the learner’s own goals.

Effective staff development programs usually take into account the nature of adult learners
and the need for making learning accessible to them. Smith (1990) suggests that there are six
optimum conditions for learning and that adults learn best when these six conditions are met:

1. They feel the need to learn and have input into what, why, and how they will learn.
2. Learning’s content and processes bear a perceived and meaningful relationship to
past experience, and experience is effectively utilized as a resource for learning.
3. What is to be learned relates optimally to the individual’s developmental changes
and life tasks.
4. The amount of autonomy exercised by the learner is congruent with that required
by the mode or method utilized.
5. They learn in a climate that minimizes anxiety and encourages freedom to
experiment.
6. Their learning styles are taken into account.
Adult learners have a variety of needs and strengths and are themselves a valuable resource
for each other in the learning process.
 23.

Motivating adult learners

Based on an extensive review, Wlodkowski (1993) lists specific factors that have an
impact on motivation:
• Attitude: the learner’s combination of concepts, information and emotions about
the learning that results in a predisposition to respond favorably.
• Need: the current condition of the learner, experienced as an internal force moving
the learner toward the goal.
• Stimulation: any change in perception or experience of the external environment
that prompts the learner’s action.
• Affect: the learner’s emotional experience (feelings, concerns, passions).
• Competence: the learner’s sense of effectively interacting with the environment.
• Reinforcement: the learning event maintains or increases the probability that the
learner will achieve the appropriate response.

Generally speaking, learners need to be interested, successful, and supported in their learning,
and such intrinsic motivators are critical to program success. Lanier and Little (1986) caution against
the use of external motivation (e.g.: cash incentives). Staff development programs focus on teachers
and administrators, a population of adult learners with specialized experience and needs. Lanier and
Little (1986) suggest that the current paradigm for teachers is that of teacher as reflective practitioner
- “one who makes instructional decisions consciously and tentatively, critically considers a full range
of pertinent contextual and pedagogical factors, actively seeks evidence about the results, and
continues to modify these decisions as the situation warrants.” An excellent reference for staff
developement is:
Brundage, D.H. and Mackeracher, D. Adult Learning Principles and their Application to
Program Planning. Toronto: Ministry of Education, 1980.
Description and strategies for application of adult learning principles developed through analysis and
synthesis of literature in adult education, andragogy, teaching and learning, and other related fields.
Excellent resource for background and application.
 24.

Conclusion

Originally, constructivist theory was developed with children in mind. However, adult learners
want to learn skills quickly without entering into the kinds of reflection and elaboration brought about
in a constructivist learning environment. Perkins’ (1991) idea of BIG constructivism provides a
constructivist approach for adults. Technological developments have also affected adult learning
research and theory building. In adult education, technology is emerging as both a delivery system
and a content area. The continuing progress in adult learning research and theory is the sign of a vital
field, and the literature provides information that can be used to improve practice. The purpose of this
paper is to discuss learning styles, psychological types and adult learning theories through a review
of the literature. The literature search did not produce any surprise as there were many articles
available for review since the early 1990's.
 25.

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