PROLOG

An introduction to the paper by Yaramasu, Wu, Sen, Kouro,

and Narimani

High-Power Wind Energy

Conversion Systems:
State-of-the-Art and
Emerging Technologies
BY J IM E SCH

Producing electricity from renewable energy sources has Wind turbines when grouped into wind farms can be
become vitally important in a world of depleting fossil fuels connected to the electric grid. The turbines can be sited on
and increasing environmental anxiety. In 2012, renewable land or offshore. Onshore wind farms are easier to access,
energy sources comprised about 19% of worldwide energy feature lower startup and maintenance costs, and are
consumption. In particular, wind power has become closer to transmission lines. Offshore wind farms cost
legitimately competitive with conventional energy sources. more to install and maintain because stronger foundations
Wind power capacity has risen exponentially since 1996, and are required and connections to the grid must be made
the industry’s growth rate has risen more than 19%. Of the through submarine cables. Wind farms are connected to
83 nations using commercial wind the electric power system through
power, 24 have more than 1 gigawatt various series/parallel and ac/dc
(GW) wind power capacity. configurations, using high voltage
Harnessing the power of the Wind power capacity has ac and dc transmission systems.
wind is nothing new. Humans have risen exponentially since Because wind power was inte-
used it for shipping, water pumping, 1996, and the industry’s grated to the grid rather rapidly,
and milling, and the conversion of growth rate has risen concerns have arisen over the elec-
wind kinetic energy to electrical tric power system’s stability, securi-
energy started as long ago as 1887.
more than 19%. ty, and efficiency. To address those
But it was not until the 1980s that concerns, grid codes have been
wind turbine technology reached the updated and enforced for
point of maturity as a viable utility-scale option. Over the large-scale turbines and wind farms. And high-power
past 30 years, we have seen the size of commercial wind wind turbine technology has been upgraded from
turbines increase exponentially. In addition, the wind fixed-speed to full-variable speed operation.
energy industry has benefitted from technological im- This paper reviews state-of-the-art progress with
provements in aerodynamic design, mechanical systems, respect to MW wind generator-converter configurations,
electric generators, power electronic converters, integra- wind farm configurations and grid code compliance
tion to power systems and control theory. Electrical methods. Four categories of generator-converter config-
engineers should be most intrigued by how electric urations have been identified and analyzed based on
generators and power electronic converters can be adapted component count, modularity, reliability, converter/con-
to wind energy conversion systems (WECS). Various trol complexity, device voltage stress, operation voltage,
combinations of generators and converters have led to and achievable power levels.
wind turbines of three classes: fixed-speed, semivariable
speed, and full-variable speed.
I . OVERVIEW OF HIGH POWER WECS
Let us first look at high power grid-connected WECS: their
major components, operating voltages and grid code
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2015.2418461 requirements. A WECS converts wind kinetic-energy into
0018-9219  2015 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
736 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 103, No. 5, May 2015
 Prolog to the paper by Yaramasu, Wu, Sen, Kouro, and Narimani
electric-energy and consists of three broad component
categories: mechanical, electrical, and control systems.
Mechanical components relate to the MW as well as
the small power scale wind turbines. Mechanical compo-
nents include rotor blades, tower, nacelle, rotor hub,
gearbox, wind speed sensors, pitch drives and yaw drives.
The three-bladed design is the most common. The tower,
nacelle and rotor hubs give mechanical support to the rotor
blades. Wind velocity and direction are measured via
sensors, and a yaw drive moves the nacelle toward the
wind. Pitch drives are used to change the angle of blades
such that turbine output power is limited to the rated
capacity during high wind speeds. Turbines typically run at
low speed (6 to 20 rpm) and high torque, coupled with a
high-speed, low-torque generator shaft via a multi-stage
gearbox. Gearboxes can be costly and prone to wearing out.
As such, gearless or direct-drive technology eliminates the
need for a gearbox, and commercial products are
increasingly using them. There are drawbacks, however,
such as large diameter and increased weight. Compromise
solutions exist, which combine a medium-speed generator
and single or two-stage gearbox.
Electrical components consist of an electric generator
that converts rotational mechanical-energy into
electric-energy. Several types exist: squirrel-cage induc-
tion generator (SCIG), wound rotor induction generator
(WRIG), doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG), perma-
nent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), and wound
rotor synchronous generator (WRSG). Output voltage
from the generator and frequency will change as the wind
speed changes. A generator can be coupled directly to the
grid or interfaced through a power electronic converter.
Many power converter topologies are possible. When
power electronic converters are combined with electric
generators, different WECS configurations can be devised.
Harmonic filters are used to solve switching harmonics
problems when using power converters. They reduce
harmonic distortion of generator currents and voltages.
Grid-side harmonic filters connect the power converter
output to a three-phase grid through a step-up transformer,
electric switch gear, and a circuit breaker.
Several slave control systems and a master control
system are used to maintain performance for the WECS.
Variables monitored include wind speed velocity, wind
direction, generator voltages and currents, grid voltages
and currents, etc. Adjustments of system operating states
or variables can then be made, such as passive stall, active
stall, pitch control. Control systems are implemented via
computer, microcontroller, digital signal processor or field
programmable gate arrays.
Grid codes ensure the grid stability and consumer power
quality, and their primary elements include active power
control, reactive power control, grid power quality, flickers,
harmonic oscillations, fault ride-through operation and
system protection. Fault ride-through is a particular concern
for wind turbine and power converter makers. Another
important requirement is reactive power control, which
compensates the transmission equipment (cables and
transformers) while maintaining voltage stability.
Using different designs and combinations of generators
and power electronic converters, many kinds of WECS com-
mercial configurations are possible, including these types:
1) a fixed-speed SCIG-based WECS without power
converter interface;
2) a semi variable-speed WECS using WRIG and
partial rated (10%) power converter (often known
as Optislip control);
3) a semi variable-speed WECS using DFIG with
partial rated (30%) power converter;
4) a full-variable speed WECS with SCIG, PMSG or
WRSG and full-scale (100%) power converter;
5) a direct grid-connected WRSG with speed/torque
converter.
Each type is described and compared in this paper, using
the categories: generator, power converters employed,
capacity of power converter, achievable speed-range,
soft-starter requirement, gearbox and external reactive com-
pensation, maximum power point tracking ability, aerody-
namic control, compliance with fault ride-through
requirement, technology status, and market penetration.
It is found that Types 3 and 4 are best suited for MW-level
application, and this paper examines them in detail.
II. POWER CONVERTERS FOR MW-WECS
Power electronics technology is rather closely coupled with
grid-connected wind turbines, and state-of-the-art full-scale
converters perform energy conversion and grid integration at
the turbine and wind farm levels. This paper provides an
overview of power converters, their technical requirements
and a classification of power converters for MW-WECS.
A power converter must enable variable-speed opera-
tion and eliminate the need for soft-starter and reactive
power compensation. This objective is achieved by
converting the variable voltage/frequency of the wind
generator to fixed voltage/frequency, which is accom-
plished by a variety of power conversion stages. Converter
topologies can be broadly classified as direct and indirect.
The most important requirements for MW-WECS power
converters include:
• initial cost, as a fraction of overall wind turbine
cost;
• high reliability, modular structure, and low main-
tenance cost;
• higher efficiency, typically more than 98%;
• power quality with output voltage close enough to
sinusoidal waveform and lower total harmonic
distortion of the generator and grid currents;
• compliance with grid-codes;
• high power density while maintaining a small
footprint and low weight;
• minimized cable size and cost.
Vol. 103, No. 5, May 2015 | Proceedings of the IEEE 737
Prolog to the paper by Yaramasu, Wu, Sen, Kouro, and Narimani
There are four groups of generator-converter config-
urations classified in the paper: Back-to-Back (BTB)
Connected Converters, Passive Generator-Side (PGS)
Converters, Converters for Multiphase Generators, and
Converters without Intermediate DC-Link. Features and
drawbacks for each type are discussed in detail.
Back-To-Back Connected Power Converters. A
back-to-back (BTB) converter has identical converters on
the generator and grid sides, linked via a dc-link and
performing a conversion of variable voltage/frequency
output of the generator to dc, then dc to ac, with fixed
voltage/frequency for the grid connection. Power flow is
bidirectional. There are two types of BTB converters: low
voltage (G 1 kV) and medium voltage (1–35 kV). For low
voltage, four kinds of configurations are discussed:
full-scale BTB two-level voltage source converters
(2L-VSCs), Partial-Scale BTB 2L-VSCs, Parallel BTB
2L-VSCs with Common DC-Link, and Parallel BTB
2L-VSCs with Individual DC-Links. For medium voltage
converters, four types of configurations are discussed:
series connected switches, BTB Neutral-Point Clamped
Converters, Other Voltage Source Multilevel Converters,
and BTB Current Source Converters. BTB converters are
compared with respect to power/voltage rating,
semi-conductor/passive component count, voltage stress
of switches, reliability, power quality, converter and control
complexity, grid code compliance, technology status and
market penetration.
Passive Generator-Side Converters. Because WECS power
flow is unidirectional (generator to grid), less-expensive and
more reliable passive (diode-bridge) converters can be used
on the generator side compared to pulse width modulated
(PWM) converters, and passive converters can be utilized in
PMSG/WRSG type wind turbines. Passive converters are not
usable with induction generators. Four types of configura-
tions are described in the paper: Diode Rectifier + 2L-VSC,
Diode Rectifier + 2L-Boost Converter + 2L-VSC, Diode
Rectifier + 3L-Boost Converter + 3L-VSC, and Diode
Rectifier + Buck Converter + CSC.
Converters for Multi-Phase Generators. The wind energy
industry has used multi-phase generators and distributed
converters as another approach to increase power-handling
capacity. Generators with two sets of three-phase windings
are called six-phase generators. Generators with more than
six-phases are known as open-winding generators. Both
types are described and compared in the paper. Six-phase
generators have been adapted for use in Type 4 wind
turbines, capable of two-times power handling capacity.
Two types of converters for six-phase generators are
compared: distributed converters and cascaded converters.
Similarly, in wind generators with multiple windings (open
winding generators), distributed converters and cascaded
converters are discussed.
Power Converters Without DC-Link. Matrix converters
(MC) enable direct ac-ac conversion with no intermediate
dc-link. This results in more silicon-based conversion at a
738 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 103, No. 5, May 2015
low cost with small footprint. MCs can produce wide
ranges for output voltage/frequency. They can convert
variable voltage/frequency to fixed voltage/frequency for
connecting the wind turbine to the grid. By eliminating the
dc-link capacitors, reliability will increase. This is an
important requirement for offshore wind turbines. A
proper control system is needed to maintain correct
operation of matrix converters. Voltage source converters
and matrix converters are summarized and compared in
the paper. These include LV matrix converters and MV
matrix converters.
I II . WIND FARM CONFIGURATIONS
Early wind farms were land-based and relatively easy to
build and maintain. Offshore wind farms are desirable
because more power can be produced, thanks to stronger
and steadier winds. They also reduce impact on the
landscape. By 2020, offshore wind power capacity could
rise to as much as 40 GW. By optimizing the intercon-
nection of wind turbines, a wind farm’s costs can be
lessened, its efficiency heightened, and its reliability
improved. Of the many proposed configurations, only a
few have seen their way to practical implementation. This
paper studies the more pragmatic and promising config-
urations, which include Parallel AC Configuration +
HVAC Transmission, Parallel AC Configuration + HVDC
Transmission, Parallel DC Configuration + HVDC Trans-
mission, and Series DC Configuration + HVDC Transmis-
sion. Each features the series or parallel connection of WT
output terminals, the coupling of WT output ac or dc
terminals, and the connection of the wind farm to the grid
by ac or dc transmission lines. They differ in the im-
plementation of those features. The paper weighs the pros
and cons of each type.
I V. FAUL T RIDE-THROUGH
COMPLIANCE IN MW-WECS
One major concern for makers of wind turbines and power
converters, in particular Type 3 and 4 turbines (the types
most focused on here) is fault-ride-through (FRT). A wind
turbine system must provide reactive current during grid
faults, and Type 4 turbines completely decouple the
generator from the utility grid, so transmission faults are
rendered invisible to the wind generator, drive train and
gearbox. With an electrical control system, active power
output can be decreased to zero, but the mechanical
system response cannot keep pace with the electrical
response, resulting in injections of active power to the
power converter. Due to surplus energy, the net dc-bus
voltage would increase exponentially with respect to the
grid fault duration and destroy the complete power
conversion system. Type 3 turbines are more complicated
than Type 4 turbines, and because the DFIG stator
terminal is directly connected to the three-phase grid,
 Prolog to the paper by Yaramasu, Wu, Sen, Kouro, and Narimani
the DFIG experiences uncontrolled dynamics during grid
faults, and FRT transients cause sever torque transients
that threaten the drive-train and gearbox. Methodologies
for solving the FRT problem in Type 3 and 4 turbines are
examined in this paper. Types of solutions include
regulating the active power generation using a pitch
control system; storing surplus energy in the dc-link,
external energy storage systems, and turbine-generator
rotor inertia; dissipating surplus energy in the dc-link
chopper, ac crowbar, and braking resistor; using compen-
sation devices; and using control systems at wind farm,
wind turbine and power converter levels.
V. TRENDS IN HIGH-POWER WECS
Wind turbines are tending to get larger. At present, the
largest turbine is 8 MW, but 10–15 MW turbines have
been announced already. Major trends and challenges are
summarized here.
With respect to mechanical technologies, gear-box and
drive-train technology must be developed to bring in lighter
weight mechanical components. Direct-drive technology
will reduce maintenance requirements in offshore wind
turbines. Multiple drive-train technology will help reduce
mechanical torque on each generator shaft. Wind turbine
blade technology has become more aerodynamic, and the
three-blade design is the most common standard. Chal-
lenges include lightning protection, noise reduction,
optimum shape, increasing power-to-area ratio, and ease
of manufacture. Newer blade sandwich technology can
lower manufacturing and transportation costs. Wind
turbine foundation design poses several challenges for
offshore use. Gravity and monopile foundation are suitable
for shallow waters with depths less than 20 m. Floating
foundations, as have been used in offshore oil rigs, could be
promising for deep water applications.
With respect to electrical technologies, high power
density electrical components are needed. It is expected
that Type 4 turbines will overtake Type 3 as the dominant
turbine type, and turbine manufacturers will seek alterna-
tive generator configurations with high power density. One
attempt is to use a high temperature super conducting
synchronous generator in place of PMSG/WRSG. Semi-
conductor switching devices are evolving as well. Emerging
switching devices and advanced modulation and control
schemes can improve power conversion efficiency. Asym-
metric IGCTs are good for multilevel voltage source
converters, and symmetric IGCTs are used in current
source converters. Wind energy uses insulated gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs) in both LV and MV power converters.
Next-generation power semiconductor devices are based
on wide band-gap materials with significant performance
improvements over silicon-based devices. The increasing
power level in wind turbines drives power electronics
technology towards the medium-voltage operation. Expect
MV power converters to be dominant for the next
generation multimegawatt turbines. Research into new
MV power converters and advanced control schemes will
play an important role. Reliability of power converters will
improve and fault tolerance will shorten turbine down
times and yield high annual energy production. More
efficient designs will decrease the size of power converters.
With respect to integration to power systems, it is
expected that WECS should behave like conventional
power generation units by exhibiting black start capability,
being able to restore normal operation from shutdown
mode without help from the external power network. We
can expect the grid code requirements in terms of
frequency support, active and reactive power control,
short-circuit power level, voltage variations, flicker,
harmonics and stability to become more vigorous in future
years. Ride-through requirements will evolve and affect
high-power wind turbine design. More research is needed
in studying asymmetrical grid fault conditions. Current
source converters and partial scale voltage source
converters need more attention as well. As offshore wind
farms become more common, the cost, size, reliability and
efficiency of interconnection approaches will be a crucial
factor. It is likely that HVDC transmission systems will
take over from current HVAC transmission.
With respect to trends in control theory, control
schemes enforce the WECS to achieve desired operation,
increase wind energy conversion efficiency, reduce cost of
energy, increase life time of turbine components, decrease
structural loading, reduce turbine down times, and provide
superior dynamic and steady-state performance. Mechan-
ical and electrical power conversion units are both
important, but this paper concentrates on electrical.
Generator side converters are usually controlled by vector
control or field oriented control. The reference control
variables, such as generator speed, torque or power, are
usually provided by a maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) algorithm. Its methods include optimal
tip-speed-ratio control, power signal feedback control,
hill climbing searching control, optimal torque control and
optimal power control. Power converter switching is
adjusted to keep variables maintained at their reference
value. Grid side converters in Type 3 and 4 WECS are
controlled by decoupled voltage oriented control (VOC) or
direct power control (DPC). We can also expect to see
developments in the areas of finite control-set model
predictive control. Aerodynamic techniques have also been
proposed to control output power.
In sum, we can expect enormous growth in wind
energy systems worldwide. Technology development will
make these systems more efficient, and switching to wind
power will get us closer to the goals of energy indepen-
dence and reduced pollution in the environment. This
review paper on WECS technology serves as a compre-
hensive background reference material for practicing
engineers, researchers and graduate students working in
the field of renewable energy, particularly wind energy. h
Vol. 103, No. 5, May 2015 | Proceedings of the IEEE 739