ORGANELLES AND CELLULAR STRUCTURE:

A cell:
1. The basic structural and functional unit of an organism
2. Self-contained and self-maintaining entity
3. Membrane-bound organism containing biological molecules
4. Stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities.

Modern cell theory

1. the cell is the smallest unit of life
2. all cells arise from pre-existing cells by dividing into two
3. all known living things are made up of one or more cells

Magnification: the ratio of an object's image size to its actual size

Resolution: the minimum distance between two points at which they can be distinguished as two points

Cytology is the study of cell structure

Light microscopy involves passing visible light through the specimen then through glass lens which refracts
the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eyes,
photography film or digital sensor

Electron microscopy involves focusing a beam of electrons through the specimen which is known as
transmission electron microscopy undo it's a face which is known as scanning electron microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy is the study of internal ultrastructure of a cell. The TEM focuses a beam
of electrons on a very thin section of the cell. darker areas on the image represent regions of the specimen
that is more electron dense since few electrons are transmitted, and lighter areas on the image represent
regions on the specimen that is less electron dense since many electrons are transmitted.

Scanning electron microscopy involves the detailed study of the surface of the specimen. the specimen needs
not be sectioned and can frequently be studied whole and intact. The electron beam scans the surface of the
specimen. The SEM has a great depth of field, resulting in a three dimensional image.

Exposed areas of the specimen are coated in gold making them more electron dense, while sheltered areas of
the specimen remain uncoated making them less electron dense. exposed areas of the specimen lighter on
the image while sheltered areas are darker on the image.

benefits of electron microscopy

1. higher resolution
2. higher magnification
disadvantages of electron microscopy
1. cannot be used to observe living specimens
2. expensive to purchase and run
3. preparation of materials is time consuming and requires specialized expertise
4. specimen will gradually deteriorate under the electron beam

Magnification = measured size/ actual size

- um is 10^-6

Cell fractionation is the physical process of cells being taken apart and its major organelles and subcellular
components being separated by sedimentation coefficient which is dependent on factors such as particle size
and density. Cell fractionation involves three consecutive steps: homogenization, centrifugation,
resuspension.

Homogenization:
- Homogenizers are used to rupture cells, releasing cell content. This is a sensitive process so a cold
(0-4 degrees celsius) isotonic buffer solution is used to prevent mechanical damage of cellular
components.
- Low temperature inactivates enzymes, preventing damage to cellular components and reduces heat
damage generated by mechanical force.
- Isotonic solution has the same water potential as cell contents, preventing osmotic damage of the
cells
- Buffer solution contains a mixture of salts that serve to maintain a constant pH.
- If done properly, this procedure leaves organelles such as nuclei and mitochondria largely intact. A
suspension of cellular components known as homogenate is then obtained. It is a mixture of
organelles, debris from membrane and unbroken cells.

Centrifugation:
- The components of the homogenate must then be separated. It is done so by a series of spins at
varying speeds in an instrument called centrifuge. This treatment separates cell components by size
and density. The centrifugal force causes a fraction of organelles to settle to the bottom of the
centrifuge tube forming a pellet.
- In general, at lower speeds, the pellet formed is larger and denser, while at higher speeds, the pellet
formed is smaller and less dense.
- After each spin, the supernatant is decanted and re centrifuged at higher speeds.
- Low sedimentation coefficient → high sedimentation coefficient
- Ribosomes >> lysosomes >> mitochondria >> chloroplasts >> nucleus >> unbroken cells and cell
debris

Resuspension:
 - Each pellet can be resuspended into cell organelle fractions for further analysis. By determining
which cellular components are associated with particular metabolic processes, various functions can
be assigned to specific organelles.

Autoradiography:
- Used in cells to locate radioactive compounds in sections of whole cells and tissues.
- In this procedure, living cells are briefly exposed to a specific radioactive compound and incubated
for a few variable days. The cells are then fixed and processed for light or electron microscopy. Each
preparation is overlaid with a thin layer of photographic emulsion and left in the dark for a few days.
The emulsion is then developed, and the position of radioactivity in each cell will then be shown on
film
- In biological research, radioactive isotopes commonly serve as radioactive tracers in
autoradiography.
- They are used to label certain chemical compounds in an organism to
1. Follow steps in a metabolic process
2. Locate the organism within the cell
- Well known applications of radioactive tracers :
1. Investigate translocation of nutrients in plants
2. Investigate site of DNA and RNA synthesis
3. Determine the sequence of intermediate compounds formed at various stages of the Calvin
cycle of photosynthesis

Features Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Cell size Smaller, with diameter from 5-10um Larger, with diameter from 10-100um

Cell wall Cell wall is made of murein and Plant cell wall is made of cellulose.
peptidoglycan Fungal cell wall is made of chitin

Organelles Few organelles Many organelles

No membrane-bound organelles Membrane-bound organelles present
present

Genetic material No nucleus Nucleus is present

Circular DNA molecule lies free in DNA molecule is linear
the cytoplasm DNA molecule is associated with
DNA molecule is not associated with proteins to form chromosomes
proteins

Ribosomes Smaller with 70s sedimentation Larger with 80s sedimentation

coefficient coefficient
 Flagellum Simple, lacking micro-tubules, Complex, "9+2" arrangement of
extracellular microtubules, intracellular

Respiration Mesosomes Mitochondrion

Photosynthesis Photosynthetic membranes Chloroplasts

Mode of cell division Simple binary fission Mitosis/ meiosis

Cytosol:
Structure:
● An aqueous, semi-fluid matrix in which suspends a complex, highly-organised system of organelles
and the cytoskeleton network holding the former together
● The collective term to refer to all organelles and cytosol within the plasma membrane with the
exception of the nucleus is called cytoplasm

Function:
● Stores vital chemicals
● Site of most of the metabolism in prokaryotes and large proportion of eukaryotes

Nucleus:
Structure:
● Found in all eukaryotic cells except for phloem sieve tube and mature mammalian red blood cells
● Size: 5-20um, largest organelle, can be seen under the light microscope
● Shape: spherical to ovoid

Diagnostic feature:
● Enclosed in a nuclear envelope
- Nuclear envelope is a double membrane
- Outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
- Perforated by nuclear pores which regulate exit and entry of substances into and out of the
nucleus
- Nucleoplasm, a semi-fluid matrix which fills up the nucleus
● Contains chromatin, coils of negatively changed DNA wrapped around positively charged histone
proteins
- Heterochromatin: electron dense and appears as coarse granules in the electron microscope
because it is more tightly packed together.
- Euchromatin: less compact form of chromatin and is often under active transcription
● Contains nucleolus, a prominent dense spherical structure in a non-dividing nucleus. Contains large
loops of DNA from a number of chromosomes. Loops contains genes for a particular type of RNA,
ribosomal RNA.
Function:
1. Nucleus:
- Stores hereditary material protecting it from the metabolically active cytoplasm
- Controls gene expression, site of transcription
2. Nucleolus:
- Site of rRNA synthesis
- Assembly of proteins and rRNA to form ribosomal subunits where proteins imported from
the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA to form small and large ribosomal subunits
3. Nuclear pores:
- Regulate exchange of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm, thus controlling processes
on either side of the nuclear membrane

Endoplasmic reticulum:
● Extensive network of folded membranes forming tubules and sheets called cisternae
● ER membrane separates its internal compartments from cytosol
● ER membrane is continuous with outer nuclear envelope, thus the perinuclear space is continuous
with ER lumen.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:

- All cells tend to have a significant amount of RER
- Particularly abundant in cells active in protein secretion

Diagnostic feature:
● Comprises of a continuous network of sheets of membrane
● Outer surface of membrane is studded with ribosomes

Function:
● Site of synthesis of proteins destined for secretion or incorporation into cells.
→ proteins are transported to other parts of the cell via transport vesicles which bud off from the
RER membrane
● Facilitation of folding of polypeptide chains

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

- Many cells have little SER
- Tend to be abundant in liver cells, other cells active in hormone secretion

Diagnostic feature:
● Comprises of a network of membranous tubules
● Lacks ribosomes

Function:
● Synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids
 ● Detoxification of drugs and poisons.

Golgi apparatus:
Structure:
● Extensive in cells specialised for secretion

Diagnostic feature:
● Consist of a stack of flattened membrane bound sacs called cisternae
- The Golgi Stack has distinct structural polarity.
- The cis face is located nearest to the nucleus and near the ER. It receives transport vesicles
containing newly synthesized proteins and lipids from the ER.
- The trans face is located nearest to the plasma membrane. It ships vesicles containing
mature proteins or lipids to other parts of the cell.
● Comprises a system of associated vesicles.

Function:
● Further modifies products of the ER, sorts and packages them into vesicles to be transported to
other parts of the cell or released to out of the cell.
● Synthesis of secretory polysaccharides
● Synthesis of lysosomes

The polypeptides are synthesized at the ribosomes on the RER. These polypeptides enter the RER lumen and
folds into proteins. The proteins are modified and packaged into transport vesicles which pinch off from the
RER. Transport vesicles then fuse with the cis face of the Golgi Apparatus and release the proteins into the
cisternae of the GA. The proteins are further modified, sorted and packaged into secretory vesicles. The
secretory vesicles containing modified proteins then pinch off from the trans face of the GA. They then
move to fuse with the cell surface membrane, releasing the proteins to out of the cell via exocytosis.

Lysosomes:
Structure:
● Size: 0.2-0.5um
● Shape: diverse shapes, usually spherical

Diagnostic feature:
● Spherical sac bound by a single membrane
● Uniformly granular electron dense appearance under the electron microscope
● Contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest various macromolecules
● Acidic internal pH of 4-5 which caters to lysosomal enzymes which has an acidic optimum pH

Function:
● Digestion of materials taken in from the environment outside of the cell by endocytosis
● Autophagy (degradation of unwanted structures within the cell)
 1. Unwanted structures within the cell are first enclosed in a membrane originating from the
ER.
2. The structure then fuses with a lysosome to form an autophagic vacuole.
3. Lysosomal enzymes hydrolyse the ingested material and products of digestion are returned
to the cytoplasm for reuse.
4. This is important for cell renewal through membrane and organelle turnover.
● Autolysis

Vacuoles:
Structure:
● In plant cells, vacuoles are large and central.
● Plant vacuoles are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane called tonoplast
● The fluid in plant vacuole is called cell sap
● In animal cells, vacuoles are relatively small.

Function:
Animal cells:
● Contain food reserves
● Contractile vacuole which maintains a suitable concentration of ions and minerals in the cell
Plant cells:
● Depository site for metabolic waste products
● Maintain cell turgidity
● Cell growth and elongation as water accumulates in the vacuoles

Endosymbiotic Hypothesis:
1. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are about the same size as prokaryotic cells
2. They divide by binary fission like bacteria cells
3. They have circular DNA lying freely in the interior, neither wrapped around histone proteins or
enclosed in an additional membrane
4. Internal organisation of organelles' genes are similar to that of prokaryotic cells
5. They posses 70s ribosomes
6. They can build their own membrane systems

Mitochondria:
Structure:
● Size: width 0.5-1.5um, length 3-10um
● Shape: cylindrical or rod-shaped

Diagnostic feature:
● Wall comprises a double membrane with an extremely narrow fluid filled space called
intermembrane space separating the two membranes.
- Outer membrane is smooth
 - Inner membrane is highly convoluted with numerous infoldings called cristae

● Interior of mitochondria is an organic semi-fluid matrix containing 70s ribosomes, circular DNA
and various enzymes
● The mitochondrial space is separated into 2 compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial
matrix

Function:
● Main site of ATP production during aerobic respiration

Chloroplasts:
Structure:
● Found in all eukaryotic photosynthetic cells, generally 20-100 chloroplasts per cell
● Size: 5-10um
● Shape: disc-shaped structure in plant cells, visible under light microscope

Diagnostic structure:
● Enclosed by a double membrane called chloroplast envelope with a narrow intermembrane space
separating the two membranes.
● Inner membrane membrane encloses a semi-fluid material called stroma
● Stroma contains 70s ribosomes, circular DNA, enzymes, starch grains, sugars and lipid droplets.
● Within the stroma is another membrane system in the form of flattened, interconnected disc-like
sacs called thylakoids.
- Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana
- Stacks of grana are linked by intergranal lamellae
- Photosynthetic pigments and enzyme systems involved in photosynthesis are embedded in
the membranes of thylakoids
● The membranes of the chloroplast separates the chloroplast space into 3 compartments: stroma,
intermembrane space and thylakoid space

Function:
● Site of photosynthesis

Ribosomes:
Structure:
● Cells with high rates of protein synthesis tend to have great numbers of ribosomes
● Present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
● Size: 20 nm
● Shape: small spherical dense bodies

Diagnostic feature:
 ● Complexes of ribosomal RNA and proteins
● 80s eukaryotic ribosomes are made up of small (40s) and large (60s) ribosomal subunits
● Found in 4 different locations in the cell:
1. As bound ribosomes attached to the RER
2. As free ribosomes suspended in the cytoplasm
3. Mitochondrial matrix
4. Chloroplast stroma

Cytoskeleton:
● Cellular scaffolding or skeleton that comprises of a dynamic network of fibrous protein structures
throughout the cell
● Made up of 3 main kinds of fibres:
1. Microtubules
2. intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments

Microtubules:
● Made up of a type of globular protein called tubulin

Function:
● Maintain cell shape
● Serve as tracks along which organelles and material can move within the cell
● Forms spindle fibres which is responsible for separation of chromosomes during cell division

Centrioles:
Diagnostic features:
● Located in a region near the nucleus called centrosome
● Exists as a pair of rod-like structures positioned at right angles to each other
● Transverse section reveals 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

Function:
● Key role in nuclear division in animal cells by acting as microtubules organising centre.

Cilia:
Diagnostic feature:
● Composed of a bundle of microtubules, in a "9+2" arrangement where 9 pairs of microtubules are
arranged in a ring and 2 microtubules are at the centre of the ring

Function:
● Used to move an entire organism or move material within the organism

Flagellum:
Diagnostic feature:
● Same "9+2" arrangement of microtubules as motile cilia

Function:
● For cell movement only

Microfilaments:
Function:
1. Component of microvilli
2. Involved in the formation of cleavage furrow during cytokinesis
3. Involved in maintaining cell shape
4. Involved in cell motility

Cellulose cell wall:

Diagnostic feature:
● A rigid layer surrounding the cell, made of insoluble cellulose fibres embedded in the matrix of other
polysaccharides and proteins
● Middle lamella joins adjacent cell walls by adhesion
● Perforated by channels in the cell wall called plasmodesmata

Function:
● Provides mechanical support to plant cells by maintaining cell shape
● Development of turgor
● Prevent excessive uptake of water

Feature Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall Cellulose cell wall is present Cell wall absent

Pits and plasmodesmata is present in No pits or plasmodesmata
cell wall No middle lamella, cells are joined
Middle lamella joins cell walls of by intercellular cement
adjacent cells

Plastids Present in large numbers Absent

Vacuoles Mature plant cells have a large single Vacuoles if present, are small and
central vacuole filled with cell sap scattered throughout the cell
Tonoplast present around the Tonoplast absent
vacuole

Centrioles Found in lower plants but absent in present

higher plants
 Lysosome Not always present Almost always present

Cell shape Rigid or fixed Rigid or fixed

Regular Irregular or spherical

Location of nucleus Near the edge of the cell Found anywhere but often central

Cytoplasm Confined to a thin layer near the edge Present throughout the cell
of the cell

Energy reserves Starch grains used for storage Glycogen granules used for storage

CELLULAR TRANSPORT:

Fluid mosaic model:

Fluid mosaic model of the biological membrane comprises phospholipids and proteins which are constantly
moving freely within the bilayer in a lateral motion, making it fluid. Proteins are interspersed and randomly
embedded in the membrane, giving it a mosaic appearance.

The phospholipid bilayer is 7nm thick and is asymmetrical.

The hydrophilic phosphate head of the phospholipid faces outwards into the aqueous environment on both
sides of the membrane. The non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails face inwards, creating a hydrophobic
core shielded away from the aqueous environment.

Proteins may only penetrate part of the membrane or the entire length of the membrane. Their hydrophilic
head may protrude out of the membrane and into the aqueous environment on either side.

Phospholipid:
● Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic phosphate head and 2 hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails.
● The shape and amphipathic nature of the phospholipids causes them to form bilayers spontaneously
- The hydrophilic phosphate head faces outwards into the aqueous environment at each
section of the bilayer
- The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails are shielded from the water, forming a hydrophobic
barrier to polar and charged molecules.
● Phospholipids are held together within the bilayer by weak hydrophobic interactions. Therefore the
phospholipids and other membrane proteins can shift about laterally in the plane of the membrane.
● The fluidity of the membrane needs to be precisely regulated. Certain membrane transport processes
and enzyme activities will cease when viscosity of membrane exceeds a certain threshold level.

Factors affecting membrane fluidity:

1. Temperature:
 ● As temperature decreases, membrane fluidity decreases.
● A membrane remains fluid as temperature decreases until a particular freezing point where
the membrane solidifies. Upon that change of state, also known as a phase transition,
phospholipids settle into a rigid and closely packed arrangement.
2. Fatty acid composition - length of the hydrocarbon chain
● The long the length of the fatty acid hydrocarbon chain, the higher the melting point,
membrane fluidity decreases
● This is so as a longer chain length increases the surface area of contact, increasing the
tendency of hydrocarbon chains interacting with one another via hydroponic interactions.
3. Fatty acid composition - degree of saturation
● Unsaturated: an unsaturated fatty acid hydrocarbon chain with cis carbon-carbon double
bond have kinks. These kinks hinder hydrocarbon chains from closely packing together,
increasing membrane fluidity
● Saturated: a saturated fatty acid hydrocarbon chain has long straight hydrocarbon chains.
This facilitates close packing thus decreasing membrane fluidity.

Cholesterol:
● Major constituent in membranes of animal cells, acts as a key regulator of membrane fluidity.
● Cholesterol has a hydrophilic OH group but the rest of the molecule is hydrophobic. When found in
membranes, cholesterol is commonly wedged between phospholipids, with its OH group aligning
with phosphate heads of phospholipids and its remaining hydrophobic portion tucking into the
hydrophobic region of the membrane.
● At higher temperatures, cholesterol limits membrane fluidity. It is done so by partly immobilising
adjacent phospholipid molecules, thus restraining their mobility and contributing to membrane
stability at higher temperatures.
● At lower temperatures, cholesterol interferes with close packing of phospholipids, enhancing
membrane fluidity.
● Therefore, cholesterol acts as a "temperature buffer" for the membrane, resisting changes in
membrane fluidity caused directly by changes in temperature.
● The presence of cholesterol limits permeability of the membrane to ions and small polar molecules.
It does so by filling in gaps between hydrocarbon chains, making it more difficult for such solutes to
pass through the bilayer.

Proteins:
● Integral proteins are proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic region of the membrane.
● Some integral proteins are transmembrane proteins that span the entire width of the membrane,
others penetrate only partially into the hydrophobic core.
● They are held in place between hydrophobic interactions between their hydrophobic regions and the
hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails of the phospholipids.
● Peripheral proteins are proteins that are loosely bound to the membrane and not embedded in the
bilayer.
 ● These proteins are rich in hydrophilic amino acids that allow for interactions with the aqueous
environment and hydrophilic portions of the membrane.

Functions:
1. Transport:
- Some transmembrane proteins called channel proteins provide a hydrophilic channel across
the membrane that is specific to a particular substance
- Other integral proteins are carrier proteins which bind to specific solutes, transports them
across the membrane by changing conformation.
2. Signal transduction
- Some membrane proteins serve as receptor sites for chemical signalling
3. Cell-cell recognition
- Some membrane proteins such as glycoproteins serve as cell surface markers for cell-cell
recognition
4. Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
5. Enzymatic activities
6. Intercellular joining (cell-cell adhesion)

Carbohydrates:
Glycoproteins and glycolipids:
● Particularly abundant on the plasma membrane, especially on the side that faces the exterior of the
cell

Function:
● Serve as specific cell surface markers for cell-cell recognition
● Cell-cell adhesion for purposes such as forming tissues
● Serve as receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
● Protecting cells against mechanical damage
● Keep various other cells at a distance, prevent unwanted cell-cell interaction

Membrane functions:
1. Acting as a boundary between intracellular and extracellular environments
- Plasma membrane separates the intracellular and extracellular environments of the cells,
keeping a distinct and constant internal environment, which is essential for cells to function
properly
2. Selective barrier that regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cells and organelles
→ Membrane is selectively permeable due to
- hydrophobic region of the lipid bilayer
- specific transport proteins embedded in the membrane

→ phospholipids can shift about laterally in the plane of the membrane, creating transient gaps that allows
for movement of small polar molecules across the membrane
 3. Cell-cell recognition and adhesion
- Plasma membrane contains many glycoproteins and glycolipids that serve as cell surface
markers allowing for cell-cell recognition. Cells can then interact and adhere to each other.
4. Signal transduction:
- Plasma membrane contains certain glycoproteins that serve as receptor sites for sensing
external stimuli, thus triggering responses within the cell.
5. Formation of multi-enzyme complexes:
- To increase reaction rates without increasing substrate concentration, various enzymes
involved in a reaction sequence will be brought together on the plasma membrane to form a
large protein assembly called multi enzyme complex.
6. Compartmentalisation within the cell:
1. Localised environmental conditions that facilitates specific metabolic processes to proceed
simultaneously
2. Allow cells to maintain suitable high concentration of certain enzymes and substrates in specific
compartments
3. Prevent intermediates of one pathway from interfering with those of another
4. Isolate harmful substances from the rest of the cell

Diffusion:
- Small, non-polar or uncharged molecules
- Net movement of substances across lipid bilayer through transient gaps between membrane
phospholipids down a diffusion gradient, without the additional investment of ATP

Factors affecting rate of diffusion:

1. The smaller the particle size, the faster the rate of diffusion
2. Non-polar and uncharged molecules are hydrophobic and thus they are able to penetrate the
hydrophobic region of the membrane. Thus they can readily pass through the lipid bilayer by simple
diffusion. Polar and uncharged molecules will pass through much more slowly especially if they are
larger in size. Membranes are highly impermeable to ions no matter how small, due to their charge
and degree of hydration of such solutes prevents them from entering the hydrophobic region of the
membrane
3. The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
4. The larger the surface area on which diffusion can take place, the greater the number of molecules
that can diffuse through the membrane per unit time, the faster the rate of diffusion.
5. The higher the temperature, the greater the kinetic energy of molecules, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
6. The shorter the diffusion path, the faster the rate of diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion:
- Small, polar or charged molecules
 - Net movement of substances from a region of higher concentration gradient to a region of lower
concentration gradient through a selectively permeable membrane, with the help of transport
proteins, without any additional investment of ATP by the cells.
- Channel proteins are proteins with a fixed 3D conformation. They form hydrophilic channels that
are specific to a particular type of substance. They allow hydrophilic solutes to cross the membrane
without coming into contact with the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
→ gated channels open or close in response to chemical, electrical and mechanical stimuli
→ non-gated channels are always open
- Carrier proteins are proteins that bind to the specific solute to be transported and undergo rapid
conformational changes to transport the bound solute across the membrane

Osmosis:
- Net movement of water molecules from a region of less negative water potential to a region of more
negative water potential, through a selectively permeable membrane, without any additional
investment of ATP by the cells.
- Solute potential: the extent to which solute molecules lower water potential. Solute potential is
always negative or zero in value.
- Pressure potential: the extent to which external pressure increases water potential. Pressure
potential is always positive or zero in value since it tends to draw water out of the cells as opposed to
solutes which tend to draw water into the cell.
- Incipient plasmolysis: the point at which the plasma membrane just begun to pull away from the cell
wall
- Full plasmolysis occurs when the cytoplasm shrinks to the point which the plasma membrane pulls
away completely from the cell wall.

Active transport:
- Small usually charged solutes
- Movement of particles from a region of lower concentration gradient to a region of higher
concentration gradient, through a selectively permeable membrane, with the additional investment
of ATP

Endocytosis:
- Movement of large quantities of macromolecules into the cell through invagination of the
membrane, enclosing the macromolecules and pinching off as a vesicle and the membrane reforms
with the additional investment of ATP

Phagocytosis:
- Solid substances or even whole organisms are taken into the cell via invagination of cell surface
membranes.
- A small portion of the cell surface membrane invaginates, enclosing the solid particle.
- The solid particle is packaged within a membrane-enclosed sac that is large enough to be called a
vacuole
 - The phagocytic vacuole then pinches off from the cell surface membrane.
- The membrane reforms

Pinocytosis:
- In pinocytosis, cells take up extracellular fluid in tiny vesicles. The sac-like structure of vesicles are
often tiny and known as pinocytic vesicles.

Receptor mediated endocytosis:

- In receptor mediated endocytosis, specific substances are taken up into the cell, even though the
substance is of low concentration in the extracellular fluid.
- When specific substances known as ligands are bound to receptor sites of receptor proteins, it
triggers invagination of cell surface membrane
- This results in the formation of coated vesicles, that contain specific ligand molecules
- After ligands are taken up by cells, the receptors are brought back to the cell surface membrane with
the same vesicle.

Exocytosis:
Movement of large quantities of macromolecules out of the cell. The vesicle containing macromolecules
moves to the cell surface membrane. The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell surface membrane and
releases the macromolecules out of the cell via exocytosis, and the membrane reforms, with the additional
investment of ATP by the cell.