CIVTECH 4WT3

Municipal and Environmntal Engineering

Dr. Mohamed Mostafa

P.Eng., CEng MIEI., CPEng MIEAust., M.ASCE

Sessional Faculty
Faculty of Engineering, McMaster University

Quantitative Methods Analyst

Analytics and Innovation, Ontario Power Generation

2020
Conveying and Distributing Water
• Hydraulics
• Water distribution systems
• Hydraulic considerations
• Pressure considerations
• Pumping
• EPANET
Introduction to Hydraulics

• Hydraulics is the study of mechanical properties of fluids

and is a common subdiscipline within many types of
engineering.

• Hydraulics problem investigations include:

o Dimensions of the system (e.g. solve flow equation in 1D, 2D, or 3D)
o Changes overtime (e.g. steady vs unsteady flow)
o Pressures within the system (e.g. pressurized flow vs open channel flow)
o Energy involved in flow (e.g. specific energy for open channel hydraulics)
o Spatial variation of the flow (e.g. gradually vs rapidly varied flow)
Uniform Flow

• Uniform flow is when the cross-sectional velocity and

depth do not change in the direction of flow.
• For uniform flow in an open channel, velocity can
be determined using Manning's equation:

energy
that passes
through the system

VYyg
+ 2-
E- = Pty +

feet per

É¥→÷
second .

ggqaÑ
'

b.de#ougnnees.ndji--.1r--
A=

÷→w¥¥
"

%iÉÑ
"

↳
"
"
son , ,
Uniform Flow
Uniform Flow
Example: Uniform Flow

Determine the discharge of a trapezoidal channel having a

brick bottom and grassy sides, and with the following
18ft

dimensions: 3 3

h h aransas
o Depth: 6 ft 12ft h
of
N
-
0.025
5=0.002
-

§µ 2/42×6-+3)
o Bottom width: 12 ft D= =

2 ( ✓ 32+62 )
= 1.35ft .

o Top width: 18 ft
I. 49 ( 1.35 P'
640 p 3.25ftIs
-

>
.

.
z

0.2025
priv
-

"
o.O
=

Assume S = 0.002
-

6×12
D=
Ape =

12 -
=

Bottom .

1.49-65640.0029-5=713.588 ftls
0.016 AiVi t Az Vz
①total
-118113.251+(72/113.588)
=

Cfs
1036 83
.

=
Uniform Flow

For circular pipes flowing partly full (i.e. open channels) you
can use the figure to calculate the hydraulic radius and cross-
sectional area of flow.
Gsg
Example: Uniform Flow
Q full

Given a pipe discharge flowing full of 16 cfs and a velocity

of 8 fps, find the velocity and depth of flow when Q = 10 cfs.
full

°
it"
veto
I
575% g
- - -.
- -

v
105% =/ g)
"
Too Vu 8.4ft =
.

05
1
8
.

×
V =

8fps
.

V =

,
A Cfs
I6
Q=

62.5%
tf =
Uniform Flow

• In open channels, the depth of flow when the flow is

uniform is called normal depth (dn).

• Three possible values for the normal depth which are

function of the channel slope. For a given discharge,
uniform flow can occur at, above, or below critical depth.

• Critical depth occurs when the specific energy is at its

minimum value.
Uniform Flow

• Specific energy is calculated using the following equation:

• Flow at critical depth is highly unstable and should be

avoided in the design.
• At the same specific energy value, two alternative depths
of flow are possible; less than and greater than the critical
depth, and they are called supercritical depth and
subcritical depths of flow, respectively.
Uniform Flow

• For mild slope open channels, the normal depth is greater

than dc and subcritical flow prevails. On steep slopes, the
normal depth is less than the critical depth and flow is
supercritical.
• After calculating the critical depth, the critical velocity can
be calculated using the following equation:
Gradually Varied Flow and Surface Profiles

• Refers to the gradual changes in depth that take place

over long reaches. Damp

-
S .

• Caused by a change in channel slope, cross-sectional

area, roughness, or man-made obstructions to the flow
such as dams, gates, culverts, and bridges.

• Streamlines are still considered approximately parallel.

Gradually Varied Flow and Surface Profiles

• There are 12 classifications of water surface profiles, or backwater

curves. They are termed in relation to the channel slope.

• They are function of

the relationship
between the actual
depth of flow and the
normal and critical
depths of the
channel.
Gradually Varied Flow and Surface Profiles

• Direct-step method could be used to compute backwater curves.

Example: Gradually Varied Flow and Surface Profiles

Water flows in a rectangular concrete channel 10 ft wide,

8 ft deep, and inclined at a grade of 0.10%. The channel
carries a flow of 245 cfs and has a roughness coefficient
(n) of 0.013. If the upstream normal depth of flow is 7.5 ft,
classify the water surface profile.
B -
- 10ft
5=0 . I % -
= '

- " '

8ft
'

⇐
f ja
-

-
-

=
do
dn
.

10ft .
=
7.5ft
d. actual - 8

do =
V =
GAI V Q
B
-
-

AC
v AV
32.2

2 2 d.actual 8ft
Vc -
-

9%4 - =
do = a

Eg lbdctg
=
Q

dc3=b§g= do?
Eg de -
-

3%44%2
,
-
-
2.65ft
Velocity

• Maximum and minimum velocities are both prescribed for water

transportation systems.

• Minimum velocities are set to ensure that suspended matter does

not settle out in the conduit.

• Maximum velocities are set to prevent erosion of the channel.

• Typically, velocities above 20 fps (~6 m/s) should be avoided.

Whenever possible, 10 fps (~3.0 m/s) or less should be used.
Velocity

• Self-cleaning velocity (Vm) can be estimated using:

where:
: specific weight of the particles
: specific weight of water
d: particle diameter
C: Chezy coefficient (from tables or equals to 1.49R1/6/n)
K: found experimentally and appears to range from 0.04 for the initiation of
scour to more than 0.8 for effective cleansing
Types of Distribution Systems

• Water distribution systems can include or may solely be composed

of open channels and pipelines.

• Factors that determine the type of distribution system include:

o Topography
o Head availability
o Climate
o Construction practices
o Economics
o Need to protect water quality
Types of Distribution Systems

• The choice of using open channels for conveyance will be function

of the topographic conditions and availability of gravity flow with
minimal excavation and/or fill.
• Open channels will need to be lined with concrete, bituminous
materials, butyl rubber, vinyl, synthetic fabrics, or other products to
reduce the resistance to flow, minimize seepage, and lower
maintenance costs.
• Pipelines can be used in areas where topographic conditions
prevent the construction of open channels.
Types of Distribution Systems

• Pipelines can be laid above or below ground.

• Pipelines are typically made from concrete, ductile iron, high-

density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and steel.

• Pipelines will require valves such as gate valves, check valves,

and air-release valves, as well as drains, surge-control equipment,
expansion joints, insulation joints, manholes, and pumping
stations. These are installed to ensure safe and efficient operation,
allow easy inspection, and facilitate maintenance.
Types of Distribution Systems

• Gate valves are often spaced about 1200 ft apart to be able to drain a
section of a line for inspection or repair and placed on either side of a check
valve to permit its removal for inspection or repair.
• Check valves are normally located on the upstream side of pumping
equipment and at the beginning of each rise in the pipeline to prevent
backflow.
• Air-release valves are needed at the high points in the line to release
trapped gases and to vent the line to prevent vacuum formation.
• Drains are located at low points to permit removal of sediment and allow the
conduit to be emptied.
• Surge tanks or quick-opening valves provide relief from problems of
hydraulic surge and water hammer.
Distribution System Components
Distribution System Components

• Pipes: To convey water from one point to the other. Flow from
high total head to lower total head. As water flows, it loses energy
due to friction. Head lost due to friction can be expressed in the
form:

where,
hL : head loss (L)
A: resistance coefficient
q: flow in units of volume/time
B: flow exponent
Distribution System Components
Distribution System Components

• Junctions: Also called nodes. Points where pipes are connected,

and water enters and leave a network. Storage tanks and
reservoirs are also called nodes, but they have free water surface
where the hydraulic head is the elevation of water in the storage
tanks.
• Reservoirs: Nodes that represent source of water such as lakes,
rivers, and groundwater aquifers. Due to their scale, they are
typically represented as an infinite source or sink of water to the
distribution system.
Distribution System Components

• Tanks: Storage nodes with volume that varies over time. Tank
properties include bottom elevation where the water level is zero,
the diameter or shape of the tank, the initial water level, and the
minimum and maximum water levels within which the tank can
operate. The change in water level of a storage tank can be
calculated using as:
 Distribution System Components

• Emitters: Also known as nozzles or orifices that discharge to the

atmosphere. Flow through these devices is function of the
available pressure at the node. The flow is given as:

where:
q : flow rate
C: a discharge coefficient (supplied by the manufacturers in gpm/psi0.5)
p: pressure
𝛾 : pressure exponent (0.5 for nozzles and sprinkler heads)

• Emitters are used to model irrigation networks, sprinkler systems,

and to estimate pipe leakage if a discharge coefficient and a
pressure exponent can be estimated.
Distribution System Components

• Minor Losses: Due to bends,

junctions, meters, and valves.
The minor head loss is
calculated as:

where:
K : minor head loss coefficient
v: flow velocity (L/T)
g: gravitational acceleration (L/T2)
Distribution System Components

• Pumps: Used to increase the hydraulic head of water. They run

unidirectional and must operate within the head and flow limits
imposed by their characteristic curves.

where:
hG: head provided by the pump in ft
ho: static head
a: resistance coefficient
q: flow through the pump
b: flow exponent
Distribution System Components

• Valves: Links in pipelines and are used to regulate flow and/or

pressure.
• Numerous types of values exists:
o Shutoff (gate) valves and check (nonreturn) valves: Completely open or
close pipes.
o Pressure-reducing valves (PRVs): Limit the pressure at a point in a pipe
network.
o Pressure-sustaining valves (PSVs): Maintain a set pressure at a specified
location in a pipe network.
o Flow control valves (FCVs): Limit the flow to a prescribed amount.
Distribution System Configurations

• Configuration of a water distribution

system is influenced by street
patterns, topography, and degree and
type of development of the region.
They can be classified as:
o Branching systems
o Grid system
o Combination of the two
Distribution System Configurations

Hydraulic Considerations
• Most flows can be treated hydraulically in the same way as clean
water even though considerable quantities of suspended material
are being carried. The exception is sludges.

• Hazen–Williams formula is used primarily for pressure conduits

and Manning equation is the most popular in major application in
open-channel problems.
Distribution System Configurations

Hazen–Williams equation:
Distribution System Configurations

Hazen–Williams equation for circular conduits flowing full:

Distribution System Configurations

Manning equation:
Distribution System Configurations

Head loss
• Consists of pipe friction losses and minor losses (e.g. resulting
from valves, fittings, bends, changes in cross section, and
changes in flow characteristics at inlets and outlets).
• Minor losses on long lengths of pipeline can be ignored in the
calculations. However, on short water transportation systems
such as water and wastewater treatment plants, should not be
ignored.
Distribution System Configurations

Minor Losses

Head losses due to friction can be

expressed using Darcy–Weisbach
equation:

Relative roughness of pipe materials and

friction factors for complete turbulence
 Distribution System Configurations

The Energy Equation

where
Z: elevation above an arbitrary datum (ft, m)
p/ : pressure head (ft, m)
V: average velocity of flow (ft/sec, m/sec)
HL: total head loss (energy loss) between two cross sections

Note: If a pump were to be inserted into the pipeline, the quantity (Hp) would be added to the left-hand side of the
equation to account for the additional energy head resulting from the action of the pump. If a turbine were to be
inserted in the pipeline in place of the pump, the positive quantity (Hp) would be replaced by a negative quantity
(HT), since a turbine converts the energy of flow into mechanical work, thereby consuming energy from the pipe flow
instead of imparting energy to the flow as in the case of a pump.
Example: Distribution System Configurations

Consider that water is pumped 12 mi from a reservoir (Reservoir A)

at elevation 100 ft to a second reservoir (Reservoir B) at elevation
220 ft. The pipeline connecting the reservoirs has a diameter of 48
in and is constructed of concrete with an absolute roughness of
0.003. If the flow is 28 mgd and the efficiency of the pumping station
is 80%, what will be the monthly power bill if electricity costs 15
cents/kwh?. Assume water temperature is at 70oF.
Distribution System Configurations

Flow in Pipes in Series

&
 Distribution System Configurations

Flow in Parallel Pipes

 Distribution System Configurations

Pipe Networks

• Single-Path Adjustment (P)

Method (Hardy Cross)

• Simultaneous Path
Adjustment (SP) Method

• Linear (L) Method

 Distribution System Configurations

• Shareware or proprietary software has been used to design most

water distribution systems.
• GIS is often used in combination with these models to expedite
design and to operate and maintain water distribution systems.
 Distribution Reservoirs and Service Storage

• Distribution reservoirs provide service storage to:

o meet fluctuating demands imposed on distribution systems
o accommodate firefighting and emergency requirements
o equalize operating pressures

• These reservoirs can be elevated, partially buried, or below

ground level.

• The main categories are surface reservoirs, standpipes, and

elevated tanks.

• Surface reservoirs may be uncovered or preferably covered

to prevent contamination of the water supply and algae
growth.
 Distribution Reservoirs and Service Storage

• A standpipe is a tall cylindrical tank constructed from steel,

concrete, or wood. Tank storage volume includes an upper
portion (the useful storage), which is above the entrance to
the discharge pipe, and a lower portion (supporting storage),
which acts only to support the useful storage and provide the
required head. Standpipes are typically less than 50 ft (~15
m) high to be economical.

• If more than 50 ft of head is required, building a supporting

structure for an elevated tank becomes more economical.

• Distribution reservoirs should be located strategically for

maximum benefit.
 Distribution Reservoirs and Service Storage

Note: A very large loss of

head by the time the far
end of the municipality is
reached. Therefore,
pressures too low will
prevail at the far end or
excessive pressures will
be in the vicinity of the
reservoir.

Note: pressures over the

whole municipal area are
more uniform for periods
of both high and low
demand. During periods of
high demand the tank is
supplying flow in both
directions (being emptied),
whereas during periods of
low demand, the pump is
supplying the tank and the
municipality. Pressure distribution as influenced by
the location of a distribution reservoir
 Pumping Head

• Pumps are important components of most water distribution

systems.

• Primary type of pumps are centrifugal and displacement.

• In water and sewage works, centrifugal pumps are most

common.

• Displacement pumps are widely used to handle sludge in

sewage treatment works.

• Electric power is the primary source of energy for pumping,

but gasoline, steam, and diesel power are also used
specially with standby pumps for emergency situations.
 Pumping Head

• Need to determine the operating characteristics of the

system in which they are to be used. This includes the Total
Dynamic Head (TDH) against which the pump must operate.

• TDH includes:
o difference in elevation between the pump centerline and the
elevation to which the water is to be raised
o difference in elevation between the level of the suction side and the
pump centerline
o frictional losses encountered in the pump, pipe, valves and fittings,
and the velocity head

where
HL: total static head or elevation difference between the pumping source and the point of delivery
HF: total friction head loss
HV: velocity head V2/2g
Pumping Head

Total static head. (a) Intake below the pump centerline. (b) Intake above the pump center line.
 Power

• Theoretical horsepower (hp) can be calculated based on

known discharge and total pump lift as:

• The actual horsepower required is obtained by dividing the

theoretical horsepower by the efficiency of the pump and
driving unit.
 Cavitation

• Cavitation is the phenomenon of cavity formation or the

formation and collapse of cavities. Cavities develop when the
absolute pressure in a liquid reaches the vapor pressure of
the liquid at that temperature. This will result in the
breakdown of pumping equipment.

• Each pump has minimum net positive suction head

(NPSHmin)

Where: V1 is the velocity of flow at the center line of the inlet to the pump, p1 is
the pressure at the center line of the pump inlet, and pv is the vapor pressure of
the fluid.
 Cavitation

Note: The required NPSH for any

pump can be obtained from the
manufacturer. This value can then
be checked against the proposed
installation to ensure that the
available NPSH is greater than the
manufacturer’s requirement.
 System Head

• System head is represented by a plot of Total Dynamic Head

(TDH) versus discharge for the system being studied.

• It is function of static head, and head due to main and minor

losses.
 Pump Characteristics

• Each pump has its own characteristics relative to power

requirements, efficiency, and head developed as a function
of flow rate.

• These relationships are usually given as a set of pump

characteristic curves for a specified speed.

• They are used in conjunction with system head curves to

select correct pumping equipment for a particular installation.

• The head for any centrifugal pump will fall with increase in
flow. Also, varying the pump discharge by throttling will lower
the efficiency of the unit.
Pump Characteristics
Pump Curves

• Once the system head has been determined, the next step is
to find a pump or pumps to deliver the required flows. This is
done by plotting the system head curve on a sheet with the
pump characteristic curves.
• The intersection of the system head curve and the pump
head capacity curve is defined as the Operating Point. This
point provides the head and flow at which the pump will be
operating. A pump should be selected so that the operating
point is also as close as possible to peak efficiency.
Pump Curves

Characteristic curves for (a) Series. (b) Parallel pump operations of equal pumps.
 Example: Pump Curves

A proposed pumping station will have an ultimate capacity of

1200 gpm at a total head of 80 ft. The present requirements
are that the station deliver 750 gpm at a total head of 60 ft.
One pump will be required as a standby. The system head
curve and characteristic curves for two pumps (i.e. A and B)
are given. Select appropriate pump(s) for the application.
Example: Pump Curves
Distribution System Configurations

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