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> Sciences
*
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,

J .
.

Emma Le
created by :

Exams
many graphics : Save
My
 table d-
Contents
P1 .
Motion 3

Work ,
energy and power
P2 .
8

P3 .
Thermal physics 10

P4 .
Waves ,
including light and sound 14

PS .

Electricity and Magnetism 18

PG . Electric circuits 20

P 7 .

Electromagnetic effects 22

Atomic 24
P8 .

Physics
P1 Motion .

P1 1
. .

Length and time stopwatch

[
ruler trundle wheel analogue/ digital

2
*
accuracy
:

Multiple readings
•
e.
g.
: •
thickness of paper
↳ 100 sheets

time period of pendulum

•

↳ 10
swings

SI units
=
Le system International d.Unites
•
used
by scientists all over the world
•
metre cm )

[ kilogram Lkg)
•

measuring cylinder
•
second G)
•

ampere (A)
•

Kelvin CK )
•
mole ( Mot )

micrometer screw
gauge
* 0 01mm
accuracy
:
.

3
 P 1.2
. .
Motion

O=¥
speed distance moved (mls ) o
gradient
rrisuen
• = =
=

✓ time taken

scalar

p
magnitude
velocity
speedywithdirectionvec.to
•
=

distance =
area

acceleration of Cm / S2) gradient ?

change velocity rise
•
=
a = =
=

time t run

acceleration > 4 deceleration / retardation

velocity
-

time graph
Freefall :

[ no air resistance ]
•
all objects fall at same a

2
•

Aff =

g
= 10 m/s
near Earth 's surface
UP
• at
steady rate

force of object
•

weight =

gravity on an

4
 P
P 1.3
. .
Mass and
Weight .
1.4 .

Density
•
mass = amount of matter in an
object Ckg ) mass
←
( Ems )
-

-
a
property that resists motion
f =

force of (N )
weight =
gravity on mass volume
•

W M 1cm
'

g 1mL
= .
=

← displacement :

for irregular shaped

-

objects

for ?
regular shaped

digital caliper
f

[ balancer

Floating

5
P 1.5 .
Forces
P1 .
5.1 . Effects of forces
size

Forces can
change
⇐ shape
motion
of a
body
plastic
Hooke 's

beneath
law :

its
a

elastic
material

limit ,
obeys
the
Hooke 's

extension
law

is
if,

/
proportional to the load
Extension load graph (
springs )
-

Spring constant

F: load ( N )
F= K K K constant
spring
:
.

limit of R : extension ( mm )

proportionality
unit of K ?
load
f

Resultant Force Friction

=
overall Cnet ) force ↳ a force that opposes the
motion of an object
•

loss KE → heat
energy
:

•
:
air resistance (drag )
e.g

surface texture ?

F- force (N)
F- = m .
A m= mass
Ckg)
a =
acceleration (mls 2)

If resultant force = 0 , a
body
remains at rest OR
•

•
continues at constant speed ,
in straight line

6
 P 1.5.2 .

Turning Effect
•
moment =
turning effect of a force Equilibrium
what it's
↳
=
an
object keeps doing doing
objects to rotate around pivot continue straight line
cause
moving →
•

door
pushing open a
stationary
• •

using a crowbar to open

something
•
will not start / stop turning
* conditions :

M= moment ( Nm ) •

no resultant force

M= F. d (N)
F force no
turning effect
.
=

D= b- distance & MR = EMA

from
pivot (m )

when suspended from point

•

→
object will settle so that its

designing a shelf that c. am .

rests below
pivoting point
doesn't collapse

P 1.5.3
.
.
Centre of mass

=
the point through which the
weight of object acts
located @ point of
symmetry
•

P 1.5.4 . Pressure
=
concentration of a force

* in solid
D= pressure 1Pa )
Stability : most stable : c. am .
lies above base

P = F F = force ( N ) → •
wide base real life
A- A = area (m2 ) •
lower c. am .
example ?

7
 F- power (w) Watt

A
P
P2 transferred ( J)
102.3 Power
Work
=
F-
energy
.
=

,
energy
a
power ⇐ time is ,

P2 /
. .
Work

W =
work ( J)

force ( N )
W= Fxd
f- =

D= distance (m )

= AE

transferred
energy
=

( in direction of force )

102.2 .

Energy kinetic
energy
due to motion Gravitational

potential energy
spring / due to position
band

elastic
2
KE Lt) m= mass
1kg )
KE
=L my m= mass
1kg ) GPE =
mgh g-
-

gravitational field g)
D= speed ( mls ) h =
height ( ) m

\ atom 's
@
nucleus
Efficiency
Energy transferred
✓ during events +
processes
forces ( mechanical )
working
•

e.
g.
:
e.
g.
:
blacksmith hammers metal sword
\ ET LET
•
4 currents :
source →
components
thermal
energy output
conduction radiation useful
heating via convection , 100%
•
=
,
✗

•
waves via
tight + sound total "

input
D) ALSO

=
useful power output ✗ 1001 .

total "

input 8
 P 2.4
. .

Energy sources : steam :

reliability
renewable : replenished regularly supply
→
unlimited turbine environmental impact

g-
: :

↳ solar / wind / hydraulic / geothermal energy : cost

non renewable available in limited

supply l small
large)
:
scale
-

: or

↳ fossil fuels, nuclear

energy
energy
source description form advantages disadvantages

Fossil fuel .
burnt → heat •
reliable •

lots of greenhouse gases

+4 chemical scale 19 )
→ steam turbines large pollution -9 .
.
+
→ =

•
cost effective

water .

hydroelectric + tidal power GPE '

hydro → reliable •
tidal → not reliable

→ turns turbines -14=

•

can
produce large amounts •

may flood
habitats
•

no
pollution / g.g. .

dams : $$$
•

wave KE

Geothermal •

underground heat •
reliable •

can release toxic gases

→
steam → → internal .

can be cost effective •

limited suitable sites

•

small scale

Nuclear fission nuclear fuel reacted nuclear reliable

is
dangerous radioactive waste
. •
•

steam →
scales
large decay
→ → ↳ to
very years
•

•
no
g. g. / pollution
•

power stations $$$

Solar •

heating :
sunlight warms
light
•
no
g. g.
/ pollution •

not reliable

water black small scale

in
pipe good for remote places
•
. -

cells light → solar panels $$$

s
:

energy
•

Wind .
wind turbines =
+4 KE •
no
g. g.
/ pollution •

not reliable

still farm land ( ?)

noisy , ugly
•

can on
•

$$$ to build
relative to F- output

9
 B. Thermal Physics Kinetic
theory
P 3.1
Simple kinetic molecular model of matter gas molecules
: random movement high speed
-

-
top =
of
→ collide with surface of container walls
→
applies force to wall

pressure exerted
=

Brownian motion :

shape fixed container container smoke)

small particles ( pollen suspended in
liquid /gas
-

volume fixed fixed fixed random motion Lthru microscope )

no . →

highly compressible t
high speed molecules
colliding
arrangement regular
separation close close widely separated
movement vibrate slide random ,

high speeds
I
big particles
can be moved by smaller ,

light fast-moving particles

,

temperature
solidification thermometer I
y
y
-

Boiling @ fixed
[
t
Evaporation : occurs @ any to :
occurs

\ throughout liquid
°

energy
>77 @ surface of liquid
enough bonds ( escape of molecules )
strong energy i. m . more
energetic
intermolecular bonds to overcome i. m .
bonds ↳
gas

sliding consequent cooling effect

→ →

factors :
-

energy )
•
to ( =

escape)
•
surface area (for molecules to

draught = air moves across liquid surface

↳
helps remove less energetic particles strong
constant to / bonds
when A state :

energy absorbed * condensation , solidification / freezing :

←
→
use to break intermolecular forces weak particles lose → slow down
energy
-

instead of T KE 1=1^1-4 bonds → form bonds ( intermolecular forces ) 10

P 3.2 .
Pressure changes

•
tt ,
constant V •
t constant ,
V4 ( compressed )
= of =
harder collisions =
PT =
more collisions
= PT = PT

P 3.3 . Matter ✗ thermal properties

Thermal expansion @ constant P Application :

E heated →
particles vibrate faster •

liquid expands in thermometer →

measure to
→ knock +
push each other apart
•
bimetallic strip :

→ takes
-

2 metals expands at different rates

up more
space ;

( particles remain at same size ) ↳ bend at certain to → touch

'
=
t -

activated switch
•
solids :
expand slightly (
strong intermolecular forces )
•

liquids expand :
77 solids ( weaker " " )

( no )
expand significantly
" "

gases
•
:

Consequences
•
:

•
if solid materials expand too much → buckle

•
metal railway tracks
•
road surfaces

bridge
•

→ built -
in
gaps to provide room for expansion

11
 P 3. 4 . Measurement of to
to T →
physical changes :
assumption :
properties change at steady rate
' '
↳
•

V ( and f) linear
•
electrical resistance →
easier to create a
relationship
if these properties change in well-defined way ,
but not
entirely accurate to real life

can measure properties → determine to

device leg )
↳
when
designing a .
: thermometer ,

build thermometer ( based

properties ) sensitivity sensitive smaller changes
•

on :
more =
measure

lowest values ?
property @ well defined fixed-point highest
-
•

measure +
range
-
=

to where
=

easily identifiable change occurs

without
'
↳
see
change =
know t
measuring
liquid thermometer
# glass
-
in -

chosen for thermal expansion properties

expand linearly with to
•

wide to
range of
•

high sensitivity ( precision )

•

smaller bulb = less liquid to heat up

tube small AV large Ad

•

narrow = =

usually 2
f.pt H2O boils 100°C thinner glass bulb wall
J
•
.
:

melts : 0°C =
easier heat transfer
↳
plot graph
↳ work out other values in between

electrical
\
e. resistance & to in wire
Thermocouples
g.
:

go, ,f- wire

types attached
.

junction is heated

→ creates potential difference

to T =
p.d.tl
•

measure high to
Lmetals have high m.pt)
to fast to
responsive changing
•

less sensitive than liquid thermometer

12
 P 3.5 .
Thermal processes
A. Conduction B. Convection C. Thermal Radiation t°= ? ?

a.
solids liquids all medium needed
main
energy transfer in gases hot objects
• s
+ •

; no

✓ metals ( delocalized e- ) expand ft infrared

+
heat than surroundings
: •
→ •
•
→

•
✗ :
non -
metals = insulators →
rises
up
=
how heat travels through vacuum

↳
trapped air colder particles sink convection
•

e.g. :

current
f
*
heated → vibrate →
bump
→
transfers energy
black silver

paint paint

Consequences of energy transfer

D.

kÉy heated ,

rises w/ warm water

e.
g. :
Heating water with solar panels
↳
apply :

4 dif metal
4 ball bearings stuck onto
heating units down low
-
•
:

strips with wax cooling units high up

•
:

heat up metal → melts wax

↳ which ball drops first ?

13
 sound
P4. Waves +

light and
wave
A) Reflection @
effects
plane surface
104.1 .
General wave properties angle of
-

waves transfer
energy Transverse waves angle of reflection

Incidence y
-

¢ matter ↳ vibration ± energitransfer

from 1 point to another = wave motion e.
g.
:
light
↳
points vibrate @ fixed positions

✗ !
=
crest :

¥0
i = r

B) Refraction due to Av
↳ waves enter new medium →
changes speed
X Tor tr
Longitudinal waves
•

>

trough ↳ vibration 11 energitransfer •

A direction
f
= slower
•

wavefronts : waves pictured from above

← =
faster

←1 wavefront
= 1 wave ( refer to equation )
c) Diffraction
↳
waves
pass through narrow
gap
I (✗ constant)
spread out remains Ripple tank to demonstrate wave effects
#
per second
feasible when smaller than
frequency waves * is
wavelength
•

gap
=

✓ =
speed (F)
V = f. ✗ f- =

frequency ( Hz ) Hertz

✗ =

wavelength ( ) m

✓ ✗ 14
P 4.2 .

Light
1) Reflection 2) Refraction ↳ Total internal reflection

i = r A medium → A speed when

light travels between media :

more dense → less dense

glass air

↳ -
most
light → refracted
=i
\
/ i
r some
light →
internally reflected
the normal

*
beyond a certain angle ,
c- the critical
angle ,

ALL light is reflected back into glass

\ vtt hurt
light bends light bends
towards normal normal
away from
( denser medium )

42°

ir
cglass =

optical image is :

size object Application optical fibres

•
:
same as

• "
distance behind mirror refractive index of material •

high speed transmission of Internet data

directly in line with object a ✓

in material
light
•

✓
n=
light in vacuum

✓
light in medium n always > 1

medicine inside human

body
•
→
see

refraction
Investigating
ray box
✗
glass blocks;

a
% ✓
varied sizes

mark + connect abed

a

d to see path of ray

IS
3) Thin
converging lenses
brings parallel light rays into focus Virtual images
+
magnifying glasses
object closer than focal length
can't form real
light diverge image
→ →
rays
i. : →
extend
rays backwards
=
virtual
image ( upright
)

I
same
depends on curve of lens
size

Forming real images from real objects .

be
Images may :

enlarged / same size / diminished

upright / inverted
•

*
based on
placement of object from lens

* real be projected onto screen

images can

P 4.3 .

Electromagnetic spectrum
shared properties of light :

transverse waves

travels through vacuum @ same speed

= 3.0 ✗ 108¥
similar
speed of light in air
Safety issues
* :
is
•

microwaves :
high levels
*
→
heating of internal organs
X UV
rays gamma ionising
- -
:
, ,

harm / kill cells

→
living ,

→
TV + radio genetic mutation →
cancer

UV ( Sun or
tanning lamps ) :
-

suntan
infrared +
* skin
prematurely
→
ages
:
,

electrical appliances T risk of skin cancer

TV remote controls

intruder alarms

16
 P 4.4 .
Sound

molecules
sound waves are
vibrating .

longitudinal waves
consisting
/ \ •

audible
range for healthy human ears

§ compressions rarefractions 20 20000 Hz

-

→
travels faster denser medium
bunched need medium travel through
É
a
together spread out •

sound waves to in

can't in vacuum ( no molecules )

•
loudness ✗ amplitude
louder =
greater amplitude
pitch a
frequency
•

higher =
greater f-
•

can be reflected ,
like all waves

=
echo

Experiments to determine speed of sound

•
measure distance : trundle wheel

wooden blocks
together
bang
•

stopwatch :
•

start when
banging
•

stop : when hear sound / echo

•

repeat multiple times

→
take time
average
'

calculate a- d-
t

17
 Induced magnetism
PS .

Electricity •
Magnetism -

place magnetometer
↳
in a

temporarily magnetised
magnetic field

W/ N + S poles
PS 1 Simple phenomena of magnetism from field ?
magnetic
.
* remove
.

1
+ ve
Stroking w/ magnet
-

. a

ve

f
1
Magnetic field lines :

show direction +
strength
-

always N → s
-

never touch or cross

direct current ( d. c.) coil

2.
Using a in

* a
magnet can
only repel another
magnet

Magnetic materials experience a force when placed

3 .

Hitting w/ hammer IN magnetic field

in a
magnetic field

Iron ( Fe) Steel ( Fe + c)

=

magnetically soft : =

magnetically hard :

hard to
magnetism
magnetism to
• •

easy
easily lose doesn't easily lose their
their
magnetism magnetism
• •

Cu and Al metallic
→
electromagnets →
permanent magnets •
are non -

e.
g.
: electric bells ,
hn receiver e.g .
:
doorstop compasses
,
18
 P 5.2 .
Electrical quantities PS -2.2 .
Current , potential difference ,
electromotive force
P 5.2.1 .
Electrical charge
current rate of flow of charge
•
=

like free/ de localised

charges repel in metals →
flow of e-
•

•
ammeter ④ connected in series

unlike attract ampere (A)

unit :
charges
.

*
charging a
body = addition / removal ⑤ •

potential difference ( p.d. )

I current (A)
energy transferred between 2 points
=
=

¥
] I =
Q (c)
*
experiment w/ friction [ video in a circuit when
charge flows =
charge
•
voltmeter ① connected in parallel t =
time Cs )

Electric field •
unit :
volt ( V )
=

region where Y charge experiences a force ← e. mf .

electromotive force ( e. m f.) .

energy supplied by source

around circuit A
drive

(
to
charge
SV FV
=
p.d. of power source
resistor
→
unit =L
/
←

bulb V
P 5.2.3 .
Resistance "^

R= resistance ( current -

voltage (N) graphs

electrical
R =
I
I
✓

I
=

=
p.d.
current
(V)

(A)
f
← →
conductors insulators
✓ Rx I
- -

i
=
I
= allows charge = doesn't allow charge ;
flow through to flow
through
011
to

metal •

plastics 1 2

graphite glass
• °

€-0T
metals
most other non
6
• -

constant R → RT
→ I ✗ V →
opposes
I

19
PG Electric circuits
.

106.1 .
Circuit
diagrams P 6.2 .
Series and parallel circuits *
open circuit

+
NO current
-
=

I = I, =
Iz I = I
,
+
Iz
V = V, +
V2 V = V, =
V2

•
Adv .
of connecting bulbs in D:
-

can
individually control components
1
component fails
-

the other still functions

= 45h

= 4th

In =

1pm +

trz

20
Thermistors light dependent resistors CLDRS ) 106.4 .

Dangers of 4

•
Hazards :

damaged insulation
-

cables
overheating
-

damp conditions
-

to T →
Rt : T → Rt Fuses

€ protects circuit
-

? ?
e.
g.
:
e.g
: -

cut off flow of 4 to an

appliance
if current becomes too large

fuses
*
choosing
↳ to create heat ( or
light) sensitive circuits
many sizes 3A 5A 15A
-

, ,
. . .

→
performs certain actions when -

use I = known from

:&? reaches level

°
1- or certain appliance
choose the next size
up
-

*
✓ = I ✗
R

:
?
g.
e.

P 6.3 .
Electrical
energy watt ④ .
3A

y 3.2A
•

•
5A

(w) 13A
P=
power
P= I. V I = current (A)
V= (V)
voltage
Joule

⇐
energy
,
,yF
F- = I. V. t 1- =
time ( s)

21
 107.2 Force current conductor
carrying
.
on a -

PF Electromagnetic Effects Effect

The Motor
I
.

electric current
107.1 .

Magnetic effect of an

wire

direction ?
reversing

-
current in a wire 137.6 .
Transformers

/
→
magnetic field created around ↳ can 1^14 V of a. c. 2 coils of wire

w/ RIGHT hand rule wrapped around

IOV soft iron core
a

5
1° coil
coil
sden
•
a. c. to
,

coil induces -1
long
→
mag
.
.

mag .f moves
through core

→ 2° coil
→ induces e. mf .

step TV of power
I
:
up source

down of in coil ?
step :
-
# turns

input ✓ 1° turns
f
up
→
-

mag . field of solenoid = µp-

identical field of a
-
is to
mag magnet
Vg Ns
.

← 2° turns

Magnetic field
strength + direction output ✓ I

current -
A direction → field ? If transformer is 100% efficient :
input power output power
\
=

size 1^1
↳ further apart Ip Vp =
Is Vs
closer together 22
 P 7.4 induction
.
.

Electromagnetic

g.
e. : batteries e.
g.
: mains 4 -

conductor moves
through mag .
f.
→ cuts
through field lines
→ induces EMF in conductor
P 7.3 d. c. motor reversal •
move wire / magnet faster

T¥¥¥§
.

stronger magnet
•

•
T turns in coil

P 7.5
.
.
a. c.
generator

•
coil in uniform magnetic field
•

run current through

coil
experiences turning effect generator by mechanical Voltage output
→
spun process
•
=

•
T effect by : →
produces 4
mag field
T current
-
•
coil rotates → cuts
through .

T of mag field
strength →
produces →
produces current
-

-
+ turns in coil

slip rings @ end of coil

•

*
split ring -

commutator -

transfer current to metal brushes

↳ reverses direction of current in still allows coil to rotate
freely
-

coil half turn

every
-

↳ reverses direction of forces cut

through more =

coil higher ✓
→
keeps spinning →

23
 108 Atomic .

Physics
P8 -1 .
The nuclear atom

increase decrease

nucleon #
[
ionising effect

ionising radiation
proton #
which most
likely
•

to penetrate
•

isotope = ? human body ?

•
nuclide :
a nucleus w/ specific ptn combo

P 8.2 deflection
.

Radioactivity in

P 8.2.1 Characteristics electric field

magnetic field
2
.
in

Radiation

emitted from
=
high energy
nucleus of
particles ( or
unstable atom
waves )
↳ 2-1

↳ RANDOMLY ! ( can't predict )

✗
, B- opposite charge which

Applications of Radioactivity →
opposite directions one

of metals ( radioactive isotopes ) ?

•

Measuring thickness •

tracers
y no
charge →
? more

→ monitor a fluid
•
medicine : check blood flow / blockage
leaks ?
•

industry : oil pipeline .

minimally ( ) y
Radiotherapy
*
-
use •
cancer

-
short half -
lives

8
:
highly penetrating
•

Sterilization g
I
-

low ↳ medical instruments

ionising
24
P 8.2.2 Detection of P 8.2.3 Radioactive decay
P 8.2.4 Half life ( isotope)
radioactivity
-

. .

•
unstable isotopes decay ( emit radiation) time for activity
to reduce size to balanced state ( or # of original nuclei )

→
isotope becomes different element to halve initial value

✗ :

A A -4

z
✗ →
2- 2
Y -1
( ✗

212 4
84
Po →
2¥ y +
2
✗

B- : n →
p + ⑤ → emitted

mostly natural
•

some artificial : medical procedures

(X-ray)-

Detecting radiation
↳
by detecting for ionized ions :X → Ay
2+1
+

or chemical changes they produce

IN TB
"
c → +
6

photographic film
•

Geiger -
Muller tubes P 8.2.5 .

Safety precautions
Ionisation chambers Ionisation affects living cells
• :

-
\
.
Cloud chamber •

cause mutations

•
cell becomes cancerous

•
kills cell

Minimize handling risks :

y •
store source in Pb -

lined boxes
•
minimize time

keep yourself + others as far

•

away as possible
use
tongs safety goggles gloves
•

, ,

25