FC/BASI

CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

FOUNDATI
ONCOURSE

BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY

–1–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

1. FUNDAMENTALSOFCHEMI
STRY
1.
1.SCI
ENCE:
Sci
encei
sdef
inedast
hecl
assi
fi
edknowl
edgeoff
act
swhi
chgai
nedt
hrough
obser
vat
ion,
gener
ali
zat
ionandcor
rel
ati
on.
1.
2.CHEMI
STRY:
Chemi
str
yist
hebr
anchofsci
encewhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hest
udyofcomposi
ti
on
ofmat
terandt
hechemi
cal
changesi
nvol
vedi
nit
.
1.
3.BRANCHESOFCHEMI
STRY:
i
.Inor
gani
cChemi
str
y:I
tdeal
swi
tht
hest
udyofal
ltheel
ement
sandt
he
compoundsder
ivedf
rom r
ocksandmi
ner
als.
i
i
.Or
gani
c Chemi
str
y:I
tdeal
s wi
tht
he st
udyofcov
alent
lybonded car
bon
compoundsder
ivedf
rom ani
mal
andpl
antdi
rect
lyandi
ndi
rect
ly.
i
i
i.Phy
sicalchemi
str
y:I
tdeal
s wi
tht
he f
undament
alpr
inci
ples,Laws and
di
ff
erentphenomenonr
elat
edt
ovar
iouschemi
cal
processes.
i
v.Anal
yti
calChemi
str
y:I
tdeal
swi
tht
hest
udyofdet
ect
ionandest
imat
ionof
el
ement
sandcompounds.
v
.Bi
o-Chemi
str
y:I
tdeal
swi
tht
hest
udyofdi
ff
erentbi
o-mol
ecul
esandbi
o-
chemi
cal
react
ionswhi
choccuri
nli
vi
ngor
gani
sm
v
i.I
ndust
ri
alChemi
str
y:I
tdeal
swi
tht
hest
udyofv
ari
ouschemi
calt
echnol
ogi
es
andpr
ocessesr
elat
edt
oindust
ri
alpr
ocesses.
1.
4.MATTER:
Mat
teri
sdef
inedasany
thi
ngar
oundust
hathasmass,occupi
esspaceand
canbef
eltbyanyoneofoursenses.Mat
tercanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntwoway
s:
(
a)Phy
sical
classi
fi
cat
ionofmat
ter
.
(
b)Chemi
cal
classi
fi
cat
ionofmat
ter
.
1.
5.El
ement
.:
Anel
ementi
sdef
inedast
hesi
mpl
estf
orm ofapur
esubst
ancewhi
chcan’
tbe
decomposedi
ntost
il
lsi
mpl
ersubst
ances.I
tcont
ainsonl
yoneki
ndofat
oms.E.
g.
Hy
drogen,
oxy
gen,
sul
phur
,lead,
ironet
c.
1.
5.1.Ty
pesofel
ement
s:
(
a)Met
als:El
ement
shav
ingbr
ightsur
faceandgoodconduct
orofheatand
el
ect
ri
cit
yar
eknownasmet
als.
 Gener
all
ymet
alsar
esol
i
ds.
(Except
ion:
Mer
cur
yisal
i
qui
dmet
al)

–2–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

 Thesear
egener
all
ymal
l
eabl
e(canbebeat
eni
ntosheet
s)and
duct
il
e(canbedr
awni
ntowi
res)
.
 Ex:
Copper
,Si
l
ver
,Gol
d,Al
umi
nium,
Ironet
c.

(
b)Non–met
als:El
ement
shav
ingdul
lsur
faceandbadconduct
orofheatand
el
ect
ri
cit
yar
eknownasnon-
met
als.Ex:ni
tr
ogen,oxy
gen,hy
drogen,car
bon
et
c.
(
c)Met
all
oids:El
ement
sshowi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cscommont
obot
hmet
alsand
non-
met
alsar
eknownasmet
all
oid.Ex:Bor
on,Si
l
icon,Ger
mani
um,Ar
seni
c,
Ant
imony
,Tel
l
uri
um,
Pol
oni
um
1.
6.Compound:
Acompoundi
sdef
inedasasubst
ancewhi
chi
sfor
medbyt
heuni
onof
t
woormor
eel
ement
sinadef
ini
tepr
opor
ti
onbymass.
1.
6.1.Ty
pesofcompounds:
(
a)I
nor
gani
ccompounds:
Thesear
ethecompoundswhi
char
eobt
ainedf
rom non-
li
vi
ngsour
ces,
suchasr
ock,mi
ner
alset
c.E.
g.r
ocksal
t,washi
ngsoda,mar
ble,l
i
mest
one

–3–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

et
c.
(
b)Or
gani
ccompounds:Thesear
ethecompoundswhi
char
eobt
ainedf
rom
l
i
ving sour
cessuchaspl
ant
sand ani
mal
s.E.
g.car
bohy
drat
es,f
ats,oi
l
s,
waxes,
prot
eins,
li
pidset
c.
1.
7.Mi
xtur
e:Ami
xtur
eisdef
inedas:“
Asubst
ancecomposedoft
woormor
e
el
ement
sorcompoundsi
nanypr
opor
ti
onbymasssot
hatt
hecomponent
sdo
notl
oset
hei
rident
it
y”.Eg.Ai
r,Br
ass,
Sal
t+Wat
eret
c.
1.
7.1.Ty
pesofmi
xtur
es:
(
a)HomogeneousMi
xtur
es:
These ar
ethe subst
ances whi
ch hav
ethe same composi
ti
on
t
hroughoutt
hesi
ngl
ephaseoft
hesy
stem.
 The component
s ofmi
xtur
e cannotbe seen ev
en undera
power
ful
micr
oscope.
 Homogenousmi
xtur
esar
eal
socal
l
edsol
uti
ons.
Ex:
air
,br
ass,
bronzeet
c.
(
b)Het
erogeneousmi
xtur
es:Suchsubst
ancesconsi
stoft
woormor
ephases,
whi
ch hav
e di
ff
erent composi
ti
ons.These hav
evi
sibl
e boundar
ies of
separ
ati
onbet
weent
hedi
ff
erentconst
it
uent
sandcanbeeasi
l
yseenev
en
wi
thnakedey
e.
Ex:
mixt
ureofoi
landwat
er,
sul
phurandsandet
c.
1.
7. COMPOSI
TIONOFMATTER:
1.
8.1At
oms:
Anat
om i
sdef
inedast
hesmal
l
estpar
ti
cleofanel
ement
,whi
chcan
t
ake par
tin a chemi
calr
eact
ion.I
tmayormaynothav
eindependent
exi
stence.
 At
omsofmet
alsl
i
kecopper
,si
l
ver
,gol
d,i
ron,
alumi
num et
c.andat
oms
ofi
ner
tgasesl
i
kehel
i
um,
neon,
argonet
c.hav
eindependentexi
stence.
 At
omsofnon-
met
alsl
i
kehy
drogen,ni
tr
ogen,oxy
genet
c.donothav
e
i
ndependentexi
stence.Theseat
omsal
way
sremai
nincombi
nedf
orm
i
.e.
,mol
ecul
arf
orm.
1.
8.2.Mol
ecul
es:
Amol
ecul
ari
sdef
inedast
hesmal
l
estpar
ti
cleofmat
terwhi
chhasan
i
ndependentexi
stence.

–4–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

 Mol
ecul
escont
aini
ngsameki
ndofat
omsar
eknownashomo
at
omi
cmol
ecul
es.Eg.H2,
O2,
N2,
O3,
P4,
S8et
c.
 Mol
ecul
escont
aini
ng di
ff
erentki
nd ofat
omsar
e known as
het
eroat
omi
cmol
ecul
es.EgNaCl
,HCl
,HNO3,
K2SO4,
H2SO4et
c.
 Monoat
omi
cmol
ecul
es:Thesemol
ecul
escont
ainoneat
om.
I
ner
tgasesl
i
kehel
i
um,
neon,
argonet
c
 Di
atomi
c mol
ecul
es:These mol
ecul
es cont
aint
wo at
oms.
Hy
drogen(
H2)
,Ni
tr
ogen(
N2)
,Oxy
gen(
O2)NaCl
,HCl
,KBr
,KI
,CO
 Tr
iat
omi
cmol
ecul
es:Thesemol
ecul
escont
aint
hreeat
oms.
Ozone (
O3)car
bon di
oxi
de (
CO2)
,hy
drogen sul
phi
de (
H2S)
;
sul
phurdi
oxi
de(
SO2)
 Tet
rat
omi
cmol
ecul
es:Thesemol
ecul
escont
ainf
ourat
oms.
(
P4)
.
 Mol
ecul
escont
aini
ng mor
eat
omsar
eknown aspol
yat
omi
c
mol
ecul
es.
Sul
phur(
S8)Pot
assi
um sul
phat
e(K2SO4)
,ni
tr
icand(
HNO3)
1.
9.SYMBOLS:
Asy
mboli
sdef
inedasanabbr
evi
ati
onorshor
thandr
epr
esent
ati
onusedf
ort
hef
ull
nameofanel
ement
.
.At
omi Element Sy
mbol Atomic El
ement Sy
mbol
c numbe
numbe r
r
1 Hydrogen H 16 Sulphur S
2 Heli
um He 17 Chlorine Cl
3 Li
thium Li 18 Argon Ar
4 Beryl
lium Be 19 Potassium K
(Kali
um)
5 Boron B 20 Calcium Ca
6 Carbon C 21 Scandi um Sc
7 Nitr
ogen N 22 Tit
anium Ti
8 Oxy gen O 23 Vanadi um V
9 Fluorine F 24 Chromi um Cr
10 Neon Ne 25 Manganese Mn
11 Sodi um Na 26 Ir
on Fe
(
Natrium) (Fer
rum)
12 Magnesi um Mg 27 Cobal t Co
13 Aluminium Al 28 Nickel Ni

–5–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
14 Si
l
icon Si 29 Copper Cu
(
Cuprum)
15 Phosphor
ou P 30 Zi
nc Zn
s

Sy
mbol
sofsomeot
heri
mpor
tantel
ement
s
Element Lat i
nName Symbol
Antimony Stibium Sb
Gold Aur um Au
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mer cur y Hy dragy rum Hg
Sil
ver Argent um Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Tungst en Wol fam W
Element Nameoft heScienti
st Symbol
Curium Madam Cur ie Cm
Einstei nium Alber tEi nstei
n Es
Fermi um Enr i
coFer mi Fm
Nobel i
um AlfredNobel No
Mendel evi
um Mendel eev Md
Element Count ryofLabor at
ory Symbol
Berkel ium CityofBer kl
ey Bk
Califor nium Uni versi t
yofCal i
forni
a Cf
Poloni um Pol and Po
Amer icium Amer ica Am
Rutheni um Russi a Ru
Germani um Ger man Ge
Element Nameoft hePlanet Symbol
Urani um Uranus U
Nept uni um Nept une Np
Plutoni um Plut o Pu
1.
10.VALENCY:
Thev
alencymaybedef
inedast
henumberofel
ect
ronst
hatanat
om ofan
el
ementl
ost
,gai
nedorshar
edwi
thanot
herat
om ofanel
ementi
nor
dert
oacqui
ret
he
st
abl
econf
igur
ati
onofnear
esti
ner
tgasel
ement
.Ther
ear
ecer
tai
nel
ement
swhi
ch
showmor
ethanonev
alency
.Suchv
alancesar
eknownasVar
iabl
eval
ency
.Anat
om
ofsuchel
ement
scombi
neswi
thdi
ff
erentnumberofat
omsofot
herel
ement
stof
orm
t
wodi
ff
erentcompounds.
E.
g:I
ronandchl
ori
necombi
net
ofor
m FeCl
2andFeCl
3.Thev
alencesofi
roni
n
t
hesecompoundsar
e2and3r
espect
ivel
y.

–6–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
1.
11.Radi
calorI
on:
Ar
adi
calmaybedef
inedasanat
om orgr
oupofat
omshav
ingposi
ti
veor
negat
ivechar
geandbehav
esasasi
ngl
euni
tinchemi
cal
changes.Radi
cal
sar
eoft
wo
t
ypes.

El
ect
ro-
posi
ti
ver
adi
calorBasi
cradi
cal(
orcat
ion)
:Ther
adi
calhav
inga
posi
ti
vechar
geoni
tisknownasanel
ect
ro-
posi
ti
ver
adi
cal
.Iti
sal
so
cal
l
edacat
ionorabasi
cradi
cal e:K+,
.Exampl Ag+,
Pb2+

El
ect
ro-
negat
iver
adi
caloraci
dradi
cal(
orAni
on):Ther
adi
calhav
inga
negat
ivechar
geoni
t,i
sknownasel
ect
ro-
negat
iver
adi
cal
.Iti
sal
so
–
cal
l
edanani
onoraci
dradi
cal
.Exampl
e:Cl, .

Radi
calwhi
chcont
ainsoneormor
eat
omsoft
hesameel
ementar
e
cal
l
edasSi
mpl
eradi
cal e:Ag+,S2-,
sExampl O2-
 Radi
calconsi
stsoft
woormor
eat
omsofdi
ff
erentel
ement
sfor
minga
si
ngl
euni
tar
ecal
l
edasCompoundr calSO42-,
adi NH4+,
CO32-
 Themagni
tudeoft
hechar
geonar
adi
cal
iscal
l
edi
tsv
alency
.
Li
stofel
ect
roposi
ti
ver
adi
cal
s
Radi
cal Sy
mbol Radi
cal Sy
mbol Radi
cal Sy
mbo Radi
cal Symbo
l l
Hydroge H+ Pot
assi
um K+ Ammoni
um Fer
ri
c Fe3+
n
Si
lver Ag+ Cuprous Cu+ Li
thi
um +
Li Boron B3+
Sodium Na+ Mercurous Hg+or Ni
ckel 2+
Ni Cupri
c Cu2+

Bar
ium Ba2+ Mercur
ic Hg2+ Pl
umbous Pb2+ Bi
smut
h 3+
Bi
Ber
yll
i
um Be2+ Fer
rous Fe2+ St
annous Sn2+ Chr
omi
u 3+
Cr
m
Cadmiu Cd2+ Magnesi
u Mg2+ St
ront
ium 2+
Sr
m m
Cal
cium Ca2+ Manganes Mn2+ Al
umi
nium 3+
Al
e
2+
Cobal
t Co Zi
nc Zn2+ Aur
ic Au3+
Li
stofel
ect
ronegativer
adical
s:
Radi
cal Symbo Radical Symbo Radical Symbol Radi cal Sy
mbol
l l
Acet
ate CH3COO– Fl
uoride F- Chromat e CrO42 Bor ate BO33-
Bi
carbonat Hydride H- Di
chr omate Cr2O7
2-
Fer
ricyani
d [
Fe(CN) 3-
6]
e e
Bi
sul
phat Nit
ri
te NO2- Oxal ate C2O42- Ni t
ride N3-
e

–7–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
Bi
sul
phi
te Bi
sul
phi
de HS- Oxi
de O2- e PO43-
Phosphat
- -
Bromide Br I
odide I Sul
phat
e SO42- Phosphi
te PO33-
-
Chlor
ide Cl Nit
rate NO3- Sulphi
te SO32- Phosphi
de P3-
Cyani
de CN- Permangana MnO4- Sul
phi
de S2- Carbi
de C4-
te
Hydr
oxid OH- Carbonat
e CO32 Thi
o S2O32- Fer
rocy
ani
d [
Fe(
CN)4-
6]
e sul
phat
e e
1.
12.FORMULA:
Ther
epr
esent
ati
onofamol
ecul
eofasubst
ance(
elementorcompound)i
nter
ms
ofsy
mbol
sandsubscr
iptnumber
sisknownasf
ormul
a.E.
gHy
drogenH2,Hy
drogen
chl
ori
de
HCl
,Ni
tr
icAci
dHNO3,
Sul
phur
icAci
dH2SO4
Pr
ocedur
eforwr
it
ingt
hef
ormul
aofacompound.
LeadSul
phat
e
St
epI: Wr
it
ethesy
mbol
soft
heconst
it
uentr
adi
cal
ssi
debysi
de.Keept
hebasi
c
r
adi
cal
ont
heL.
H.S.andt
heaci
dradi
cal
ont
heR.
H.S.(
PbSO4)
St
epI
I: Encl
oseacompoundr
adi
cal
,i
fany
,inabr
acket
,e.
g.,
keepSO4as(
SO4)
St
epI
II: Wr
it
ethev
alencyofeachr
adi
cal
oni
tsr
ighthandt Pb2(
op.[ SO42)
.
St
epI
V: I
fthev
alenci
esoft
het
wor
adi
cal
sar
edi
vi
sibl
ebyacommonf
act
or,t
hen
r
educe t
he v
alencynumer
al e,Pb2(
s.Forexampl SO42)maybe wr
it
ten as
Pb1SO41)
(
St
epV: Fi
nal
l
ycr
isscr
osst
hev
alenci
es.Wr
it
ethev
alencynumer
alscr
osswi
set
othe
l
owerr
ighthandcor
neroft
her
adi
cal
s.Thus,
PbSO4i
sthedesi
redf
ormul
a.

Numer
icalv
alues
Compound Sy
mbol oft
hechar
geson Si
mpl
estr
ati
o For
mul
a
t
hei
rri
ghthandt
op
Bar
ium chr
omat
e Ba (
CrO4) Ba2 (
Cr 2
O4) Ba1 (
Cr 1
O4) BaCr
O4
3 2 3 2
Fer
ri
coxi
de Fe O Fe O Fe O Fe2O3
Sodi
um phosphat
e Na (
PO4) Na1 ( 3
PO4) Na1 ( 3
PO4) Na3PO4
3 1 3 1
Al
umi
nium chl
ori
de Al Cl Al Cl Al Cl Al
Cl3

St
anni
csul
phi
de Sn S Sn4 S2 Sn2 S1 SnS2
3
Al
umi
nium ni
tr
ide Al N Al N3 1
Al N1 Al
N

1.
13.CHEMI
CALEQUATI
ON

–8–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
AChemi
calequat
ionmaybedef
inedas:Abr
iefr
epr
esent
ati
onofachemi
calchange
i
nter
msofsy
mbol
sandf
ormul
aeofspeci
esi
nvol
vedi
nit
.
Forexampl
e,t
her
eact
ionofbar
ium chl
ori
dewi
thsul
phur
icaci
dtogi
vehy
drogen
chl
ori
deandbar
ium sul
phat
epr
eci
pit
atemayber
epr
esent
edas.BaCl
2+H2SO4Rectants
2HCl
+BaSO4(Products) Thesubst
anceson l
efthand si
dewhi
ch r
eactamong
t
hemsel
vest
obr
ingaboutt
hechemi
calchangesar
eknownasr
eact
ant
s,wher
east
he
subst
ancesonr
ighthandsi
dewhi
char
epr
oducedasar
esul
toft
hechemi
calchangear
e
knownaspr
oduct
s.Thear
rowmar
k(→)r
epr
esent
sthedi
rect
ionoff
ormat
ionofpr
oduct
s.
1.
13.
1.BALANCI
NGOFCHEMI
CALEQUATI
ON
Achemi
calequat
ionhav
ingequalnumberofat
omsofeachel
ementi
nther
eact
ant
s
andpr
oduct
siscal
l
edabal
ancedchemi
calequat
ion.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentmet
hodsf
or
bal
anci
ngachemi
calequat
ion.Gener
all
yhi
tandt
ri
almet
hodi
susedt
obal
ancesi
mpl
e
chemi
cal
equat
ions.Thi
smet
hodi
nvol
vest
hef
oll
owi
ngsst
eps:
i
.Sel
ectt
hef
ormul
acont
aini
ngmaxi
mum numberofat
omsandst
artbal
anci
ng.
i
i
.Incase,t
heabov
emet
hodf
ail
s,t
henst
artbal
anci
ngt
heat
omswhi
chappear
mi
nimum numberoft
imes.
i
i
i.I
fanyel
ement
arygasappear
s,changei
ttoi
tsat
omi
cst
ate.
i
v.At
omsofel
ement
arygasesar
ebal
ancedl
astofal
l
.
v
.Whenal
ltheat
omsar
ebal
anced,
changet
heequat
ioni
ntot
hemol
ecul
arf
orm.
Fe( l
s)+H2O()→ Fe3O4(
s)+H2(
g)
Fe( l
s)+H2O()→ Fe3O4(
s)+2H(
g)
3Fe( l
s)+4H2O()→ Fe3O4(
s)+8H(
g)
3Fe( l
s)+4H2O()→ Fe3O4(
s)+4H2(
g)

2.At
omi
c,Mol
ecul
arandEqui
val
entmasses
2.
1.ATOMI
CMASS
At
omi
cmassofanel
ementcanbedef
inedast
henumberwhi
chi
ndi
cat
eshowmany
t
imest
hemassofanat
om oft
heel
ementi
sheav
ieri
ncompar
isont 12th par
o1/ toft
he
massofoneat
om ofcar C12)
bon12( .

A=At
omi
cmassofanel
ement
.=

–9–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
2.
1.1ATOMI
CMASSUNI
T
Thequant
it
y1/
12massofanat
om ofcar
bon-
12i
sknownasat
omi
cmassuni
tandi
s
abbr
evi
atedasamu.
Theact
ual
massofoneat
om ofcar
bon-
12i 9924 10–23gor1.
s1. 9924 10–26kg.

Thus,
1amu= 66 10–24g=1.
=1. 66 10–27kg.

Nameoft
heEl
ement At
omi
cMass
Hy
drogen 1.
008amu
Oxy
gen 16.
00amu
Chl
ori
ne 35.
453amu
Copper 63.
546amu
Sodi
um 22.
989amu
Zi
nc 65.
38 amu
Si
l
ver 107.
868amu
Magnesi
um 24.
306amu

Theact
ualmassofanat
om ofanel
ement=t
heat
omi
cmassofanel
ementi
namu 1.
66
10-24g.
2.
1.2.Gr
am –At
omi
cMassorGr
am At
om
Theat
omi
cmassofanel
ementexpr
essedi
ngr
amsi
scal
l
edgr
am at
omi
cmass.Thi
s
quant
it
yisal
socal
l
edonegr
am at
om.
E.
g At
omi
cmassofni
tr
ogen=14amu
 Gr
am at
omi
cmassofni
tr
ogen=14gm=1gm at
om ofni
tr
ogen
At
omi
cmassofox
ygen=16amu
 Gr
am at
omi
cmassofoxy
gen=16gm=1gm at
om ofoxy
gen
 Gr
am at
omi
cmassorgr
am at
om ofev
eryel
ementconsi
stsofsamenumber
ofat
oms.Thi
snumberi
scal
l
edAv
ogadr
o’snumber
.Thev
alueofAv
ogadr
o’s

 THEACTUALMASSOFTHEATOM Massof1at
om i
ngm =

El
ement At
omi
cMass(
ina.
m.u.
) Act
ualMassofanat
om (
ingm)
Hy
drogen(
H) 1.
008

Ni
tr
ogen(
N) 14

–10–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
Oxy
gen(
O) 16

2.
2MOLECULARMASS
I
tist
her
elat
ivewei
ghtofamol
ecul
eofanel
ementoracompoundascompar
ed
t
o1/
12oft
hemassofoneat
om ofC-
12.I
tisal
soexpr
essedi
namu.

Mol
.Mass=

Mol
ecul
armassofsubst
ancei
sanaddi
ti
vepr
oper
tyandcanbecal
cul
atedbyaddi
ng
t
heat
omi
cmassal
ltheel
ement
spr
esenti
nonemol
ecul
e.
2.
2.1.GRAM MOLECULARMASSORGRAM MOLE
Theamountofsubst
ancei
ngr
am whi
chi
snear
lyequalt
oit
smol
ecul
armass
i
sknownasi
tsGr
am Mol
ecul
arMass.Thi
squant
it
yisal
socal
l
edonegr
am mol
ecul
e.
 Gr
am Mol
ecul
arMassofasubst
ancei
sdef
inedast
hemassofAv
ogadr
o’s
numberofi
tsmol
ecul
esi
ngr
am.
 TheGr
am Mol
ecul
arMassofal
lsubst
ancescont
ainst
hesamenumberof
mol
ecul
esi
.e.
, 023×1023.
6.
Compound For
mul
a Mol
ecul
arMass GMM No.ofmol
ecul
es
Hy
drogen H2 2a.
m.u. 2g 023×1023
6.
Wat
er H2O 18a.
m.u. 18g 023×1023
6.
Hy
drochl
ori
cAci
d HCl 36.
5a.
m.u. 36.
5g 023×1023
6.
Sodi
um Car
bonat
e Na2CO3 106a.
m.u. 106g 023×1023
6.
Hy
drogenPer
oxi
de H2O2 34a.
m.u. 34g 023×1023
6.
Sodi
um hy
droxi
de NaOH 40a.
m.u. 40g 023×1023
6.
 Mol
ecul
emass=2×Vapordensi
ty

Vapordensi
tyofgas=

2.
3.EQUI
VALENTMASS
I
tisdef
inedast
henumberofpar
tsbywei
ght
sofasubst
ancet
hatcombi
nes
wi
thordi
spl
acesdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
ly1.
008par
tsbywei
ghtofhy
drogenor8.
0par
ts
bywei
ghtofoxy
genor35.
5par
tsbywei
ghtofchl
ori
ne.
 Acompoundmayhav
edi
ff
erentequi
val
entmassi
ndi
ff
erentr
eact
ions.

–11–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
Consi
derar
eact
ionbet
weenmagnesi
um andsul
phur
icaci
d.

Her
e 98 gm ofsul
phur
icaci
disr
equi
red t
o pr
oduce 2.
016 gm of
hy
drogen.Si
nce1.
008gm ofhy
drogenwi
l
lbel
i
ber
atedf
rom 49gm ofsul
phur
ic
aci
d,t
her
efor
eequi
val
entmassofsul
phur
icaci
dis49.
2.
3.1.GRAM EQUI
VALENTMASS
Themassoft
hesubst
ancei
ngm whi
chi
snear
lyequalt
oit
sequi
val
entmass
i
sknownasi
tsGr
am Equi
val
entMass.
 I
tisal
sodef
inedast
hegr
am at
omi
cmassofel
ementdi
vi
dedbyt
he
numberofel
ect
ronsr
equi
redperat
om pr
oducedi
nel
ect
roder
eact
ion.
2.
3.2.VARI
ABLEEQUI
VALENTMASS
Theequi
val
entmassofanel
ementi
snotf
ixed.I
tdependsuponi
tsv
alency

whi
chi
scal
cul
atedf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ion.Equi
val
entmass=

 Equi
val
entmassofanaci
d=

Basi
cit
yofaci
dist
henumberofr
epl
aceabl
eH-
atomsi
nonemol
ecul
eoft
heaci
d.

 Equi
val
entmassofabase=

Aci
dit
yist
henumberofr
epl
aceabl
eOHgr
oupsi
nonemol
ecul
eoft
hebase

 Equi
val
entmassofsal
t=

 Equi
val
entmassofani
on=

3.Mol
econcept
,empi
ri
calf
ormul
aandper
cent
age
composi
ti
on
3.
1.Mol
e
Amol
eisabi
ggeruni
tusedf
orr
epr
esent
ingt
henumberofat
omi
candsub-
atomi
c
par
ti
cles.
 Amol
eisdef
inedast
hatamountofsubst
ancewhi
chcont
ainsAv
ogadr
o’s
number
sofpar
ti
cles.E.
g
 1mol
eofcar
bonat 022×1023at
oms=6. omsofcar
bon
 1mol
eofoxy
genmol
ecul 022×1023mol
e=6. ecul
esofoxy
gen

–12–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
 1mol
eofHy
drogeni 022×1023H+i
ons=6. ons
 1mol
eofEl
ect
r 022×1023El
on=6. ect
rons.
 Amol
eisdef
inedast
hatamountofsubst
ancewhi
chhasmassequalt
ogr
am
at
omi
cmass(
forat
oms)orgr
am mol
ecul
armass(
formol
ecul
es)orgr
am
i
oni
cmass(
fori
ons)
.E.
g
 1mol
eofsodi
um at
oms=23gofsodi
um (
sinceat
omi
cmassofNa=
23u)
 1mol
eofoxy
genat
om =16gofoxy
genat
om (
sinceat
omi
cmassofO
=16u)
 1mol
eofoxy
genmol
ecul
e=32gofO2(
sincemol
ecul
armassofO2=
32u)
 1mol
eofCO2mol
ecul
e=44gofCO2(
sincemol
ecul
armassofCO2 =
44u)
 Amol
eisdef
inedast
hatamountofgaswhi
choccupi
esav
olumeof22.
4
l
i
tresatNTP.E.
g
 1mol
eofoxy
gengas=22.
4li
tr
eatNTP
 1mol
eofni
tr
ogengas=22.
4li
tr
eatNTP
 1mol
eofCH4(
met
hane)gas=22.
4li
tr
eatNTP
 Onemol
eofat 023×1023 at
oms=6. oms=gr
am at
omi
cmassoft
he
el
ement
.

 No.ofmol
esofanel
ement=

 Massofoneat
om =

 Onemol
eofmol
ecul 023×1023mol
es=6. ecul
es=mol
armassi
ngr
am

 No.ofmol
esofacompound=

 Massofonemol
ecul
e=

 Vol
umeoccupi
edby1mol
eofagasatN.
T.P.=22.
4L

 No.ofmol
esofgases=

 No.ofmol
es=

–13–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021

3.
2.PERCENTAGECOMPOSI
TION
Thenumberofpar
tsbymassoft
heel
ementpr
esenti
n100par
tsbymassof
t
hecompoundi
scal
l
edmassper
cent
ageoft
hatel
ement
.
Mat
hemat
ical
l
yiti
sexpr
essedas:

Massper
cent
ageofanel
ement

E.
g.
Themol
ecul
arf
ormul
aofet
hane=C2H6
Mol
armassofet
hane=2 12+6 1=24+6=30
Massper
cent
ageof‘
C’=24/
30 100=80%
Massper
cent
ageof‘
H’=6/
30 100=20%
3.
3.Mol
ecul
arf
ormul
a
I
tmaybedef
inedast
hef
ormul
awhi
chr
epr
esent
stheact
ualnumberofat
omsof
v
ari
ousel
ement
spr
esenti
nonemol
ecul
eoft
hecompound.
E.
g.t
hemol
ecul
arf
ormul
aofet
hanei
sC2H6,whi
chr
epr
esent
sthatoneet
hanemol
ecul
e
consi
stsoft
woat
omsofcar
bonandsi
xat
omshy
drogen.

3.
4.Empi
ri
calf
ormul
a
I
tmaybedef
inedast
hef
ormul
awhi
chr
epr
esent
sthesi
mpl
ewhol
enumberr
ati
o
oft
heat
omsofv
ari
ousel
ement
spr
esenti
nonemol
ecul
eoft
hecompound.E.
g.t
he
empi
ri
cal
for
mul
aofet
haneCH3
3.
4.1.Rel
ati
onbet
weenEmpi
ri
calandMol
ecul
arFor
mul
a
Themol
ecul
arf
ormul
aofacompoundi
sasi
mpl
ewhol
enumber

–14–
 FC/BASI
CCONCEPTSI
NCHEMI
STRY/
2021
mul
ti
pleofi
tsempi
ri
cal
for
mul
a.
Mol
ecul
arf
ormul
a=n Empi
ri
cal
for
mul
a
Wher
eni
sawhol
enumberl
i
ke,
1,2,
3,4…….
.et
c.

=n

Forexampl
e,I
ncaseofet
hane(
C2H6)
,n=

3.
4.2.CALCULATI
ONOFEMPI
RICALFORMULA
Di
ff
erentst
epsi
nvol
vedi
nthecal
cul
ati
onoft
heempi
ri
calf
ormul
aar
edi
scussedas
f
oll
ows:
St
epI
:Cal
cul
ati
onofat
omi
crat
io:

At
omi
crat
io=

St
epI
I:Cal
cul
ati
onofsi
mpl
estat
omi
crat
io:
Di
vi
det
heat
omi
crat
ioofdi
ff
erentel
ement
sbyt
hesmal
l
estv
alueamongt
hem
t
ogett
hesi
mpl
estat
omi
crat
io.
St
epI
II
:Cal
cul
ati
onofsi
mpl
estwhol
enumberr
ati
o:
I
fnecessar
y,r
aiset
heabov
esi
mpl
estat
omi
crat
iot
othenear
estwhol
enumberby
mul
ti
ply
ingwi
thsui
tabl
eint
egert
ogett
hesi
mpl
estwhol
enumberr
ati
o.
St
epI
V:Wr
it
ingempi
ri
calf
ormul
a:
Wr
it
ethesy
mbol
sofv
ari
ousel
ement
ssi
debysi
de.Theni
nser
tthenumer
ical
v
alueoft
hesi
mpl
estwhol
enumberr
ati
oatt
hel
owerr
ighthandcor
nerofeach
sy
mbol
togett
heempi
ri
cal
for
mul
aoft
hecompound.

–15–