9

Consumer
Chemistry 9
Quarter 4 – Week 5-6
Cancer and Carcinogens

Name of Learner: _______________________________________

Grade Level: _______________________________________
Section: _______________________________________
Date: _______________________________________
 CONSUMER CHEMISTRY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

I. Learning Competency with Code

The learners should be able to explain comprehensively the factors that lead to
changes in the human body leading to cancer.

II. Background Information for Learners

Cancer - disease process that begins when an abnormal cell is transformed by the genetic
mutation of the cellular DNA.
 This abnormal cell forms a clone and begins to proliferate abnormally, ignoring
growth-regulating signals in the environment surrounding the cell.
 These cells acquire invasive characteristics, and changes occur in surrounding
tissues
 Describes as malignant neoplasms - demonstrate uncontrolled cell growth that follow
no physiologic demand
Metastasis - phenomenon where cancer cells infiltrate surrounding tissues and gain
access to lymph and blood vessels, which carry the cells to other areas of the body.

Characteristics of Malignant cells:

1. Cell membrane contain proteins called tumor-specific antigens
 These proteins distinguish the malignant cell from a benign cell of the same
tissue type
 Examples: Prostate-specific antigen - for prostate cancer in men
2. Nuclei and nucleoli of cancer cells are large and irregularly shaped
3. Chromosomal abnormalities (translocation, deletions, additions) are commonly found
4. Mitosis (cell division) occurs more frequently than normal cells - the increase in
number of malignant cells is faster than normal cells

Example of Tumors and tissue types

Tissue type Benign Tumor Malignant Tumors
(non-cancerous growth) (cancerous growth)
Epithelial surface (skin) Papilloma Squamous cell carcinoma
Connective tissues Osteoma Osteosarcoma
-Bones
Muscle Rhabdomyoma Rhabdomyosarcoma
-Striated (can be
controlled)
Neural tissue Neuroma Neuroblastoma
-Nerve cell
Hematologic   Lymphocytic leukemia or
-Lymphocytic lymphoma

Metastatic Mechanisms
 Spreading of cancer cells
1. Lymphatic spread - most common
  Tumor emboli enter the lymph channels by way of the interstitial fluid that
communicates with lymphatic fluid
 Example: Breast tumors frequently metastasize in this matter (cancer cells in
the breast can spread to muscles of the armpits, where lymph nodes are
present)
2. Hematogenous spread - malignant cells are disseminated through the bloodstream
 Directly related to the vascularity of the tumor (the amount of blood vessels
presents and the blood that flows to that area)
 Example: Breast tumor can travel to the lungs which is very vascular
3. Angiogenesis - the ability of the malignant cells to induce the growth of new
capillaries from the host tissue (origin) to meet their needs for nutrients and oxygen.
 
Carcinogenesis
 The process of transformation of malignant cells
 Steps:
1. Step 1 - Initiation
 Initiators (carcinogens) escape normal enzymatic mechanisms and alter the
genetic structure of the cellular DNA
 Normally, cells have protective mechanisms to repair these
 These DNA alterations are not significant to cells until the second step
2. Step 2 - Promotion
 Repeated exposure to promoting agents (co-carcinogens) causes the
expression of abnormal or mutant genetic information after long latency period
 Cells normally have cancer suppressor genes that "turn off" mutations -
example is p53 gene
 When suppressor genes are mutated, they lose their regulatory capabilities -
malignant (abnormal) cells are allowed to produce
3. Step 3 - Progression
 Cellular changes in step 1 and 2 now exhibit increased malignant behavior
 These cells invade surrounding tissue and metastasize

Carcinogens - Agents that initiate or promote cellular transformation

A. Viruses and Bacteria

 These are considered or suspected when specific cancers appear in clusters
 Virus - incorporate themselves in the genetic structure of cells - cell populations is
altered or changes - leads to cancer
 Example 1: Epstein-Barr virus - suspected to cause nasopharyngeal cancers, some
types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and Hodgkin's disease
 Example 2: Herpes simplex virus type II, cytomegalyvirus and human papillomavirus
HPV are associated with dysplasia and cancer of the cervix
 Example 3: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is associated with Kaposi's
sarcoma
 Example for bacteria : Helicobacter pylori - associated with increased incidence of
gastric malignancy, secondary to inflammation and injury of gastric cells
 
B. Physical Agents
 These include exposure to sunlight or radiation, chronic irritation or inflammation and
tobacco use
 Exposure to sunlight or radiation is related to skin cancer. Factors:
a. Clothing styles (sleeveless t-shirts or shorts)
 b. Use of sunscreens
c. Occupation (work that needs to be under the sun)
d. Recreational habits (such as swimming)
 Exposure to ionizing radiation can occur with repeated diagnostic x-ray procedures
 
C. Chemical agents
 Accounts for 75% of all cancers
 Exposure can be:
o Tobacco smoke - single most lethal chemical carcinogen
 Associated with cancers of the lung, head and neck, esophagus,
pancreas, cervix and bladder
 Tobacco act synergistically with other substances (e.g. alcohol) to
promote cancer development
o Suspected chemical substances:
 Aromatic amines and aniline dyes
 Pesticides and formaldehydes
 Asbestos
 Benzene
 Most often targeted organs: liver, lungs and kidneys - because of their
detoxifying functions
 
D. Genetic and Familial factors
 Almost every cancer type has been shown to run in families.
 This is due to genetics, shared environments, cultural or lifestyle factors, or
chance alone
 Example cancers with underlying genetic abnormalities
 Leukemia
 Skin cancers
 Malignant melanoma
 Example of inherited cancer syndromes:
 Premenopausal breast cancer
 
E. Dietary factors
 Accounts for 35% of all environmental cancers
 Dietary substances can be proactive (protective), carcinogenic, or co-carcinogenic
 Risk for cancer increases with long-term ingestion or chronic absence of proactive
substances in the diet
 Dietary substances associated with increased cancer risk:
1. Fats
2. Alcohol
3. Salt-cured or smoked meats
4. Foods containing nitrates and nitrites
5. High caloric dietary intake
 Food substances that appear to reduce cancer risk
1. Cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower)
2. Carotenoids (carrots, tomatoes, spinach, dark-green and deep-yellow
vegetables)
3. Possibly vitamins E and C
4. Zinc and selenium
 Obesity is associated with endometrial cancer, increased risk of cancers of the
colon, kidney and gallbladder
 
F. Hormonal Agents
 Tumor growth may be promoted by disturbances in hormonal balance.
 Oral contraceptives and prolonged estrogen replacement therapy are associated
with hepatocellular, endometrial and breast cancers, whereas they appear to
decrease the risk for ovarian and endometrial cancers.

DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER
Suspected patients can undergo testing to:
1. Determine the presence of tumor and its extent
2. Identify possible spread (metastasis) of disease or invasion of other body tissues
3. Evaluate the function of involved and uninvolved body systems
4. Obtain tissue and cell for analysis, including evaluation of tumor stage and grade
Stage - staging determines the size of the tumor and the existence of metastasis. This uses
the TNM system: T - extent of the primary tumor, N - lymph node involvement, M -
metastasis
Grade - grading refers to the classification of the tumor cell. Seeks to determine the type of
tissue from which the tumor originated and the degree to which the tumor cell retain the
functional characteristics of the tissue of origin.
 
DETECTION AND PREVENTION OF CANCER
Primary prevention - concerned with reducing the risks of cancer in healthy people
 Focus on education of knowledge and skills
 Adopting dietary and various lifestyle changes
 
Secondary prevention - detection and screening to achieve early diagnosis and prompt
intervention to stop the cancer process
 Screening for people with family history of cancer
 Involves directed prevention such as: breast and testicular self-examination, and
Papanicolaou (Pap) tests
 
Example Imaging Tests used to detect cancer
Test Description Diagnostic Uses
Tumor Analysis of substances found in blood or other body Breast, colon, lung,
marker fluids that are made by the tumor or by the body in ovarian, testicular,
identification response to the tumor prostate cancers
Magnetic Use of magnetic fields and radiofrequency signals to Neurologic, pelvic,
resonance create sectioned images of various body structures abdominal, thoracic
imaging cancers
(MRI)
Computed Use of narrow beam x-ray to scan successive layers Neurologic, pelvic,
tomography of tissue for a cross-sectional view skeletal, abdominal,
(CT scan) thoracic cancers
Endoscopy Direct visualization of a body cavity or passageway Bronchial,
by insertion of an endoscope into a body cavity or gastrointestinal
opening; allows tissue biopsy, fluid aspiration and cancers
excision of small tumors; both diagnostic and
therapeutic
 

Recommendation for Early Detection of Cancer in Asymptomatic, Average-Risk People

(Sample)
Site Sex Age Evaluation Frequency
Breast Female 20-39 Clinical breast examination (CBE) Every 3
  Breast self-examination (BSE) years
    Every
month
 
> 40 CBE and BSE Same as
Mammogram above
Every year
Cervix Female >18 (or Papanicolaou (Pap) test Every year
younger if Pelvic examination
sexually
active)
Prostate Male > 50 (or less Prostate-specific antigen and Every year
than 50 if Digital-rectal examination
high risk)

III. Activity 1
Directions: Determine whether the following statements define a MALIGNANT cell or a
NORMAL cell.
______________ 1. Undergoes cell division through mitosis.
______________ 2. Contains proteins called tumor-specific antigens.
______________ 3. Creates proteins from amino acids.
______________ 4. Can have chromosomal abnormalities like translocation, deletion or
addition.
______________ 5. Have large and irregularly shaped nuclei and nucleoli

IV. Activity 2
Directions Jumble the letters to determine the correct metastatic mechanism being
described.
PALMITCHY Tumor emboli pass through the  
SADPER interstitial fluid, which interacts with
lymphatic fluid, and enter the lymph
channels.
MAGNETOHOUSE The bloodstream is a pathway for the  
DRAPES spread of cancerous cells.
SIGNAGENOISE the tendency of malignant cells to  
stimulate the development of new
capillaries from the host tissue in order
to satisfy their nutritional and oxygen
needs
V. Activity 3
Directions Decide which Carcinogen Group the following items belong:
Choices: Viruses and Bacteria, Physical Agents, Chemical Agents, Genetic and Familial
factors, Dietary factors, Hormonal Agents

______________ 1. Oral contraceptives

______________ 2. Inherited cancer syndrome
______________ 3. Sunlight or radiation
______________ 4. Alcohol and salt-cured or smoked meats
______________ 5. Tobacco smoke
______________ 6. Human papilloma virus
______________ 7. Helicobacter pylori
______________ 8. Pesticides and formaldehydes
______________ 9. High calorie dietary intake
______________ 10. Repeated x-ray procedures

IV. Activity 4
Directions Write the sex and age of three family members that are living in your house.
Determine what cancer early detection procedure should they have done.

Family Relation Age Sex Cancer early detection

Example- 77 Female Clinical breast examination, Breast
Grandmother self-examination, Mammogram,
Papanicolaou test

V. Guide Question
How important is early detection of cancer?
___________________________________________________________________

VII. Reflection
How will you promote Cervical Cancer Awareness?

___________________________________________________________________
 VIII. Reference for learners
Hinkle, J.L. & Cheever, K.H. (2014). Brunner and Suddarth’s Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing 10th
Edition. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Katzung, B. G. (2012). Basic & clinical pharmacology. McGraw-Hill Medical.
Mohammad Abrar Khan. (16:21:12 UTC). Vinca Alkaloids as Anticancer Agents (Looking back and
peering ahead). https://www.slideshare.net/AbrarKhan94/vinca-alkaloids-as-anticancer-agents-
looking-back-and-peering-ahead
Ritter, J., Lewis, L., Mant, T., & Ferro, A. (2012). A Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics,
5Ed. Taylor and Francis.
Saleh, Y., Abdelkarim, O., Herzallah, K., & Abela, G. S. (2020). Anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity:
Mechanisms of action, incidence, risk factors, prevention, and treatment. Heart Failure Reviews.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10741-020-09968-2

IX. Answer Key

Activity 1
1. Normal
2. Malignant
3. Normal
4. Malignant
5. Malignant

Activity 2
Lymphatic spread
Hematogenous spread
Angiogenesis

Activity 3
1. Hormonal agents
2. Genetic factors
3. Physical agents
4. Dietary factors
5. Chemical agents
6. Viruses and bacteria
7. Viruses and bacteria
8. Chemical agents
9. Dietary factors
10. Physical agents

Activity 4
Answers vary

Prepared by:

TIFFANY MAE L. GO