Eas ition ot tismedul es eee cue poeta aenitehn: eee Plate Tectonics - Introduction Plate tectonics explains the proceses behind many natral events, such ascarthquakes and vleanicerupsons. late tconies’dexesbes the oneept plate’ relersing to large slab of matenal onthe ath’ erst and “Tectone felts to the frees that produce change inthe structure of the Garth, The movements and intraeon ofthe plates is known as plate {ecole This concept explains, though not quite ful the occurrence fad datibition of many penotena on the earth's sue “The dstibuion of eahquakes and other tectonic fests consistent ‘with the stsumptons of plate tectonics, Pate tectonics el explain which erate earthquakes, adiagfaultng. al voleank st in beter prdition snd mltgation ofthese natural Content ‘Continental dif and plate estonies. Foumation, distribution and movements of plates. Processes operating diferent sypes of plate margins ad hotspots. Earthquakes. Distsbution and characteris of volcanoes. Island acs and fold mountains -Poctve impact of oleic and enthiak ariiy ‘Val of folded and fod landscapes. Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics “The dear of pte tectonic which was developed inthe 19605, onilmed the mnsive land shits first sugested by Aled Wegener {1912} in his Theor of Continental Drift. Wegener had proposed that ontinents were not awa the relative postions they currently ‘ecupld, He raed the fossils of plants and animals ers continents Endo ange of viens in spor fs thesis © denial fous in rocks in continents. widely separate by oceans. Rocks, old bets and mountain bets which would be contiguous i the fomtinents were ited together Coal and evidence af lacatons in areas whose disrbution could nt be explained by curent climatic conditions » The geographical ft of che continents. ‘He named the orginal super continent Pangac with es sea Techy, He farther weston to propose that Fangaca had broken ito two continents: _Lanrasia tothe north and Gondwanaand tthe south,‘ener, however, could nt explain how continents could mine thai, Ue mechanisvenergy which cold fue these movements, His theory ‘fas rejected assiduous, Now tar plage etn has provided the TRethanism of convetton corrents i the molten magma of the mand, i ‘wey accepted tht continents move and in at, these movements ae ‘anured and predicted. earth structure ‘Only the outermost ew ilometes ofthe earth’ interior structure have fren dictly investigated. The seuctre ofits 6370km radi is mainly | infeed rom the pasage of earthquake waves though it. «ff se ehecentc ofthe earth isthe cord! Is very ho 2900+ °C) snd very ‘nse consisting of on and nickel minerals, extending for 478m. The ‘ute ore gad while the inert soi Around this the mantle consisting of olivine ch rocks, The emperatureof the mantle ieeases with depth. Rocks in dhe upper tattle are cool and rite enough to break under stress, Rock nthe Tower tande are ho and eof and flow rather than brek Duflrences in behaviour separate the upper fom the lower mantle “The thin surface lye i call the ext. The thinner high density 4, oxanis cust const malay of magnesium sete rocks. The 9 Continental erat, composed of sluminium sicate rocks is thicker and of tower denis, and this allows it oaton the mantle “The cru an dhe uppermost mantle form she ri lithosphere. The ‘ore inbie lower mand forms the asthenosphere, Th wo ae Sepaatel bythe Moborovicie dbeondinuity Evidence supporting Plate Tectonics Since Wegener's theory of Continental Drift was reece advances in technology and scence have accumulated evidence to suppor plate ‘1948 - Maurie Bwing noted a continuous mountain range the whale length ofthe Atlante Osean bed and th these rocks were voeanic sd ecent ‘1950s Palzomagnetism established that che patter of magnetic ‘ever inthe rocks on either sde of the Aran rdge were denial “+1962 — Hay Hess studied the rocks on ether side ofthe Atlantic (Gcean and confirmed thatthe rocks got older on ether side of the ‘dg. This supported seafloor spreading. More recent discoveries of seas of pate destrcton Earthquake epicentesoudine the edges of tectonic ates. * The youthfulness of ocean basins that are continuously being formed snd destoyed + Global Positioning System (GPS 6 now used to measure and rene tmovements of pate and movements along fats Module 72 PateTectoric Poleomagnehery - (Palevo 84 (Ux) | tle shidy of He | | cord of We earth's maprehe feld m ¢ Sedemtgl oy @ od matte v | |2 Geography Unt Activity 121 angst: The supecotinen of 200 millon yer og0 a Scion fate Figure 123 11am the theory which Figure 12 fers. 2 Eaplain hy sett dno acct the theory refered to above 3 Dascbe two places of evidence ured to support the ideo he sea loo sprealg. 11 Theory of Continental Dei. 2 Thetheory wae nat accepted becouse scents couldnt conceptualize of any mechanism or nergy source which cul couse and power continental 3 Onepieeof evidence which supports ea lor spreading isthe dating of | {oekson the side of te mi-ocenie ges. Research on eter ie ofthe ‘mid-Atlontie Ridge showed paralel ages on ether side. -Asecond pec of evidences the pleomagneticecocd necks on ether side ofthe ie. The reversal ofthe magnetic poles in rel on onesie f| the rps matched by the rocks onthe other ideo hei. Formation, Distribution and Movements of Plates “hist costo replacement of vain sa and kgs ald slats, The pts ae dele deo ders “london ss Sei evo per ens pe Oe anon naa Fines. They sels dente Moat he jor pate conn of both [petol plats sks sone ae ame sre conn hat le ‘sea, geal ples eno | ‘There are seven very large plates: Pai, North Amerisn, South American, Avean, Eurasian, Ind-Austalian and Antari an very ‘any smaller ones, such as the Caribbean, Nazca and Cacs. ‘The plates mect at ferent yp of houndaries or mari and while ‘hee of these ate well defined, there ia fureh aes where movements not clearly undestoed, = aeModule 2 Mate Tetnics avtaRCTIC RATE eure 122 1 PlateAisthe ' Nenhamecan United tate ot Amaia 2 Plate sithe South American > Andean 2 The plate apace XX ae moving 2 aan ogee Processes at Plate Margins Divergent/Constructve margins m Plates ate chug to be formed fo ‘nae ono i eal’ surface forming thee aves re mated by mid oceanic ges. The bese aid of chee } fadgesin the MidAvancie Rig setching fom she Artie Ocean co Le teyond soutem Acs. Bsicl iis mibmergd ide witha vlley [Tris cenre Het, new crate formed and plates move aay eS Sas ete1 Geography Unit ever ead, wai lanes over he ide, split apa 8 ‘Noh Amercan and Eurasian plates mow por -oother vere nunday has developed on the Aan conn ate mane bythe ant Alien Rolle Seetching ofthe eats Eis under foes tension ass wo crack produnga rea Sc ol tae examen and vale. The western italy tans {he wor econ dept ls, Lake Tangy. Mount Klima, ‘Alig’ highest mounenn ound in deer ft valley. Uhimately J) | FFthe spreading contines the continent woeld be oken no to pats || | ds ew oes rested. Ten heey tthe South le | eein was ome ‘Convergent/Destructive margins ‘Convergent margins mark areas where plates are coming together and sist destroyed. The processes and landforms produced at conergent sarpins vary acoading to whether the converging lates ae cag ‘intnents oF oeans, Convergence can take place between a eontnenta nd oceanic plate wo oceanic plates and two continental pats, The ‘allison rerle ether subdueton or upheaval ‘Oceanic-continental convergence ‘Continents cannot sulbiuct because the rocks ar of high densi and “ow buoyanry, They cannot be absorbed into the dense mantle. When | ‘continental and oan plates conver, oan les subdue eaving ‘the continental pate foaung on the asthenosphere. The extensive fold Suntains of North and South Amerie, the Rockies and Andes ste {ormed fron the mesting ofthe American plate andthe Pale and Nazca ‘Pats respectively Inthe case ofthe Andes, subgucion and voeanie | {evi eet the face into two chal — what now the Western Cordlera and farther ess, de Ester Covdlera The avea between | the ewo wa led ch material exaded from the mountains frm the plano, Some of the move destructive earthquakes are associated with | these regions. Voleani eruptions are also common. Oceanie-oceanie convergence When cosanic plates mec, one subiucts and is assimilated into she ‘mantle. The olde heavier pate whichis dense, will plunge beneath ‘he youngiz Older more gl plats will also subduct a a sharper angle | than young When the downgoing slab reaches 3 depth of about 100} ‘here partial melting which produces magma. This magma iss 10 the face prodveing& chan of olan lan o an sland ae. Tench ‘ark the poston st which the ubiucing plate bens to descend, “Toewel-aS ‘beneath the lithoepberc lab. ences are the depest aro he soean flor The Mariana tench masks the aea where te Pace pit lunges [Beneath the Plppne plate, The Challenger Deep atthe souher end of this tench i 11,000m deep In the Caribbean, she North Arete plate ‘ves Below the Canbbean plate Foming a subdugtion zine, ‘Trenches generally run parallel 0 voleani sland aes, The Marina Jalnds, an archipelago consisting of 15 volcan lands, le tote west ofthe Marana tench In areas where vers supely Large volumes of Sediment tothe ea, trenches may not be apparent singe they may Be filled with sediments. The presence ofthe Orinoco River explain the Absence ofa tench slong che iland ar old Lesser Ales. ») ASthe late subiucts, the oering pate sczpes sediments 6 lL | ae projecting portion of oczen floor othe upper nue of te lower.plas This reates a zone of deformed sock that attaches il Ereing plate. This zoe is known as an acretionary prism wes shads tothe east ofthe Les. Stina and Stine etnergent pat ofthe aetetionary pis. Mode 2 PteTecens Wwadge/ ‘oes h arceg Subbdanchor and Pdad up ad te Odae! oP a emabvnortal cristo pled | wet “aren Caster ee | Source om So Cobban Worl Coie 192 | Fiqre 123 Crosse ugh fone carbon | Fes feed Activity 23 | 1 =. Theaag shows avert (gre sing om he en of 1 Using een for Sincton Ths ste prodced byte meting sa asthe Fie 23 ‘tre Pte subd beeath the CarbbeonTherng mate 2 Expl the oman | produces sven an sich 35 St Vincent theidandot Senn 'Thediogam shows Barbados yng near thebourary ofthe twoplates |» Supgesthow te ado! nthe sure Te sand formed bythe seers the acretonty rbd was omed rege scoped thelaver ates 25 subs 2 our rat tn ‘pope eres resling 2. Ther topographic entre formed tom cee spreading se mi-ccmnc. | feasts {ides oveansand vances Mid crn ges ae submerge cule ae ‘ome ot mountains wich make actual bouncy ofthe ate mate ‘tpi for ample Mls Aantc ide Ocnon bss a fomed as {hea toor spewing rests tect aparandthe resting besa | ‘ile wth sea water fr example, the Atlantic Ocean. Voces oxcur ie such a ean Continent-continent convergence reas of se floor spreading ax magma lows out on the surlacet form ‘When ewo continental plates converse dere sno subduction ofthe ight “Buoyant aera Insc, che rocks erumple and buckle, The plas push under inf and over cach other creating cosa ickening, fling, [ling and overriding ad some ofthe most complex structures isthe “ot The collision ofthe Indian and Eurasian plates has chown up the, Himalayas andthe Tibetan Platea. The Himalayas now rie 8854. “The indian plat is moving noshwards taste of about Sem annually ‘roducing eachguses tht lect several courses in he region such ae isa China Te cain of he Alea and Eaopean fines ere the led Ap of others Ear. : _ a+ Geography unit Teansform/Neutral margins Inmany ses the eat, plates move literal and se past each other _st afr fs hese agi the rst ner deste nor = ough and peu bulls pth oo / “ogee The leasing of tis pressure tates the orm of ext ‘May of ches wansform als re ssc wih can sds, bat i fn North Amerie the Sn Andress Ful isn the surface in oe of the most densely populated anes of Cori, USA. The fal sch Earthquakes and Faulting or? Earthquakes can be created by undersea landslides, volcan eruptions e nd the explosion af hombs. Most are explained on dhe ass of ite i “tectonic. The ae caused by movements along a fauleor Fracture inthe 1 cath. Plates move away, towards and past each oher along fractures. or [ls Where te plates move apart there i tension rupturing rcs and ‘producing small earthquakes Where the plates side poss eachother, {he ough ees lock, presue bulls up and enegy i eleased wen the Stree ae veroome.Subduction and continental ellison release large | Smouns of concentestel energy which results in some ofthe works langst eathquakes. The rupures produce shock waves which ae 8 eee in i a concent ees away fom I] The Shockwoues nen ie ent nce und i ce Pe rough he wae cesta stoning wie sailing re Bet | Yat radial: pk {Extmes called sone la Phaland 104, there wee Splcement ih a rosa along thousands of kilometres of an underwater plate margin, the great Bh Seer Mle focus are SEAT cestl cusaniseachinegt ecowtetitian Ooem + a 1 Africa hours later, Teunamis are extremely hezardous to humane p Serene es onc bla Mme ndentteticdconalven These One eepen Earthquakes consis of waves of diferent speeds and Jengshs created by for He Shaleap of “Caitluslarn meron hecatiemace olmiswmsae =! foe Ground > ‘Seon on vey ease neuen called wiepaph g ‘he saggy stdin sll ve yds cast Sums atc ody eer orang the sure nly Ty ad sree ‘Body waves are the faster and are subdivided into: i os\*¢ © Peary wate, the ito aie. Tey hee «ppl motion ss sad move Gg ok id Hat _, Senn seal de aoe Go ae 1g). Su The slows rong secondary] waves pass tuph rckonly They i s sheer the material through which they pas. They are sransver ‘eaves Decree vibe the round a» sion tht Sore at ght anges 0 the direction of move “The analysis of the paths ken byP and S waves tira tine the Aicepearanef th Svea te core mae Boy, gre ces to {he eran of the inn othe cath aFAULTS Sedimertor) rocks (fren which have, been’ dacd oe Stakfied rocks. Th Called te! Lede Slane Sedimentary rocks ty be eh Le harrGontel plore. puted ey wclired- : Tue. inchirphins ef tHe < called fle_olip é avallel bedding plane and ~The darechirw Pp gies Ha dip if Called fle Shrrke ak gh any € stent Fputiig com be Coused by ithe lateral 8 verhend forues wither reSSborg BY tensor. Tentren Cices vac nocmel felt acd bomprecsion Catrots a Mutyce Reverse favry Noamac. FAvLT ag f Gor presser?1 Geography Unit davechOu Geologists desrbe a ful plane with ewo measurements ~ the ste and che dip Surke refers to the direction ofthe alton the earths the fal plane The, kes sen in the Strike - te alte bm He f Ne faults be Sure. The di sures the direction a Stand ip smb. Natt we Tal Plas A tina tm ntcios etapa so, Source hip/ nc clined Figure 12.4 Siatadpofroc ayes ‘Theo sides of fault are the hanging wall nl the fotwall, When the ‘on both sds ofthe fale change their verteal postion dip ip. {aul formed. When the reks move horizontally sik lip fate f i formed. Thee ate no hanging and foot walls inst slip fuls such as ‘he San Andres fale. i = ‘The yes of faults elec the forces that are ating on te fale, 1 © )Nonma alts are cated by the forces of tension and ar typical of Z “flat spreiding centres. The banging wall moves down tn relation ‘othe oval ©) Revers faulting ocurs where the fores of compression push the Bruce -Slye Banging wall upd welatve to the fooerall. There reves lung ‘convergence zones, where subdton or ellison occurs, Ske slip fale oceur where the movement is parallel tothe tie ‘oc horzontal They ae easiledacending othe restive dision” pet Pu si moreneat a te lal aks heya eageiseedneae be ue, Finidediten Mipemntiie nian aaeyeeee Fou 5 Trond ‘Moves towards hirw/her then the fault is a right lateral or dextfa fault. t ‘We Block on the left moves towards him/her it sl ltt or ital fulModule 2 Plate Tectonics +The mos famous tke slip ules she San Andreas Fault, California, [USA"This ir aight lateral eytems ful that suesches ore 200m, "The ace ple moving norwescwars, aking Los Angeles with |e whle the Nort Amensan plate moves soutbeaswards relive ti, Volcanoes alent refes tall ee landlonmsdeive rom maga oa ‘il Ge ears erat Wai ey spied wi nist : Slate margin atwough the spe form related tothe peafventand =>. aw 7 Distribution of volcanic activity ‘oleae activity can be raced around che word areas of tectonic fcuity seh ay plate margins. The Ring of Fie of the Pace (Figure 12.5] peter to the enceling or coum Pace olen acvey val marpne ofthis lee oan. Volanoes stretch from Aconeagis snd Coropai in South America, Popocatpet and Mt St Helens in North ‘Amer, though the Aleutians dawn the western PaciBe iach Kurs, Japan, the Palippnes, Bi and New Zealand. Other ares of active ‘uleaniiyinclode the Eastern Carbean, East Af, lndonesa and the CE “Mediteranean Europe Vleanoes also form over hot spot such as those foeming the Hawean lands [gue 12.6 rrowneratpine 1 Trewtinptebontay © Ee Figure 125 Oitrbuinof poe boundries an vokaoesFB ceopepyune) Ryro Clasie aoe malt yecked by Leanate Progam or" Tae Figure 12.6 Movement fe Pci latoe th iivaon Rts Characteristics of volcanoes Son magma may not erupt oto the ears sae bt push nto the vd “hse profoce nse tue Ins ‘He po usualy haz and se oly enti when reve onthe ‘urls by subsequent erosion, Thi lative resance influence rates of efosion and may form prominent indo, soch the Pitons of Stacia, which ae exposed pies ae “There ae thee main anc rocks asl, andesite and italia thy be dry ety ane Aiferen temperatures, wats content and viscose, Vso Ieaute of they of gud andthe lamer he vic the more {hid the gud, ter has low visssg: Vicon alo depends onthe ‘temic and meal content ofthe magma Bat asthe Basalt temperature and lowest vicoy and thereoe th exis fw Ande ee nd high sos nd dots ne Howe Ao BO pe eto the magna ‘eaching the Ears sul is the Tow isconty bss esse shared equally between andesite snd shyole. ‘As magma ics tothe src, and pressure decreases, the water Bene 8, Basal avai in dissoted water Ryoltic mma has high rer content and sities, aves have dificil escping because of ih viscosity. Eruptive styles ‘The eruptive ils of volkanoes depend on the water content and cosy. For example . 1 tetanic ype: with large amounts of very loviscosiy basic lava sand low water content, Erupdons are non-epoave- <2 © Howaien: on-siscosity ava, lon wate, basakic lava. Epon sty elie. be fore.Module 12 Pate Tectonics sombolan: lative small rnounts of moderately viscosity lava areree water coment and usualy peaceful forming semis or cinder Fs © Valcoran:high-viscosty lava basal to andesite Lava, moderate gh water content and moderately wet erin 5.6) Pio: very highsviscose aa basal ool lava high water, nteni very violent eruptions; sato wIesnocs, Volcanic landforms Lava ploteaus se formed wea the magma pours out of long Hssures reg are areas with very tnd basalt lava. The eruption style ‘ Teeond, the mont peaceful erptions. This occurs a divergent plate a ‘Gotz here mow pate mater are being formed fo example, in . Balen The ald Clombieplsteu, USA and che nonh-west Deccan i ‘atonal lava plateau Lava thicknesses of up to 1500 cover i ‘ Trove than 400,003 km of land in each case «She voleanes ace broad low profile features that frm some ofthe fest welcanoes in che world The lower slopes ae en, middle ‘lupe: espe and summic sened. Thee shape controlled by the Fold baste lava escaping through isolated vets oe fissures in ques, ' Falla type eruptions. he lava flows along the surface aks ‘Bo forms che smoot, rOpypahoehoe which changes to the rug, Spiny ta the va cool and oss 38 ‘Gander cones are formed when magma is elected rom the vent and Gols On es descent magma deposited as ash and cindet They {bem rom therapy cooling oc agents, The Lvais of ow ‘Rete and the cupton sie lien Strombolian, Mount Een in ely san example of cinder eone. ‘Composite or toto vleanoes ae the eps igh step cones “etme fom lternating ayer of tick viscous lve and pyrocasi ‘eaten These volcanic cones ae formed from basalt andesite tava hich flow vey slow. The material eected during the erupion ' fay cover avery wie ares, The composition of the magmas may TAP oun one ception tothe ext aad ehe eruption sy may be ‘Rllasian and Plinian, The Plinian erupcons ae powerful vertical ‘Ripon which cary pyocastic mater high into the atmosphere | ‘Sullcr parasitic cones may develop on theses and lava domes aenalsine of highly vscows material develop in che raters in the SUES ait Mount st Helen in the USA, Kilimanjaro in Tanzania {fd Fain Japan are compost voleances rephra efea tall sizes of slifod magma pales which are blow, | SRBoF Eke vent and fall eo he surface under gavty. This inches the ut of eve lap erween 4-82cm, end lng bombs and Blocks Ponce with te many holes, typeof tens yrocastc lows [mace ardent) are very hot, fst moving cloud of gases ed epha racing down the side of vole), "These are all major hazard to human ife and propet a experienced iMtainique, Montes and other Caribbean islands. The impoct of ‘anoer on oman ie and propery wil be examined more closely in Module 13 Floods, Earthquakes and Volcanoes as HaraJ Geography Unit ‘Activity 12.4 se the diagram (gue 127)t0 ans the folowing questions 1 There labeled Als 2 mountain oot magma chamber passe cone 4 ao 2. Thearow B pins 2 atiow magna © ach 4 to 3. Themteriaabaled Cie 2 magne » cone © tephra 4 toa 4 Thetype of olano showntea 2 lavaplateu shield voeano cinder cone 4 composite vane Feedback Figure 127 Crossecton teughe ypecf een cont Characteristics of Caribbean volcanic landscapes ‘The voleani island arc ofthe Caribbean extends fom dhe Vistin Islands sn the noth vo those ofthe coast of Venczela, There ate abu 17 acne ‘voleanoes in the chain including the submarine volesno,Ksk-em Jenny fo ‘he north of Grenada. Voeanoes suchas ce Soulrete Hill of Montserrat ae very complex andesite swat voleanoes with aa donne forming the Summit. These active voleanoes crest great vay of landscapes ‘some islands, ike Nevis are formed from a single roleanie cone resulting ina steeped sided mountain of radial drainage thes lke Dominica have eimples of nine ace vlesnces producing ovelapping see slopes ‘Mos Cabiean voles islands ae characterized by thir step slopes rising to eights of over 1000m above sea lve. Many are topped by water fled erates Postive Impact of Volcanic and Earthquake Activity Both volancerupcons and earthquakes are extreme natural event tht ste en hazardous to human ead propery. However hy both have Positive impets. They are both important so human survival Volcanic activity ‘Volcanic activity has postive impacts in the felling ways "Fee sis. The wlcanic material once cooled and weathered forms rich soils, These sais support the acu of many densely etd ‘eas sucha inthe Meiterzanean and dhe Cartes inde © Land surface. Erpting yolcances are thought wo be the soure ofthe Ast land 4 the hot pnet cole, Eruptions contnve in thesesHie Module 12 PateTectoncs rating ne land ll the volsni islands ae crested in this way. The F shape of Monesermt has changed when the las eruptions exended the land inthe south. (But move than «half ofthe and area Is now Uuninbabiable) |= Minerals, Many uefa matsals are formed disc indirectly fom volcanic sett. Balding materials soc as granite and marble, precious miners suchas diamonds as well as sve and copper are formed rom magma in and on che earth's est. 1 Geothermal enery. Sone volanic countries have tapped the nur beat energy of vleanors a a source of electricity ‘+ Toure. Voeanc peaks, whether ative or dormant are natural ‘tourist stacions in many pars ofthe world. rom the majestic Me iin apan tothe ever flowing Hswaia cones, ours ist and ‘wonder at this evidence ofthe earth's nero © Seienee. Voleanicacvty allows sient to study the materia of the interior earth's east. This is very important sine iis too hot and far rom the surface for diet investigation. Earthquakes (Posilwe) Earthquakes are mote commonly known for ther devastating impact ‘onhiuman fe and propery, but hey also have a posiiimpact Earthquakes alloy sleds ta beter understand che nature ofthe ‘at's crost. Thee passage through diferent layers ofthe ears ‘atrial provides vale dat. Inds, earthquakes alo result in ‘proved building constuction Value of Folded and Faulted Landscapes * Sources of miner, for example, coal beds inthe Appalachians, : 4s well e minerals ntradel below the mountain as batholiths, foc ‘example, tin in the Andes. Energy water alg over lgh elie has been used for hydroelectric, for example in Norway and Canada. ‘Tourism ~ high folded mountains have boen use for both summer tnd winter tous atv such asking, hiking and mountain ‘mbing For example, Siss Alps 1+ Biodiversisy~ many high fold and blo mountain have developed their own uaigue flrs snd fauna. As they ae less accesible chan lowland seas thy remain at reserves for sientfc enquiry. * CountsyReional boundaries hgh mountains often serve to separate fe arearcountry from another Key Points Earthquakes, folding felting and voleanoes are associated with plate tectonics and are natural hazards s+ Thecarth’ssusface is made upofeusal plates of diferent sizes. i 4 There ae thee distinct margin: Convergent, Divergent and ‘Tansorm. + Continents and oceans leon plates and move with ther, + Plaeectanics helps to explain the process easing earthquakes, folding faulting and voleanie activ ee1 Geography Unie Conclusion 144s important wo understand ectonic activity as natural events inorder to be able orespnd vo and mitigate ther impact ss natural hazed, The ‘brocesses associated with plate tectonics help to explain the formation ‘and distribution of many of ee ers natutl events which tveten| ‘human lle and propery. An understanding of plate tectonics ean asst in the prediction and mitlgation of tectonic hazards, such a earthguals snd volcanoes EndTest 1 Compare cvrgent plate marge with convergent plate margins nde the sng: Movement; ances Valen sty, 2. plan wy someplatessubduct nd other donot. lve wo reasons why leoding may fallow the eruption of voleanoes 4 Descbe normal an reverse fouls inten of moverent flecks and forces ined End est Feedback ea 1 Movement: Divergent plates move aay rom each ‘other while convergent plates come together Magma ‘comes uptoflthe spac between the diverging Plates resulting in seafloor spreading in cooergence, ‘cen plate materials subducted sd desvajed ‘anforms Divergent boundaries remarked by Lnersno mi ecane edges ont sens ‘voeanc material may rere os ands Comergent ‘margins are marked ot ony by deep ea trenches ndvoleanic sland aes but ao complex old and faulted features of compressed/roten continental otras Volanic acti: At dergnt boundries, magma opis though mainly fsres with ite orn. explosive acy whereas at convergent margins ‘magma escapes though vents which are easly, blocked by acc avas leading to explosive euptions often ncaing gases. Continental plates donot subductbacaute they are composed fight buoyant mata whch cat be absorbed ito the dence ante Flooding may follow volcanic euptins herme of heat alr the area Stamens inthe ie may add the ielnood ofan. nother cases ‘magma may mel the eof glaciers nthe areas and Gest loads. Innormal fats theres ually one of tersions ‘causing the Raring alto move dowrwarés Inrelaton tothe footal.n reverse fauting ‘compressional forces push the hanging wal upd. (Onesie ofthe out plane overhangs the ote ue ae