•

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 , 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1A ll the ,·i,ve,-s ,·iitz i11to tl1c sec1; yet· tlze sea is 11ot ft1ll; tt11to Precipitation . .
t71e JJ/nce r,-0,11 ,,vJze1'lce tl1e 1·i11e1·.s co,,ne, tl·zitlze,- tf1ey retz11·11 Tlus forms the major input into the system, thoug h
amou11ts vary over ti1ne and space. As a nil�, tl1e
agai11. 1

greater the intensity of a stor1n, the sl1orter its dt1ra­

Tt1e Bible, Ecclesiastes 1 :7
tion. Convectio11al thunderstonns are short, heavy
A drai11age basin is an area of la11d drai11ed by a and may be confined to sinall areas, wl1ereas the
river and its tribt1taries. Its boundary is marked
•
passi11g of a warm front of a depression (p�ge �31)
by a ridge of higl1 land beyond wl1icl1 a11y pre- will give a lo11ger pe1·iod of. 1nore steady rau1fall
cipitation will drai11 i11to adjace11t basins. Tl1is extending over tl1e entire basin.
boundary is called a wate1·sl1ed.
Evapotranspira:tion
A clrai11age basi11 111ay be described as an open
'
Tl1e two components of evapotranspiration
.syste111 and it forms part of tl1e l1ydrological or
are outputs from tl1e system. Evaporation is
water cycle. If·a drai11�ge basin is viewed as a
the physical process by wl1ich moisture is lost
syste1n (Framevlork 3, page 45) tl1en its
directly into tl1e at1nosphere fron1 wa.ter sur­
characteristics are:
faces, includi11g vegetation a11d tl1e soil, due
a i11puts in the form of precipitation (rain
to the effects of air movement and the sun's
a11d s11ow)
l1eat. Transpiration is a biological process by
a outJJuts wl1ere tl1e water is lost fro111 tl1e
whicl1 water is lost fro1n a plant througl1 the
system eitl1er by the river carrying it to tl1e
minute pores (ston1ata) in its leaves. Evaporation
sea or tl1rough evapotJ·anspiration (the loss
rates are affected by ten1perature, wind speed,
of water directly from the ground, water
ht1midity, l1ours of sunshine a11d otl1er climatic
. surfaces and vegetation).
factors. Transpiration rates depend on the time
Within tl1is syste1n, so111e of the water:
of year, the type and an1.ount of vegetation, the
is stored i11 lakes a11d/or in the soil, or
availability of 1noisture and tl1e length of the
passes through a series of transfers or flows,
growing seasQn. It is also possible to distinguisl1
e.g. i11filtration, percolation, throughflow.
between tl1e potential a.nd tl1e actual evapotra11-
spiratio11 of an area. For example, in deserts tl1ere
Elements of the drainage basin syst,em is a l1igh potential evapotranspiration because
figure3.1 Figt1re 3.1 sl1ows the drainage basin syste111 as it the amou11t of moisture that cou.ld be lost is
The drainage basin as is likely to operate i11 a temperate l1u1nid region greater tl1an the amount of water actually avail­
an-open system st1ch as tl1e British Isles. able. On tl1e other hand, in ·Britain. the amount

inputs \
I
storage I
transp·ir:ation precipitation
I
transfers I
interception
��....,_.____,_
.' ___lI.
• outputs I '

,
throughfall • .. .. •,

'
stemflow

surface storage surface runoff

(overland flow)
• infiltration

vegetation
storage
14----=-�-·,-��- ------1 soil w.ater storage throughflow channel storage i---,.;---..i chan,nel flow
'

variable level
p 'ercolation
(water table)----------�-� ...... -- -.I----,
groundwater i-,..;......... groundwater flow i------�--......
1
stor�ge (baseflow)
 •

of water available for evapotranspiration nearly excess water will flolv over tl1e st1rface, a transfer
always exceeds tl1e amount whicl1 actt1ally takes k11own as su1·face runoff (or, in I-Iorton's term,
P lace, he11ce tl1e tern1 actt1al evapot1·a11spira­ · overla.nd flow) (Figure 3.2).
.
t1on. In other words, tra11spiratio11 is li1nited by
tl1e availability of water i11 tl1e soil. Infiltration
In most e11viron111e11ts, overland flow is rela­
Interception tively rare except in t1rban. areas - whicl1 have
"'
l l1e first raindrops of a rai11fall eve11t will fall imper1neable coverings of tar1nac and concrete
on vegetatio11 wl1ich. sl1elters the underlying - or dL1ri11g exce1Jtio11ally l1eavy stor1ns. Soil
grot111d. This is called interception storage. It is will gradually admit water fro1n tl1e surface, if
greater in a woodland area or where tree crops tl1e supply rate is 1noderate, allowing it slowly
are grow11 than . on grass or arable land. If the pre­ to infiltrate vertically througl1 tl1e pores in tl1e
cipitatio11 is light a11d of short dt1.ration, mucl1 of soil. The maximu111 rate at whicl1 water can
tl1e water may never reach tl1e grot1nd and it may pass througl1 tl1e soil is called its i11filtration
be qt1ickly lost fro111 tl1e syste111 tl1rougl1 eva1Jora­ capacity and is expressed in mm/hr. rfhe ra.te of
tion. Estimates st1ggest tl1at in a woodla11d area infiltratio11 depends L1pon tl1e am.aunt of water
tip to 30 per ce11t of tl1e precipitatio11 111ay be lost already i11 the soil (antecede11t precipitation),
tl1rough i11terceptio11, wl1ich helps to explain the po1·osity (Figure 8.2) and structure of tl1e
why soil erosion is li111ited in forests. According soil, the natt1re of tl1e soil st1rface (e.g. crusted,
to Newson (1975), 'Interceptio11 is a cly11amic cracked, ploughed), and tl1e type, a111ount and
process of filling and e111pt)1i11g a sl1allow store seasonal cha11ges in vegetation cover. So1ne of
(abot1t 2 111111 i11 most UK trees). The e111ptying the water will flow laterally as throughflow.
occurs becat1se evaporatio11 is very efficient for DL1ri11g drier periods, so1ne water may be drawn
small rai11drops l1eld on tree surfaces.' I11 an area up towards tl1e surface 'by capilla1·y action.
of deciduotis trees, both interception. and eva­
Potranspira. tion rates will be higl1er in su1n111er,
Percolation
. As water reaches the un.derlying soil or rock
although the two processes do not occur simul­
layers, wl1ich. tend to be 1nore compact, its
ta11eot1sly.
1Jrog1·ess is slowed. This co11sta.11t ·movement,
If a rainfall eve11t persists, then water begins
called perc.olation, creates groundwater storage.
to reacl1 the ground by three possible routes:
Water eventually collects above an impermeable
dropping off the leaves, or throughfall; flowing
rock layer, or it may fill all pore spaces, creating
down tl1e trunk, or stemflow; and by t1nder­
a zone of saturation. The upper boundary of tl1e
going secondary interception by undergrowtl1.
sat·urated 111aterial, i.e. tl1e upper st1rface of the
Following a war1n, dry spell i11 summer, the
grou11dwater layer, is k11own as the water ta.ble.
grot111d 111ay be hard; at the start of a rainfall
Water may then be slowly transferred laterally as
event water will th.e n lie 011. the st1rface (surface
groundwater flow or baseflow. Except in areas
F.igure 3.2
storage) t1ntil tl1e upper layers become suf­
of Carbonifero·us limestone, groundwater levels
ficie11tly moistened to allow it to soak slowly
Surface runoff t1sually respond slowly to surface storms or short
downwards. If precipitatio11 is very heavy ini­
(overland flow), periods of drought (Figure 3.5). Dt1ring a le11gthy
Blyford, Suffolk tially, or if the soil becomes saturated, then
dry p�riod, some of the grou11dwater store will be
t1tilised as river levels fall. In a subsequent wetter
period, grot1ndwate1· must be replaced before the
level of the river can rise appreciably (Figt1re 3.3).
: water table reaches the surface, it means
If the
that the ground is saturated; excess water will
then forn1 a 1narsh where the land is flat, or will
become su.rface runoff if the ground is sloping.
Channel flow
Although some rain does fall directly into the
cha11nel of a river (channel precipitation), most
water reaches it by a combination of three transfer
processes: surface 1unoff (overland flow), through­
flow, or groundwater flow (baseflow). Once in tl1e
river, as channel storage, water flows towar. ds the
sea an. d is lost from the drai11age basin system:

•1•�··-···········-�···· - ... .. .. . ... . .. . .. . . .. .. . ... . .. . . . . .. . .. . . ... .. . .. . . ... . ... .. . . . . .• .. . .. .. �·. ··��··· ·····-�···············�·······�······-···········--··�···································
� ...

'
' .

Drainage basins and rivers 59

 The water bala11ce I:n. Britain, the a1111ual precipitation nearly
. always, i11 1nost years and in most places, exceeds
rf}liS sho,,vs t}1e State Of equilibriLtlll in the evapotra11spiration. As, therefore, precipitation
drai11age basin between the inputs and out1Juts. input exceeds evapotra11spiration loss, tl1e11 there
It ca11 be ex1Jressed as: is positive water balance (or wa.ter bt1dget).
P = Q + E ± change in storage
However in so1ne years, e.g 1974 ancl 1975, and
where: 1995 a11d 1996, the lo11g, dry st1m1ners, especially
P = precipitatio11 (1neasured. using rai11 gat1ges)
i11 the south and east of the cou11try, resulted
Q = ru11off (1neast1red by discl1arge flumes in in evapotranspiratio11 exceeding precipitation
the river chan11el), a11d to give a te1nporary 11egative wate1· balance.
Figure 3.3
.. . . . . . . . .. . . ...
E = e,,apotranspiration. (Tl1is is far n1ore dif­
. . . ' Changes i11 storage in tl1e water bala11ce reflect
A n1odel illustrating ficL1lt to measL1re - l1ow can yot1 measure tl1e a1nou11t of moistt1re in the soil. The soil
soil moisture budget accurately tra11spiratio11 fro111 a forest?)
moisture budget is, according to Newson, a su·b­
150 150
system of the catchme11t water bala11ce.
evapotranspiration Figure 3.3 is a graph showing the soil moisture
80 111m in excess of

-E 125
precipitation
/
,,- ........
'\ F 125
::,
(t)
bala11ce for an area in south-east .England. During
winter, precipitation exceeds evapotran.spiration
--E
QJ
/ ::,
/ \ 3 creating a soil moisture su11Jlt1s which results
c / \ 0
0 100 I ::,
- 100 ,.... in considerable surface rt1noff and a rise in river
·- :r
\
·-a.
m
......
I
I '< levels. I11 st1m1ner, evapotranspiration exceeds
·-u \ (t)
< 1Jrecipitation and so plants a.n d h1tmans have to
I \ QJ
-0
a. 75 1
precipitatlo11 in excess \ 75
...,....
�
0 utilise water fro1n the soil store leavi11g it depleted
-�
/
1
of evapotranspiration, \
\
QJ
.c
...... I ::, a11d cat1sing river levels to fall. By autu1nn, wl1e11
c but 80 mm needed \ -·
V)

I .. -0
0 50 I for recharging soil \ 50 precipitation again exceeds evapotranspiratio11,
E I \ ,....
-·
0,

,,,QJ -3
c 0 the first of tl1e surplL1s water has to be used. to
::i
E I F ·recl1a1·ge tl1e soil until it reaches its field capacity
--3
25 I \ 25
\
'
/ ·(page 267). At no time in Figure 3.3 was the utilisa­
/ rainfall 625 mm in excess of \
•
/ evapotranspiration tio11 of water sufficient to create a soil moisture •

0 0 deficit (as in Figure 3.4b).

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
months

D water surplus D recharge

soil moisture --- potential
evapotranspiration
Figure 3.4
. . . . . . . ....
. . .- . . . . . . .. . . ... .
.. . . .. . .

Soil moisture budget for

two towns in the USA
D utilisation
soil moisture -- precipitation -�----� field capacity
attained
moisture totals in •
665 mm m,·11·,me
-- ----- ----- tres
,.-- - ----
- ------
-E 150 -E
-c 125
E
a Salisbury (New York state} 150
125 �
-cE 150 b Dalhart (state of Texas) 150

·-
0 -0 .Q 125 - 125 �
......
g�
+-'
m
......
\)

.� 100 100 ·a. 1008 �

·- I \ 0, QJ ·-u 100
a.
u I \ a ::i Q.I QJ
::i
VI :,
� 75 I \ 75 "Q. 3 �
5 75 �.3
7
·Q.
665 mm 1
1 \
... 0
-�· ::i -a.
�
�o
\. � ::i
...... 50
:c I so O so -·
0 ::r
c \ ::i '<
,-+

'
/ ........... :, -
0 \ 3 _'<
E 25 25 3 25 3
c ,,,
Q)
,..,,,,,.
/
', 3
E J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
As precipitation is above potential evapotranspiration throughout By spring, potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. As
the year then there is, in an average year, neither a water shortage there is no water surplus, then plants have to utilise moisture from the
nor a need. to utilise moisture from the soil. soil. By midsummer, water in the soil has been used up and there is a
water deficit - meaning that plants can only survive if they are either
drought-resistant or if they can obtain water through irrig'ation. When
precipitation does exceed potential evapotranspiration, in winter, the
,. rain is needed to replace (recharge) that taken from the soil earlier in
the year, and amounts are insufficient to give a water surplus.

. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • t • • · · · · · · · · " · · · · ' · · · · · ·
60 Drainage basins and rivers·
•
 runoff:
discharge in cumecs
(m3/sec)
Figure 3.5 so peak flow or
'. . . . . . . . .. .. ··-· ....... . . .... discharge
The storm hydrograph c "'O
·-
'- 0
·4 0 >Q) 0
·-
'- c;::

'"-- falling limb or recession

30 rising limb-­
rainfall
20 peak
lag -r-
so 1� time ---�
.......... approach runoff or
E 40 segment storm flow
-S
- 30 · 10
� 20 raiofa'I ------------------
.s 10 r-�µ�-r�-time of rise-.i baseflow
� o
1200 (day 1) 0000 (day 2) 1200 (day 2) 0000 (day 3)
time (hours)

The storm hydrograph
An important aspect of l1ydrology (the study
of water, p1·ecipitatio11, n1noff and evapo1·a­
tio11/transpirati(?11 processes) is l10v\' a drainage
·ba.sin reacts to a period of rain. This is i111porta11t
because it ca11 be t1sed in predicti.11g tl1e flood risk
and. in maki11g the necessary p r. ecautions to avoid
da111age to property and Joss of life. The response
of a river can be studied by usiI1g the stor.111 or
flood hyd.1·ograph. The hydrograpl1 is a means
of showing tl1e d.ischarge of a river at a given
poi11.t over a short period of time. Discl1arge is tl1e
amou11t of water origi11ating as precipitatio11 which
reaches the cl1a1111el by sL1rface runoff, througl1flow
and baseflow. Discharge is tl1erefore the water n.ot
stored in tl1e drainage basin by interception, as
st1rface storage, soil moisrure storage or grot1nd­
water storage or lost through evapotranspiration
(Figttre 3.1). Tl1e model of a storm hydrograpl1,
l�igure 3.5, sl1.ows how the discharge of a riyer
responds to a11. individual rainfall event.
Measuring discha.rge
Discharge is the velocity (speed) of the river,
1neasured in metres (m) per second, 1nultiplied
by tl1e cross-sectional a.rea of the river, meas­
ured in m 2 . This gives tl1e volume in 1n3 /sec or
. :
cumecs. It can be expressed as:
Q = AxV
where:
Q = discha.rge
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity.
Interpreting the .hydrograph
Refer to the hydrograph in Figure 3.5. The graph
includes tl1e approacl1 segme·nt ·which sl1ows ·
the discharge of the river before the stor1n (the
antecedent flow rate). Whe11 the stor1n begins, the
river's response is negligible for although some
of the rain does fall directly into the channel,
..... ........ ... . .. ....... . . .. .. . ....... ... ..... . .
.. ' . . . .. .. .... . . ..... ..
. . . . . . . ... ....... .... . .
.
. .
111ost falls elsewl1ere in the basin and takes ti1ne
to reacl1 the cl1a11nel. However, wl1en tl1e initial
SLtrface runoff and, later, tl1e tl1rougl1flow even­
tually reach the river there is a rapid increase in
discharge as indicated by the 1·ising li1nb. Tl1e
steeper the rising limb, the faster the response
to rainfall - i.e. water reaches tl1e channel more
quickly. '"fl1e peak discharge (peak flow) occurs
when the river reacl1es its highest level. The period
betw�en maximL1m precipitation and peak dis­
charge is referred to as the lag time. The lag time
varies according to conditions within the drainage
basin, e.g. soil and rock type, slope and size of
the basin, drainage density, type a11d a1n.ot1nt of
vegetation a11d water already in storage. Rivers
with a short lag time tend to experience a higher
peak discharge and are more prone to flooding
than rivers with a long lag time. The falling
or recession limb is the segn1ent of the graph •
where discharge is decreasing and river levels are
falling. This seg111ent is ust1ally less steep than the
rising lilnb becat1se throughflow is being released
relatively slowly into the cl1annel. By tl1e ti1n.e all
the water fro1n tl1e storn1 has passed through the
cl1annel at a given location, the river will l1ave
rett1rned to its baseflow level - unless there has
been another storrr1 within the basin. Stormflow
is the discharge, both st1rface a11d subsurface flow,
attributed to a single storm. Baseflow is very
slow to respond to a storm, but by continually
releasi11g groundwater it maintains the river's
flow during periods of low precipitation. Indeed,
baseflow is more significa.n t ove:r a longer period
of time than an individ.ual storm and reflects
seasonal changes in precipitation; snowmelt,
vegetation and evapotranspiration. Finally� on
the graph, bankfull discharge occurs when.a
river's water level reaches the top of its channel;
any further increase in discha.rge will result in
flooding of the surrounding land. This l1appens,
on average, once every year or two.
.. .. .... .. ...... . .. .. . ..... ' ............ . ........ ,-.!••·················· .. • ? • • • •
' '

Drainage basins and rivers •

61
 Shape It has lo11g been accepted that a cir­
Controls in the drainage basin and on
ct1lar· basin is 111ore likely to l1ave a shorter lag
· the storm hydrograph
time and a higl1er peak flow tl1an an _elongated
In some d.rai11age basins, 1iver discl1arge increases basin (Figure 3.6a and b). All tl1e points on the
very qt1ickly after a. storm arid may give rise to
watershed of the former are approximately equi­
frequent, and occasionally catastrophic, flooding. dista11t from the gauging station, whereas in the
• Followi11g a storm, tl1e levels of such rivers fall
latter it takes longer for water from the extre1ni­
almost.as rapidly and, after dry spells, can become
ties of tl1e basin to reach the gauging station.
very low. Rivers i11 other basi11.s seem. neither to
riowever, Newson (1994) has pointed out that
flood 11.or to fall to very low levels. Tl1ere are several
stt1dies 111ade in many regio11s of the world have
. factors whicl1 contribL1te to regL1lating the ways in
sl1own tha.t basi11 sl1ape is less reliable as a flood
wluch a river responds to precitJitatio11.
indicator tl1an basin size and slope.
1 Basin si�e, shape andrelief Relief Tl1e slope of the basin and its valley
Size If a basin is small it is likely tl1at rainfall will sides also affect the hyclrograph. In steep-sided
'
reacl1 tl1e rnain cha1mel 111ore rapidly tl1an in a upland valleys, water is likely to reach tl1e river
larger basi11 where the water has 1nuch furtl1er to n1ore qL1ickly than i11 gently sloping lowland
travel. Lag ti111e will therefore be sl1orter in the areas (Figure 3.6c).
smaller basin.

a two basins, -----' •A b storm hydrographs for

A and B, gauging stations three drainage basins of
with widely •B differing shapes
Basin X Basin Y Basin Z
differing
shapes 1 hour time for discharge to
--- -- I --,\ reach gauging station
1,

• • •
Basin A
. --- ---
x y z
--- --- Basin B
------- --....
. ,
-- - -· watershed _ -- - _.,,.... '
'

/ --..............---. .-- ' ',_,

::::..-

2 hours
,-- -.__.. ,,. -­
c basin relief and
associated storm
hydrographs showing long profile long profile
-- - ....
/

the relationship
1 hour
• • • 1 hour
2 hours between the long
profile and the storm
A B hydrograph
•

Figure3.6
.. ... . .. . ..... ,. . . . . . . .. ... ............ . 2 Types ofprecipitation 3 Temperature
Drainage basin shape Prolonged_ rai11fall Flooding most frequently Extremes of temperature can restrict infil.tra­
occurs followi11g a long period of hea.vy rainfall '•
tion (very cold i11 winter, very hot and dry in
when the ground l1as become saturated and SL1m1ner) and so increase st1rface ru.noff. If evapo­
infiltration has been replaced by surface 1·L1noff transpiration rates are l1igh, then there will be
(overland. . flow). less water available to flow into the 1nai11 river.
Inte11se storms (e.g. convectional thLtnder­
4 Landuse
storms) When heavy rain occt1rs, the rainfall
Vegetation Vegetation may l1elp to prevent
i11tensity may be greater than tl1e i11filtration
flooding by intercepting rainfall (storing mois­
• capacity of the soil (e.g. in summer in Britain,
ture on its leaves before it evaporates back into
when the ground may be harder). l�he resulting
the atmosphere - page 59). Estimates suggest that
surface rt1noff is likely to produce a rapid rise i11
tropical ·rainforests intercept ·up to 80 per cent of
river levels (flash floods) - Boscastle, Cor11wall,
rainfall (30 per cent of whicl1 ri1ay later evapo­
Places 12, page 80.
Snowfall Heavy snowfall means that wa.ter rate) whereas arable la:nd rnay intercept only
lO·per cent. Interception is less during the winter
is held in surface storage and river levels drop.
in Britain when deciduous trees have shed their
When temperatures rise rapidly (in Britain, this
may be with the passage o.f a warm front and its leaves a!}d crops have been harvested to expose
associated. rainfall, page 231), meltwater soo11 bare earth. Plant roots, especially tl1ose of trees,
reaches the main river. It is possible that the reduce throughflow by taking up water fro.m
the soil.
ground will remain frozen for some time, in
•
w·hich Gase infiltra.tion will be impeded. ' •
•
•
• • •
•
• • •

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . t • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•

62 Drainage basins and rivers

•
 100 '\---- R. Wye flowing over
moorland
'
delayed, less high, (witl1 friction reduced) the wa.ter flows away
/
<peak flow 111ore quickly, or ct1lverted, which allows only a
� 66

-
I
!'I")
I , R. Severn flowing lirn.ited a1nou11t of wa.ter to pass tl1rough at one
I ' , through coniferous
<lJ
,forest ti111e (Figure 3.8).
'
0\
Figure 3.7 "'
.c
I
.. ' ........................ ' ............
·-� 33 I
I 5 Rock type (geology)
The effect of /
vegetation on the /
less rapid falling
Rocks tl1at allow water to pass through them are
/
storm hydrographs :.,-
/ limb due to less said to be per111eable. There are two types of 1Jer-
rapid runoff
of the Rivers Wye and 0-r-----------.-----�------------:::::__, 1neable rock:
Severn (geology and 0 10 20 30 Cl Porous, e.g. sandstone ancl chalk, wl1ich
precipitation are the hours from beginning of storm contai11 11u111erous pores able to fi.11 with an
. d
same in both basins)
store water (Figure 8.2).
l�looding is 1nore likely to occL1r in deforested a Pe1·vious, e.g. Carboniferot1s li111estone, which
areas, e.g. tl1e i11creasi11gly frequent and serious allow water to flow· along beddi11g planes a11d
flooding in Ba11gladesl1 is att:rilJuted to the down joi11ts withi11 the rock, altl1ot1gl1 the
removal of trees in Nepal a11d other I--:Ii1nalaya11 rock itself is i.111pervious (Figl1re 8.1).
areas. In areas of afforestatio11, floodi11g 111ay As both types IJermit ra1Jid i11filtration, there is
i11itially i11crease as tl1e la11d is cleared of old little surface runoff and only a li111ited nu1nber
vegetation a11d drained, bLtt later decrease as of surface strea.ms. I11 contrast impermeable
the planted trees mature. Newso11 (1994) points 1·ocks, sucl1 as granite, do not allow water to
Ollt that, after 20 years of data collecting, the evi­ pass tl1rough tl1em. and so tl1ey are characterised
de11ce suggests tl1at tl1e canopy l1as more effect by more surface runoff and a greater number of
011 1nedit1m flows than 011 higl1 flows, streams.
as tl1e main ditc11es re1nai11 active. 6 St;,il type
Figt1re 3. 7 contrasts the stor111 hydrograpl1s Tl1is controls tl1e rate and volu1ne of infiltration,
of two rivers. Although they rise very close tl1e a.mount of soil moish1re storage and t11e rate
together, tl1e River Wye flows over 1noors a11d of throught1ow (page 265). Sandy soils, witl1 large
grassla11d, wl1ereas the River Severn flows pore spaces, allow rapid infiltration and do not
tl1rot1gh an area of coniferous forest.: e11courage flooding. Clays have much smaller
U1·banisation Urbanisation l1as increased pore spaces and they are less well connected;
flood risk. Water can11ot infiltrate through this reduces i11filtration and throughflow, but
tarmac and concrete, and gutters a11d drains encourages st1rface runoff and increases the risk of
carry wa.ter 1nore quickly to the nearest river. flooding.
Small strea1ns may be either canalised so that
7 Drainage density
Figure 3.8 This refers to the nu111ber of surface streams in
.. . . . .. . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .....
t
An urban river a given area (page 6 7). --rhe densi y is higher on
impermeable rocks and clays, a11d lower on per­
- -" '

meable rocks and sands. Tl1e higher the density,

·,
' l. the greater is tl1e probability of flash floods. A
l � flash flood is a sudden rise of wa te·r in a river,
• , sl1own on the hydrogra1)h as a shorter lag time
'
- J. �
and a higher peak flow in relation to normal dis­
;

''
1

charge.
8 Tides and storm surges
High spring tides tend to preve11t river floodwater
from escapi11g into the sea. Floodwater therefore
builds tip in the lower part of the valley. If high
tides coincide with gale-force winds blowing
011shore and a narrowing estuary, the rest1lt may
be a storm surge (Places 19, pag. e 148). This hap­
pened in south-east England.and in the Nether­
lands in 1953 and pr9mpted the construction of
the Thames Barrier and the implementation of the
Dutch Delta Plan.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • ••
· ··· ·· ········· ······· ···• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•• • • •• • • • • •• • •• •

Drainage basins and rivers 63

 •

River regimes are few rivers flowing today tinder wl1olly natural
' conditions, especially in Britain. Most
The regi1ne of a river is the ter111 used to describe are managed, reg11lated systems wl1ich result
'
the an�1ual variation in discharge. l�l1e av. erage fro1n human activity, e.g. reservoirs and flood pro-
regi1ne, whicl1 can be shown by eitl1er the 111ean
tectio11 schemes.
daily or tl1e 1nean 111011tl1ly figures, is determined
Regimes of rivers, which are used to demon-
pri1narily by the clirnate of the area, e.g. the
strate seasonal va.riations, may be either simple,
a1nou11t and distributio11 of rainfall, together
with one peak period of flow, or co1nplex with
with tl1e rates of evapotranspi_ration and snow-
several peaks (Places 9).
1nelt. Local geology may also be sig11ifica11t. Tl1ere

River Don, Yorkshire and River Torridge, 0evon:

river discharge
Figure 3.9 shows the rainfall and runoff figures the source of the river is in an upland area liable to
for the River Don (South Yorkshire) for one year. heavy winter snowfalls - in this case, the Pennines.
Discharge is usually at its highest in winter when It is possible for runoff to exceed precipitation, e.g.
Figure 3.9
.' ... , .. ,. . . ······· .. . ··- . Britain receives most of its depressions and when when heavy snowfall at the end of a month melts
Rainfall and runoff evapotranspiration is limited due to the low during a milder, drier period at the beginning of the
for the River Don, temperatures. Early spring may also show a peak if next month. In contrast, river levels are lowest in
Yorkshire
summer when most of Britain receives less rainfall
and when evapotranspiration rates are at their
200
D total rainfall (P) = 841 mm highest. There is often a correlation, or relationship,
175 D t�tal surface runoff between the two variables of rainfall and runoff.
- 150 (Q) = 280 mm
This relationship can be shown by means of a
scattergraph (Framework 19, page 612). Rainfall is
5 125
c plotted along the base (the x axis) because it is the
0
·.::; 100 independent variable, i.e. it does not depend on the
·.....
!ti
-
·c; 75 amount of runoff. Runoff is plotted on the vertical
or y axis because it is the dependent variable, i.e .
Q)
0.
so runoff does depend upon the amount of rainfall.
25
The Environment Agency (EA) also produces
o-1..�....L�...L.:."---'-Jl..22..!....:..l!___J1£........:�__;_........L�--L�.....L.-'-"--"1-�...k.J� hydrographs covering longer periods of time than
O N D J F M A M J J A S • for a single storm (Figure 3.5) but with far greater,
and more useful, data than that given for the annual
260
-- river flow regime of a river (Figure 3.9).
240
� precipitation at Figure 3.1O gives rainfall and discharge for a wet
220 � Okehampton
•
month in late 1992 for the RiverTorridge in Devon .
-� 180
200
It shows that:

E 160 40
::, • a as most of the peak discharges occur within a
35
� 140 day of peak rainfall then the river must respond
�
30
'""
E 120 quickly to rainfall and, therefore, is likely to pose
c 100 25 E
·- a flood risk
0 80 20=
c.:: the highest discharge (on the 30th) came after
15 .£: b
6.0
several very wet days during which river levels
40 10
had no time to drop, rather than after a very wet
I 20 5
day (the 17th) which followed a relatively dry
o- 0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27:28 2930 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 0910 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 spell of weather.
day

Figure 3.10
. . . ...... ................... ·� ......... .
'

Hydrograph for the

River Torridge at
'
Torrington, Devon,
late 1992
. . . . . . .. . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <t • • • • • • • • • t, • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·- · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · ·
64 Drainage basins and rivers
•

'
 Morphometry of drainage basins If tl1e 11um.ber of segments in a strea111 order
•
is plotted 011 a se111i-log gr�ph agai11st the strea1n
Morpho1netry means 'the 1neasL1re1ne11t of order, tl1en tl1e resultant best-fit line will be
•
shape or for111'. Tl1e develop111e11t of 111orpho­ straight (Figure3.12a). O� a semi-log graph, the
n1etric tecl1niques was a major adva11ce i11 the vertica l scale,
. sl10,,ving tl1e dependent variable
.
qt1antitative (as opposecl to the qualitative) (Framework 19, page �12)� is divided into cycles,
descriptio11
. of drainage basins
. (Frameworl, 4). each of wl1ich begin.s and ends.ten ti1nes greater
I11stead of studies bei11g purely subjective, it than tl1e preyious cycle, e.g. a ra11ge of 1 to 10, 10
became possible to co1111Jare a11d co11trast dif­ to 100, 100 to 1000, and so on. (If tl1e horizontal
fere11t basi11s witl1 precision . Mucl1 of tl1e early scale, showing the independent variable, had
vvork i11 this field was by R.E. I-Iorton. 111 the mid- also been dividecl into cycles instead of l1aving
1.940s l1e devised tl1e 'Laws of drainage composi­ an arithmetic scale, tl1en Figt1re3.12 wot1ld l1ave
tion' wl1icl1 establisl1ed a l1ierarcl1y of streams bee11 referred to as a log-log grapl1 (Figure 18.25).)
ra11ked according to 'order'. One of these laws, · Logarithmic graphs are valuable when:
the law of stream numbe1·, states tl1at witl1in a o the rate of cl1an.ge is of 111ore i11terest tha11 the
drainage basin a constant geo111etric relatio11sh.ip amount bf cl1ange: the steeper tl1e li11e the
exists between strea1n order a11d stream 11u1nber greater the rate of cha11ge
(I�igure3.12a). a tl1ere is a greater range i11 the data than there
Figure3.11 shows how one of Horton's suc­ is space to express on an aritl11neti� scale (a
cessors, A.N. Stra.hler, define. d streams of differe11t log scale co1npresses values)
order. All tl1e initial, u11brancl1ed source tribu­ c there are co11siderably 1nore cta. .ta at· 011e end
taries he called first order strea.ms. w·ben tvvo of the range than the 0th.er.
first order streams join they form a second 01�der; Figure3.12a shows a perfect negative correla­
wl1en two second. order strea.ms 1nerge tl1ey form tion (Figure 21.14): as tl1e independe11t va r. iable
a thi1·d order; and so 011. Notice that it needs two (i11 this case the stream ord.er) i11creases, the11
strea111 seg1nents of equal order to join to produce tl1e dependent variable (the nu111ber of streams)
a segn1ent of a higher order, while the order decreases. Stt1dies of stream orderi11g for most.
re111ains t1nchanged if a lower order segme11t joins rivers in the world produce a si111ilar straight­
a higher order segment. For example, a second line relationship. For any exceptions to Horton's
ord.er plt1s a second order gives a third order but law of stream qrdering, further studies can be
if a second order stream joins a third order, the made to determine wl1ich local factors alter the
resultant stream re111ai11s as a third order. A basin relationship. Relationships also exist.between
may therefore be described in tern1s of the highest stream order and the mean le11gth of strea111s
!
order stream within it, e.g. a 'third order basin or a (Figure3. l 2b), and stream order and mean
'fourtl1 order basin'. drainage basi1) area (Figure3.12c).

3 1
2 2
I
I
1 watersheds
1 1 1
•
1
1 2 first order
1
1 2 1 streams
2
1 1 · second order
• streams
'1 ' 1
third order
1
1 streams
2 fourth order
streams
-- I
�

1
- ' '

2
0 2km :

sea •

Figure 3.11
·················· ·· ··�·· ....... .
Strahler's method of
stream ordering

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. � �

Drainage basins and rivers 65

 • ·- �--�-�..._.-,__..__�..-----4,, ........... >----�-- .... ---· -------��-----..-----,..-...

Figure 3.12
............................. ' ........... , .
100 100 co 100 c area of drainage/
•
•, a the number b stream length
Relationships so ..... so ro
Q)

so basin
. ' of streams
'\. 0/
between stream order E
·co -
O
O'l
c ·-c

.,
and other variables Q) 11'1 -Q) co
.0
� E 10 E- 10 wr7' 10
f'CI E
- Q)
OIE
o E S "- - 5 5
;·
Q)
co �
"- O'l ..... � •
·- c .._.,
"-
Q) Q)
.0 11'1 c
E-
::::, 1 • Q)
E 1 c
f'CI 1 ;·
0.5 0.5 Q)
0.5 e
0.3 -l-----.---r----,---,----, 0.3 4-----.---r----,---,----, 0.3 ...J_____;---,----,r---.--,
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 O 1 2 3 4 5
stream order stream order stream order

Comparing drainage basins (nL1mber of fir st

Nl _ e a=m
-�or�·d:::.::e'..!..r �str:::.:.=.:. �s) = 2 6 = 4. 33
I-Iorton's work has 1nad e it po ssibl e to con1pare dif­ '-----:-
N2 - (11u1nber of second 6
f e rent drai11age basins scientifically ( quantitatively) order stre ams)
ratl1er tl1a11 relying 011 subjective (qt1ali tative)
(nt1mber of second
descriptions by i11dividuals. It also allows stt1di es
N2 _ -�or��d� e 1�·�st�r=ea=1=n=s�)� = 6
= 3.00
of drainage basin morpl101netry in differen.t parts
N3 - (nu1nber of third 2
of tJ1e world to use tl1e sa111e sta11dard s, meas ure- ord er str eams)
1ne11ts and 'la11guage'. (nu111be r of third
Figt1re 3.13 sl1ow s two imagi11ary and adja­ N3 _ �o� r�d�e�1�· s�t�r=ea=1=n=s�)� = 2 = 2.00
c e11t ba si11s . These ca11 be con1parecl in sev eral N4 - (nu1nber of fourth 1
diff erent way s, including: order strea ms)
II the bift1rcation ratio, a11d
m drainage de11 sity.. and tl1e11 finding tl1 e 1nean of all tl1 e r atios in tl1 e
.basin be ing s tt1died, i. e.
The bifurcation ratio
bifurcation
Thi s is t11e relatio11.ship between tl1 e nu1nber of 4. 33 + 3.00 + 2. 00 = 3 .11 = r atio for
st1· ea1ns of 01,·e ord er a11d those of tl1e next highest 3
ba sin A
orcler. It is obtained by dividing the nt1mber of
s treams in one ord er by the 11t1rnber in the next
The hL1man significa11ce of the bift1rca t io11
highest order, e.g. for basin A in Figure 3.13: ratio i s tl1at as t he ratio i s redt1ced so t11e ri s k of
• Figure 3.13 flooding within tl1e ba sin i11cr ea ses . It al so indi­
.- . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . .. . ...... , ..... cates the flood risk for part s, rath er t11an all, of
A comparison between
two adjacent drainage
the basin. l\1o st Briti sh riv e rs l1ave a bifu rcatio11
basins on clays and r atio of b etw een 3 and 5.

sands

- • • I'

. .
I•
___. --- ·-J.-. - -
-- .........
II ,,.. "-- ]/ 1 ..... , ' clays . sar ds
�/ 1 /2 1 , ,__
•
II drainage ·
/ v · ..... ,,
I' L__J basin A ,_ / \ y -
1 \ / -"� 1 '/ V, .
" � II 2 / basir I A ' �. )
.
, , •

- .
' ..
I •'
,, • ., •
gaugtng
v lY -, .,
'

• ••
stations at end I'
I• j1\ .J
, • \

( if
I'
; . ..• ,.. _1:;· . of each basin - -- - 3.-< 1� . J' ,.. J /; ,. \\ I
. ' I

vv
'
/ 21'< �
•• I\\
I•
- - - - w,aterstied l -
I. ' -.r·•·- -
• •• 4 1 ,/ .
'.
, . ,, . \
11

• ,, • "·
-.. -
t
9L----1
'

1
km .
•, I• II I' H
I� II
.... .�
. . . ,-
if" .. . , '

��t
•
j'. • .•

II __.
,•,.' I'
' �I�'.-- .·
.
- .. ..
IV .
&

• • - II I •
L
·.

--
,. .
-
. •
:€� ., =
I '

11II
�
I I
i.o..l . I I•

'...... . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. • • • • ••• ••• • • •

• • • • • • .• • • • • •••••• • • • ••• • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • ••••••••••••• • • • ••••••••• •
•• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •
• ••• • • • • • ••• • • • • • ••
• •
•

66 Dr.ainage basins and rivers

 --------•� ·-•-• �·-�·----� 4+,..._.Jio__
._.._
... ......
, -•
_,._,.,�. --���--.,....-,.._=-• �-�,.-'#i.-•-e��'-'-"' """-"' �II r�otd� �")uU,·
•�, ,. 11,......,... tee �t-..':S o>rmt,c ,w ,:s«J••M-t O x-:e t bnrrl mr,:i,qt�• e l ti

Drainage density In Figure 3.13 with two adjacent drai11age

Tl1is is calct1lated by 1neasL1ring the total le11gth of basins of approximately equal size, shape a11d
all t11e strean1s vvithi11 tl1e basin (L) a11d dividing probably 1:ai11fall, the difference in. drainage
by the area of the whole basi11 (fl). It is tl1erefore de11sity is likely to be due to basin A being on
tl1e average length of stream vvitl1in each u11it clays and basi11. B on sa11ds.
area. For basi11 A in Figure 3.13, this will be: b Land 11se Tl1e dral.nage density, especially of
1:.. = 22·65 = 1.81 k1n per m 2 first order streams, is muct1 greater in areas
k with little vegetation cover. The density
A 12.50
In Britai11 111ost drainage dens. ities lie betwee11 decreases, as does the nt1mber of first order
2 a11d 4 kn1 per km 2 but tl1is varies consider­ streams, if tl1e area becomes afforested.
ably according to local co11ditio11s. A 11u1nber of Deserts te11d to l1ave the l1ighest densities of
factors i11fl11ence drainage density. It tends to be first order cha11nels, eve11 if the channels are
highest in areas where tl1e la11d surface is im_per­ dry for n1ost of the time.
meable, where slopes are steep, where,rainfall_ c '"fime As a. river patter11 develops over a
is l1eavy and prolonged, and where vegetation period of time, the number of tributaries will
cover is lacki11g. decrease, as will the drain.age density.
a Geology and soils 011 very permeable rocks d Precipitatio11. Densities are usually highest
or soils (e.g. chalk, san in ateas where rai11fall totals and i11tensity are
. ds) drai11age de11sities
1nay be under 1 km per l<m 2 , whereas this also l1igl1.
increases to over 5 km per km2 011. higl1Jy e Relief Density is usually greater on steeper
imper1neable surfaces (e.g. granite, clays). slopes than on more ge11tle slopes.
•

. . . .

. �uantitative te�Gfjn·iques and st�tistical me.tlflods

ofi data interpretation .,
C=:r •••• -,;a e

As geography adjusted to a more scientific 2 Correlation and regression (Framework

approach in the 1960s, a series of statistical 19, page 612) This not only shows possible
techniques were adopted which could be used relationships between two variables but
to quantify field data and add objectivity to the quantifies or measures the stre.ngth of those
testing of hypotheses and theories. This period is relationships.
often referred to as the 'Quantitative Revolution� 3 Spatial distributions (Framework 19, page
At first it seemed to many, the author included, that 612) Not only may this approach be used to
mathematics had taken over the subject, but it is identify patterns, but it may also demonstrate
now accepted that these techniques are a useful aid how likely it is that the resultant distributions
provided they are not seen as an end in themselves. occurred by chance . •

They provide a tool which, if carefully handled and When these new t_echniques first appeared in
understood, gives greater precision to arguments, schools in the 1970s, they appeared extremely
helps in the identification of patterns and may daunting·until it was realised that often the
contribute to the discovery of relations.hips and difficulty of the worked examples detracted from
possible e::ause-effect links. In short, by providing the usefulness of the technique itself. Where such
greater accuracy in handling data they reduce the techniques appear in this book, the mathematics ',

reliance upon subjective conclusions. have be·en simplified to show more clearly_how
,•
methods may be used and to what effect. With the
It is essential to select the most appropriate
wider availability of calculators and computers
techniques for the data and for the job in hand.
it has become easier to take advantage of more
Therefore some understanding of the statistical
complex calculations to test geographical
methods involved is important.
hypotheses (Framework 10, page 299). Much of the
Statistical methods may be profitably employed in 'number crunching' has now been removed by the
these areas. increasing availability of statistical packages for
computers.
1 Sampling (Framework 6, page 159) · Rapid
'
collection of the data is made possible. •

'

• • • • ••• • • • • •• ••• • • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . ' . ' .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Drainage bpsins and rivers 67
.- --
r-

- I

-· -..
-- '
•

-
•
l1orizo11taJ 111ovement of v\'a.ter so rarely experi­
.--
••

..• - -
• • . -.
�
e11ced in rivers that it is ust1ally discoL1nted. Such
-· .
a form of flow, if it existed, wotild travel over
sedime11t o11 th.e river bed witl1out distl1rbing
it. TL1rbL1lent flo\i\', tl1e do1ninant inechanism,
consists of a series of erratic ecldies, botl1 ver-
tical ar1d J1orizontal, in a dow11stream direction
(l::igures 3.14 and 3. lSb). TLtrbulence varies witl1
tl1e velocity of tl1e river whicl1, in tu.rn, depends
upo11 the a1nou11t of energy available after fric­
tio11 has bee11 overco111e. It is estiinated that l1ncler
'nor1nal' conclitio11s about 95 per cent of a river's
e11ergy is expended in order to overco111e frictio11.
Influence of velocity on turbulence
If th.e velocity is l1igh, the a111ou11t of e11ergy
IJ
still available after frictio11 has bee11 overcorne
Figure3.14 will be greater and so turbulence increases.
.... .... ..... ...... .. ..
River form and velocity
,,

Tl1is restilts .i11 sedi1.ne11.t on tl1e bed bei11g

'

Turbulence in a river:
the confluence of distLtrbed anci carried clownstrean1. --r11e faster
the Rio An1azon (red A river \vill try to adopt a cl1an11eJ sl1ape that best tl1e flow of tl1e river, the larger the ql1a11tity
with silt from the fulfils its two 111ain f·u11ctio11s: transporting water a11d size of particles whicl1 can be tra11s­
Andes) and the Rio a11d sedi111ent. It is in1porta11t to ltnderstand tl1e ported. The trans·portecl 1naterial is referred to
Negro (black with sig11ificance of cl1a1111el sl1a1Je in order to identify
plant acids) as tl1e river's load.
tl1e co11trols 011. tl1e flow of a river. D Wl1en tl1e velocity is low, tl1ere is less energy to
overcome friction. Turbulen.ce decreases and
Types of flow 1nay 11ot be visible to tl1e l1L1man eye. Sedi111e11t
As water flows dow11hill u11der gravity, it seeks 011 the river bed re111ains t1ndisturbed. Indeed,
tl1e 1Jath. of least resistance - i.e: a river-possesses as tL1rbulence mai11tains the transport of tl1e
pote11tial ene.rgy a11d follows a rotite that will load, a reduction in. turbulence 111ay lead to
i:naxi111ise tl1e rate of flow (velocity) a11d 111i11imise deposition of sedi1nent.
I
the loss of t�;iis e11ergy caL1sed by friction. Most The velocity of a river is i11fluenced by three
friction occL1rs along the ba11k. s and bed of tl1e main factors:
river,. but the internal friction of the water and a.ir 1 channel shape in cross-section
I
•

Figure 3.15 resistance 011 tl1e surface are also significant. 2 rougl1ness of the cl1annel's bed. and
....... ' ' .... ·····
Tl1ere are two patterns of flow, laminar and banks, and
. Types of flow in a river
turbule11t. Laminar flow (Figure·3.15a) is a 3 cha11nel slope .
•
.. ,
a laminar flow
• •

•
b turbulent flow
horizontal eddies
'

'
•

;
'
vertical �--
dddies eddies n,ay
' produceiminor
upstream /
---- whirlpodls on
the surfa,ce
I

downstream "·

upstream

downstream

.. . .. . . . .. . . .... ... . . . . .. . . . ... ..... . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. ... . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ...... .. .. ........ . .... . . .... " ........................ .
68 Drainage basins and rivers
 --�··
__..._
,.. ___ ..
--.,..,.tN,.... -- ..."'"*--..,,,,-• -=--•-•----�---·�---

Stream A
•
I
' I
I
I
cross-section area I .•
) de1Jt'J1 of tl1e channel. Tl1e wettecl 1Jeri111eter
is tl1e total le11gtl1 of tl1e bed and bank sid. es in
I
,1
slm =40m2 I Sm contact witl1 tl1e water in tl1e cl1a1111el. Fig·ure 3.16
I
----- wetted perimeter I
(_,,,__�_,......
I
___ _....,. _.
shovvs two ch.annels with tl1e same cross-secti.011
I. ·' Bm area bt1t witl1 clifferent sha1Jes a11d l1ydraulic radii.
Strearn A has a larger l1ydrat1lic radius,
n1ea11i11g that it has a s111aller a111ot1nt of water
in its cross-sectio11 i11 con.tact witl1 tJ1e wetted
perimeter.· This creates less. frictio11 v\7 hicl1 in tt1r11
redt1ces energy loss a11d allows greater velocity.
Strea1n A is said to be the 111ore efficient of tl1e
two rivers.
Strea111 B l1as a smaller l1yclrat1lic radius,
Wetted perimeter Hydraulic radius meani11g tl1at a larger amount of water is in
40 co11tact with tl1e wetted perin1eter. Tl1is results
Stream A: 5 + 5 + 8 = 18 m Stream A:
18
= 2.22 m
i11 greater friction, 111ore· energy loss and reduced
Stream B: 2 + 2 + 20 = 24m
40
Stream B: 24 = 1.66 m ,,elocity. Strea111 B is less efficient than stream A.
The shape of the cross-sectio11 co11trols
the poi11t of maxi1num velocity in a river's
Figure 3.16 1 Channel shape cl1annel. The point of maxi111um velocity is dif­
The wetted perimeter, 'I�l1is is 'best described by the term l1ydrat1lic ferent i11 a river with a straight course wl1ere
hydraulic radius and 1·adit1s, i.e. tl1e ratio between tl1e area of tl1e the cha1111el is lil<ely to be approximately sy1n-
efficiency of two different­ cross-sectio11 of a river channel and tl1e. le11gtl1
shaped channels with m
. etrical (Figt1re 3. l 7a) compared witl1 a 1nean­
equal area of its ,,vetted peri111eter. The cross-sectio11 area is dering chan11el where tl1e sl1ape is asymmetrical
obtained by 1neast1ri11g the widtl1 and the mean. (Figure 3. l 7b).
a symmetrical channel: velocities in a straight stretch of river
greatest velocity is where friction less fast on surface due
is least, i.e. away from banks, bed to air (wind) resistance
and air
f

0.40

0.30
0.20
-----
------ 0.1 o--

slowest flow resulting from ._______ speed (mis)

friction caused by contact
with bed and banks

b asymmetrical channel: velocities in a typically meandering river

greatest velocity away from
banks, bed and the air

0.20
\
0.10
J
Figure 3.18
..... , . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . , · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. .. .. . . . . . . . , . .. . . , ... ····· ..
Tiger Leaping Gorge on the River Yangtze, China.
speed (m/s) This gorge has been suggested as a site for a
future hydro-electric power station. It is nearly
1500 km upstream from the Three Gorges Dam

slower flow resulting from friction

Figure 3.17
. . .. .. . ... .
.... .. .. ;
. . . . .
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. .. . .

Cross-sections of a symmetrical and an asymmetrical stream channel

. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . " • • • • • • • • • • • 'f' •

•
Drainage basins and rivers 69
 -

.
2 Roughness of channel bed and banks wl1ere:
A river flowi11g between banks co111posed of coarse v = mean velocity of flow
.
material vvitl1 nt11nerot1s protrusions a11d over a R = - hydrat1lic radius
bed of large, angular rocks (FigL1re 3.18) meets witl1 S = cl1a11nel slope
1nore resistance tl1a11 a river witl1 cohesive clays n = boundary roughn ess.
•
and silts forming its bed and banks . "fhe for1nula gives.a ttseful approxi1nation: th e
Figure 3.19 shows why the velocity of a moun­ l1igher tl1e value, the rougher tl1e bed an d banks.
tain strea1n is less tl1a11 that of a lovvla11d river. As For exa1nple:
bank and bed roughness in.crease, so does tt1rbt1-
lence. Tl1erefore a mountain strea1n is likely to
pick tip loose 1naterial and carry it downstream.
Uniform 0.02 0.03 0.05
Ilot1gl1n.ess is difficult to 1neasure, but
Man11ing, a11 engineer, calct1lated a roughness Undulating 0.05 0.06 0.07
coefficient by whicl1 l1e interrelated the tl1ree
Highly irregular 0.08 0.09 0.10
factors affecti11g tl1e velocity of a river. 111 his
for1nula, k11own as 'Manning's N': Figure 3.19
...................................................
R o.67 50.s
v = r1
Why a river increases in
velocity towards its mouth
•

a mountainous or upper b lowland or lower

course of the river course of the river
Despite waterfalls wl1ere the velocity is locally high, As there is little resistance from the smooth bed and
the large number of angular rocks, coarse-grained banks, there is little friction and the river flows faster
banks and protrusions increase friction and reduce
the overall velocity
14----- 5 m-----....i �-------SOm-------
•

rock ��d�
protrusion

angular
boulders on cohesive silts small, rounded
river bed and clays bedload
(not to scale)
- •

Figure 3.20
············-···························'·····
The characteristic long
I source l The uRper: pc!(t of the r:i�er has most
profile of a rive'r turbulence •
•
' roughness
I
bedload in comparison to discharge
friction
•

' Jhe lower part of the tiver has

greatest discharge
concave profile greatest velocity
highest average hydraulic radius
• greatest cross-sectional area
• •
\ •

I mouth ·1 I

•
3 Channel slope
As more tributaries and water from surface
r11noff, throughflow an·d groundwater flow
join the main river, the discharge, the channel
- cross-section area and the hydraulic radius will
all increase. At the same time, less energy will
be lost through fr�ction and the erosive power
of bedload material will decrease. As a result,
the river flows over a gradually qecreasi11g gra­
dient - the characteristic concave long profile
(thalweg) as shown in Fig11re 3.20.
•

.... .......... ' ...... . . . . ... . .... . ............ . ..... . .. . ... . . ............... . .. ...... .. ... .. ......... ' ....... .. . ...... . . . .. .. .. ..................................
............. · · · · · · ·
70 Drainage basins and rivers
-------�--···· -· · ·

'

'
In su1n111arising this sectio11 it should be tl1e extra friction is lil,ely to cause deposition 011
n
. oted that: tl1e floodplai_n. A river at bankfull stage ca11 111ove
a a river in a deep, broad cl1an11el, often with a large quantities of soil and rock - its load - along
ge11tle gradie11t a11d a small beclload, will l1ave its chan11el. In Britain, 1nost n1aterial carried by a �

a greater velocity than a river i11 a shallow, river is. eitl1er sedime11t bei11g redistrib11ted from
narrow, rock-filled cha11nel - eve11 if the its banks, or 111aterial reachi11g the river from
gradie11t of the latter is steeper 1nass mov·e111ent on its valley sides.
CJ the velocity of a river i11creases as it 11ears Tl1e load is transporteq by tl1ree main
the sea - t1n.less, like t11e Coloraclo and tl1e processes: suspe11sion, solution and as bedload
Nile (Places 73, page 490), it flows throt1gh (FigL1re 3.21 and Places 10, page 73).
deserts where wa.ter is lost throt1gl1 evapora­
tio11 or by l1t11nan extraction for water supply
Suspended load
Very fi11e pa1ticles of clay and silt are clislodged
a the velocity increases as the de1Jth, vvidtl1 and
and carried by turbule11ce in a fast-flowing 1·iver.
discharge of a river all increase
Tl1e greater t.l1e tt1rbL1lence and velocity, the
Cl as rot1gl1ness increases, so too does turbu­
larger tl1e quantity and size of particles which can .
lence and the ability of tl1e river to pick ttp
be picked up. 1�11e 111aterial held in st1spension
a11d tra11sport sediment.
ust1ally for1ns tl1e greatest part of the total load;
it i11creases il1 amot1n.t towards tl1e river's mouth,
Tran·sportation giving tl1e water its browi1 or black colour.
Any energy remaining after the river l1as over­ Dissolved or solution load
come friction can be used to tra11sport sedi­ If the bedrock of a river is readily soluble, like
ment. Tl1e amount of e11ergy available i11creases limestone, it is constantly dissolved in flowing
rapidl)' as the discl1arge, velocity a11d t·L1rbt1le11ce water and re1noved in solution. Except in lime­
i11crease, 11ntil the river reaches flood levels. A stone areas, the 1naterial in solution for1ns only
river in flood has a large wetted peri111eter and a relatively small proportio11 of tl1e total load .
•

Figure 3.21
............................. ········
Transportation . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . ... .. ..• .. . .
•. .
•
•
processes in a river • • •
. I
·. · . 0 o ·. · Lighter material held
or stream
• •• •
· ·0 • •· •• o." o • Dissolved material carried in solution
0 • • 0 •
• •• o . •. . in suspension by
• • •
0
• 0 0 � o : turbulent eddies;
0 0
. 0 • 0 ·
lightest particles
0
• 0
o
0
o
0
.
0 0
nearer to surface Bedl�ad moved by either saltation (bo,uncing)
O
0 00 0 0 0 or traction (rolling)
0
O
oO o o
°
o OO 'I-...., , I - ..., ,
''A. r
,-.__,....,
''A.
..0 0 0 0 00 0
• ,_, ... � ...--....l
) ' (,
'

Bedload It is much n1ore difficult to 1neasure the

Larger particles whicl1 cannot be picked up by bedload than tl1e st1spended or dissolved load.. Its
the curre11t may be 1noved alo11g the bed of the contribution to th.e total load may be sn1all unless
river in one of two ways. Salta·tion occurs wl1e11 the river is :in flood. It has been suggested tl1at tl1e
pebbles, sand and gravel are temporarily lifted proportiqn of material carried in one year by the
up by the current and bounced along the bed i11 River Ty11e is 57 per cent in st1spension, 35 per
a hopping motio11 (co1npare saltation in deserts, cent in solution and 8 per cent as bedload. This is
page 183). Traction occt1rs.when the largest tl1e equivalent of a 10-tonne lorry tipping its load
cobbles and bot1lders roll or slide along the bed. into ·tl1e river every 20 ·minutes· throt1ghout the
The largest of these may only be moved dt1ring year. In comparison, the Amazon's load is equiva­
times of extreme flood. lent. to fot1r such lorries tipping every minute of
the year!
'
'

• • • , • • • � • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Drainage. basins and rivers 'Z1

,S-.....,..:;.S.-. =·:::::,,-e ·� ee ," -··--
•·----- ....�_e, ...,,
·�� Il W !l-1
,...,_ ·-
___ •S Jh+es=- ., ,. ,,_ .>
............,�...,._,,___...,._....o.b,.-'-""'-;;...,..,r.'-'--
!I.,• ...- � ,cf,
-
•<.....;,,,,,, -=•....,: «n-0,,:, 1J...-.� - __..............,.._,__,-·-- -·-
_
..·--

particles eroded --------

-- i11
suspension, JJarticles of various sizes. The 111a­
500
r=n
�.
®�� e
terial carried by tl1e river (ca1Jacity) is respo11sible
u 100 <.,'V' .::.,._
for 1nost of the subsequent erosion. Tl1e mean
� �e>o(.,�-4, =r� v'�e _..:::::_t------1 fall or settli11g velocity curve shows tl1e veloci­
.... a.QJ so rr,ea G) · o<:- ....\ c,;
'-
ties at wl1ich 1Jarticles of a given size become too
E n or critical etas'- ��oi) .,
� heavy to be transported a11d so will fall ot1t of sus-
.q 10""!----t-----+-----����----+-----+----� pension a1.1d be deJJOsited.
- �
The graph sl1ows two important points:
particles transported �o�"
�

QJ 5 particles deposited
>
..... '7> 1 Sand can be transported at lower velocities
·�
�
l -r----+---��(l;---1-----t----jf-------l � tl1an eitl1er fi11er or coarser pa.rticles. Particles
of about 0.2 m111 diameter can. be picked up
0.5 by a velocity of 20 cm per second (labelled 1
@)
on tl1e grapl1) wl1ereas finer clay particles (2),
0.1 -t-----f�--+-----1�--+---t---_J becat1se of their cohesive pro_perties, 11eed a
0.001 0.01 0. 1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
,�-clay ...,-•-silt-,...rc-sand--- ... ,�-gravel-,...rc:-pebbles-,...rc--"
• ....
> � ,..., velocity similar to tl1at of pebbles (3) to be
cobbles boulders dislodged. Dt1ri'ng ti111es of l1igh discharge
size of particles (mm) and velocity, the size a11d a111ot1nt of the
river's load will i11crease considerably, causing
Figure 3.22 Competence and capacity i11creased erosion withi11 the cl1annel.
.. . , ... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . .. . .
. . .
2 rfhe velocity reqt1ired to maintain patticles in
The Hjulstrbn1 graph, showing Two f1.1rtl1er ter1ns sl1ould be noted at tl1is
the relationship between suspension is Jess tha11 tl1e velocity 11eeded to
point: tl1e con1petence a11d capacity of a river.
velocity and particle size. It Compete11ce is tl1e maximu.n1 size of 1naterial
pick them up. For very fi11e clays ( 4) the velocity
shows the velocities necessary required to maintain tl1e111 is vi1tually ni.1- at
('critical') for the initiation of wl1ich a river is capable of tra11spo1ti11g . Capacity
wh.icl1 point the river mt1st al111ost have stopped
movement (erosion); for is tl1e total load actually tra11sported. Wl1en the
flov\ i11g! �[his means that 111ate1ial picl<ed up by
1

deposition (sedimentation); velocity is low, only small particles sttcl1 as clay,

and the area where transporta­ tl1rbule11t tribL1taries and lower order streams
silt and fi11e sand can be picked up (Figure 3.22).
tion will continue to occur once can be kept in st1spension by a less turbt1lent,
As the velocity increases, larger 1naterial ca1.1 be
movement has been initiated higl1er order main river. For coarser pa1ticles (5),
111oved. Because the 1naxi1nu1n particle mass
the bottndary betwee11 transportatio11 and depo­
whicl1 can be_ moved increases witl1 the sixth
sition is narrow, indicating tl1at only a relatively
power of velocity, rivers in flood can. 1nove co11-
s111all drop i11 velocity is 11eeded to cat1se sedi­
siderable an1ot1nts of material. For example, if
the stream velocity increased by a factor of four, �11entation. Recently, Keylock l1as argued that
an alternative 1nethod to that of Hjulstrbm for
then tl1e mass of 'bot1lders wl1ich could be n1oved
meas11.ring transport of river sedi111ent is by t1ow
wottld increase by 4 6 or 4096 times; if by a factor
depth rather than flow velocity; fle suggests tl1at
0f five, the maximu1n n1ass it could transport
shear stress- a measure of the force per u11it area
wot1ld be 1nultiplied 15 625 times.
tl1at tl1e flow exerts on a particle on the river
The relatio11ship betwee11 particle size (com­
bed - ca11 cause particles to roll out of their
Figure 3.23 petence) a11d water velocity is shown on. the
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .' . . .. . . . . . ... . ...
.. .. . riverbed location.
Potholes in the bed
Hju.lstrom grapl1 (Figt1re 3.22). The mean, or
c1·itical, erosion velocity ct1rve gives the approx­
· of the Afon Glaslyn,
Snowdonia i1nate velocity needed to pick u.p a11d tra11sport, Erosion
,
The material ca.rried by a river can contribute
to the wearing away of its banks and, to a lesser
extent and 111ainly in the upper course, its bed.
There are fot1r main processes of erosion.

Corrasion
•
I'
.. � i
� •

.
I• .."#- -. ..... '-r��1�. ....-,...
"".
...
�orrasio11 occurs when the river picks tip 1nater-
� _.
• •
••• 1al and 1ubs it along its bed and banks, wearing
'
�

the1n a�ay by abrasion, ratl1er like sandpaper. This

process 1s most effective dt1ring times of flood and
is tl1e 111ajor metl1od by which the river erodes both
vertically and horizontally. If t11ere are hollows in
the river bed, pebbles are likely to beco1ne trappecl.
Turbulent eddies i11 the current can swirl pebbles
arou�� to form potholes (Figure 3.23).
... . ... .. . ... , ..... . .. ..... ... . ' ...................... " .... .. . . . ' ..... • • • • • • • •
..-....n1.--r:-> ,. - - e, ..,.r •·�-r -·-- -·• -
· --a-.-�---� ·---..- ...,-�---- -
- --- .-

Attrition bl discl1arge is redu.ced following a period of low

As tl1e bedload is 1noved dow11stream, boulders
collide vvitl1 0th.er rnaterial a11d the i1npact 1.nay
break tl1e rock i11to srnaller pieces. In time, a11gL1lar
rocks become increasingly roL1nded i11 appeara11ce.
Hydraulic action
1,he sl1eer force of tl1e water as the turbulent
curre11t l1its river ba11ks (011 tl1e OL1tside of a
111.eander), 1)usl1es water i11to cracks. '"fhe air in
tl1e cra.cks is compressed, presst1re is i11creased
a11d, in time, tl1e bank will collapse. Cavitation
is a form_ of hydraL1lic action caL1sed by bL1bbles
of air collapsing. 1�11e resL1Jtant sl1ock waves l1it
and slowly weake11 tl1e ba11ks. This is tl1e slowest
and least effective erosion process.
Solution, or corrosion
Tl1is occt1rs co11tinL10L1sly a11d is i11dependent
of river discl1arge or \1elocity. It is related to tl1e
cl1e111ical composition of tl1e water, e.g. tl1e con­
centration of carbonic acid a11d h11mic acid.
Deposition
Wl1en tl1e velocity of a ri\1er begins to fall, �t l1as
less energy a11d so no longer l1as tl1e con1petence
or capacity to carry all its load. So, starti11g \vith
the largest particles, 111aterial begins to be depos­
ited (Figure 3.22). Depositio11 occurs when:
precipitation
CJ velocity is lessened 011 e11tering tl1e sea or a
lake (resLilting in a delta)
D sl1allower water occt1rs 011 tl1e inside of a
mea11der (Figure 3.25)
CJ the load is sudde11ly in.creased (caused by
debris fro1n a landslide)
CJ the river overflows its ba11ks so that the
velocity outside tl1e chan11el is redL1ced
(resulting i11 a floodplain).
As tl1e river loses energy, tl1e following cl1a11ges
are likely:
a Tl1e l1eaviest or bedload material is deposited
first. It is for this reaso.11 tl1at the chan11els of
mou11tai11 streams are ofte11 fillecl with large
boulders (Figures 3.18 and 3.27). Large boul­
ders increase tl1e size of the wetted perimeter.
Cl Gravel, sand and silt - tra11sported either as
bedload or i11 suspension - will be carried
furtl1er, to be deposited over tl1e floodplain
(Figure 3.31) or i11 the chan11el of tl1e ri,.,er as
it 11ears its moutl1 (Figure 3.32).
a '1,11e finest particles of silt and clay, which
are carried in SLLspension, 1nay be deposited
wl1ere the river mee.ts the sea - either to infill
an estuary or to form a delta (Figure 3.33).
c The dissolved load will 11ot be deposited, bt1t
will be carried out to sea where it will l1elp to
maintain the saltiness of the oceans.

Afon Glaslrn, North Wales: river processes

Figure 3.24
The Afon Glaslyn rises near the centre of the
. .. . . . . . . , . . .. . . . . . . .. . .....
Snowdon massif and flows in a general southerly
The Glaslyn Valley,
direction towards Tremadog Bay (Figure 3.24).
North Wales
'

[fi,g.4j7 J� ,i=..� �
ll}'in Gwynant
...if'.o� Fig,4.25
. rC,�1
�ont . Llyn Dinas
N
Beddgelert Fig.3.25
�!g.B.27' :--Pass of
Aberglaslyn

Porthmadog hyndeudraeth
Fig-S
� 6.33 ' Figure 3.25
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. .
•
Erosion and deposition in the
,..;:,-:::r-- sand and mud middle Afon Glaslyn
exposed at low tide
···· ···· ···· ····· ········· Morfa Harlech ........... . ........ ..... . ... ......... . ....... ' ..................................
�

Tremadog .
Bay 0 20km Drainage basins and rivers 73
•
•
• •
 •

.,

;· •
••

Figure 3.26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D
'
•
a long profile Snowdon Heavy rainfall weathers rock The Afon Glaslyn, showing
mainly transportation and erosion
p· rocesses and landforms
D
Llyn Llydaw 1 physically (frost shattering) to give
400 --r--... large boulders and sands
2 chemically (by acids) to give some sands at selected sites mainly deposition.
,'"""',::::::.:::::---1 but rna Inly c1 ays
3 through acids in vegetation being
leached downwards into rock
300 Site C Transportation small amount and size of
Dissolved load �...,
Site A Transportation large boulders, bedload, much suspension. little solution ---i

Erosion attrition and corrasion, a little hydraulic transported

mainly bedload, some suspension, out to sea
little in solution. Erosion attrition, action and corrosion
E
River corrasion, hydraulic action and corrosion
.c 200 Site F Deposition
descending Site D Deposition
Cwm Dyli Site B Deposition
..c
Q)
(hanging small boulders pebbles 1 bedload 2 suspended
cobbles gravel Site E Deposition pebbles and gravel deposited load
valley), mainly pebbles sand as sand deposited
on outside of bends in more turbulent
100 metamorphic
-k cIay
I sand clay as mud
slabs giving
turbulence Beddgelert
50 Aberglaslyn Pass Glaslyn Estuary
Llyn (Lake) Gwynant
(Traeth Bach)
o-+--r�--,--. �.- -r�.------.--� r---.-- ��� ---.� -r----,- �-,- _;.=== Llyn Dinas
::;=:::::::;:: ===:;:::::: :!:::;::::::::: :;::::::::::;:::: �;== =;=�r===;= b=,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Landforms distance (km) from Llyn Llydaw

floodplain, gorge, estu,,,y.
waterfalls, rapids, potholes, delta and raoids delta and extensive floodplain with large meanders. exposed sand,
small meanders meanders, rapios, some braiding, pools and riffles
large boulders lake lake braiding potholes
mud at low cide
• and floodolaln

.
b material
•
sizes at
Q) �
O),_
ro
"O
.._ Q)
µ
...., Q) ·­
" Site B Site D
./
Site F
I/
/
-
"
three
c µ V'I
Q.I ro o
"� . /
u Ea. I/ '\ I/
selected
sites·
<ij ._
0.. 0 "O
Q)
I • " �
·- --
1....
-�(---------� � �

large small large small large small

· ·---�
Figure 3.27
.... ······ ..... .. ·················· ····· . .......
, ,

The boulder-strewn river bed

of the upper Afon Glaslyn

' The long profile of the Glaslyn, as shown in Figure 3.26,

does not, however, match the smooth curve of the
model shown in Figure 3.20. This is partly because of:

• the effect of glaciation in the upper course

(Figure 4.25) and
• differences in rock structure in the middle
course (the Aberglaslyn Pass in Figure 3.27).
Figure 3.26 (a summar y of an Open University
programme) shows the relationships between
the processes of fluvial transportation, erosion
and deposition. By studying this diagram, how
likely are the following hypotheses (Framework 1 o;
page 299):

• that as the competence of the river decreases,.

material is likely to be carried greater distances
• that the largest material, c�rried as the bed load,
will be deposited first
• that material carried in suspension will be
deposited over the floodplain or in the channel
of the river as it nears its mouth
• that the finest material and the dissolved load
Will be carried out to sea?

�· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -..
 b to create st1fficient discharge to allow the
river to create e11ough energy t<? 1nove its
bedload and, therefore, to erode vertically, or
· c for rivers to cross desert areas which l1a.ve
little rain to wash down tl1e valley sides,
e.g. the Gra11d Ca.nyon (Figure 7.19).
z;;.;i Roel< st1·uch1re. Resistant, perJ11eable rocks
lil,e Ca1:boniferous lin1estone (Figure 8.5)
often. prodt1ce al111ost vertical sides i11 con­
trast to less resista11t, impermeable rocks
such as clay which are lil<ely to produce
more gentle slopes.
Vegetati.011 Vegetation ma·y l1el1J to bi11d the
soil together a11d thus l<eep the hillslope more
stable.
Interlocking spurs for1n becat1se tl1e river is
forced to follow a wi11di11g course aroL1nd tl1e
protrt1sio11s of the surroundi11g }1ighla11d. As tl1e
rest1ltant spurs interlock, the view t1p or down
the valley is restricted (Figure 3.28).
A process characteristic at ·the sot1rce of a
river is headwarcl erosion, or sp1·ing sapping.
I-Iere, wl1ere throughflo,,v reaches the st1rface, the
river 1nay erode bacl< towards its watersl1ed as it
underct1ts tl1e rock, soil and vegetatio11. Given
ti111e this can lead to river capture or piracy
Figure 3.28 Fluvial landforms (page 85).
V-shaped valley As the velocity of a river increases, sur,plLts energy Waterfalls
with interlocking
spurs, small rapids becomes available wb.ich 1nay be harnessed to A waterfall forms wl1e11 a river, after flowing over
and no floodplain: trans1Jort 1naterial and cause erosion. Where tl1e relatively hard .rock, meets a band of less resistant
Peak District velocity decreases, a11 energy deficit is likely to rock or, as is com111011 i11 Scit1th A111erica a11d
· National Park result in depositional feat11res. Africa, where it flows over the edge of a Plateau.
.
As tl1e water approacl1es tl1e bri11k of tl1e falls,
Effects of fluvial erosion velocity increases because the wa.ter i11 front of
V-shaped valleys and interlocking spurs it loses contact witl1 its bed a11d so is 11nl1a1n- . '

As shown in Figure 3.27, the channel Qf a river pered by friction (Figure 3.29). Tl1e µ11derlying
in its L1pper cot1rse is often choked with large, softer ro�k is wor11 away as v\7a.ter falls 011to it. In
angt1lar bot1lders. 1"his bedload produce� a large time, the harder rock may become t1nderct1t and
wetted perimeter whicl1 L1.ses up mt1ch of tl1e • t1nstable and may eventually collapse. Sorne of
river's energy. Erosion is minimal because little tl1is collapsed rock may be swirled around at the
energy is left to pic·k up and transport 1n.aterial .. foot of tl1e falls by turbt1lence, ust1ally at times
However, followi11g periods of heavy rainfall or. of high discharge, to create a cleep plu11ge pool.
after rapid s110W111elt, tl1e discl1arge of a river may As this process-is repeated, the waterfall retreats
rise rapidly. As the vya.ter flows betwee11 boulders, upstream leaviI1g a dee1J, steep-sided gorge
turbulence increases and may rest1lt eitl1er in tl1e (Places 11). At Niagara, where a hard band of
bedload being taken 11p into st1spe11sion or, as is lim�stone overlies softer shales and sa11dstone,
1110.re usual becat1se of its size, i11 its being rolled or tl1e Niagara River plunges 50 111 causing the
bounced along the river bed. The result is inten­ falls to retreat by 1 m a year and so creatin.g t11e
sive vertical erosiori which enables 'the river to Niagara Gorge.·
create a steep-sided valley with a cl1aracteristic V Rapids
• sl1ape (Figure 3.28). The steepness of the valley Rapids develop wh_ere the gradie11t of tl1e river
sides depends upon several factors. bed increases withot1t a st1dden break of slope
• Climate Valleys are steeper whe1·e there is (as i11 a waterfall) or where tl1e strea111 flows over
sufficient rainfall: a series of ge11tly dippi11g bands of l1arder rock.
a to i11stigate mass 1nove111e11t on tl1e valley Rapids i11crease the tt1rbulence of a river· and
sides and l1ence its erosive power (Figure 3.27) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . , . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
#
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Drainage basins and rivers 75 '

'

, . . ... •
 �------ -·· --- - - --- --,
lgua�u Falls, Brazil: a waterfall

Tl1e lguac;u River, a tributary top of falls collapses and retreats

Figure 3.29
of the Parana, forms part of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... horizontal lavas
the border between Brazil and Fieldsketch
- . .. . . . ... .
Argentina. At one point along
its course, the lguac;u plunges
of the lgua�u
Falls
.
-
.. .. . ..
:... .········
. ----.....
-- �::L .----� ----- --,
'
,•
....-
··-
�
.
.

- . �-� ...
.. · . •, .,
�as�e-.C:f§!l1i>f'�ats it leaves a
...
.-....... .
...
.

.· .- �.,· �wew·,trf.v�1cal sides, 80 m high

80 m over a 3 km wide, crescent­ hor,zonta
· 11 ayers of �,1..... �......;.......�· . I · 1 • \• 1: A. ·. • �d� ·· r� �
shaped precipice (Figure 3.30). �J r ,,
-., "" �. . . � II
I v • • • • • '·o

The lguac;u
. Falls occur wl1ere
softer rocks being urid-�rcut,: · · .-•.�-- ') r ( � ·� '::;-;?. -�� ' ; ..·
the river leaves the resistant causing the overlying lavas, f'.-�c-:;uJJ."2� r.._ . .
< �-
,i (; ,

basaltic lava which forms the to collapse i!.. · · " •

southern edge of the Brazilian

•
plateau and flows onto less
resistant rock, while their
crescent shape results from the
large, fallen, angular boulders are lgua�u River flowing over rapids
retreat of the falls upstream
swirled around, forming a plunge pool
(Figure 3.29).

By the e11d of the rainy season

(January/February) up to
4 million litres of water a day
can pour over tl1e individual
cascades - numbering up to 275
- which combine to form the
falls. The main attraction is the
Devil's Throat where 14 separate
falls unite to create a deafening
noise, volumes of spray, foaming
•

water and a large rainbow. In ' {'

.. .....-. '
<( /
·, ...-2,

contrast, by the end of the dry

season (June/July), river levels
may be very low - indeed, for
one month in 1978 it actually
dried up.
..
Figure 3 .30
........................................
The lgua�u Falls

Effects of fluvial deposition

Deposition of sedi111ent takes place when tl1ere the hydraulic radit1s. 1,his results in an increase
is a decrease in energy or an i11crease in capacity in friction, a corresponding decrease in velocity
wl1ich
.
makes the river less compete1 1 t to tra.ns- and the de_posi.tion of material previot1sly held in
"'
port its load. Th.is ca11 occur anywhere fro.n1 the st1spension. 1 11e thin veneer of silt, deposited by
upper course, where large boulders may be left, to eacl1 flood, increases the fertility of the land, while
the moutl1 , wl1ere fine clays may b� deposited. the successive floodi11 g causes the floodplain to
bt1ild up in height (as yet it has proved impossible
Floodplains to bore dow11 to bedrock in. the lower Nile valley).
Rivers have most energy when at tl1eir bankfull
The floodplain 1nay also be n1 ade up of material
stage. Should the river contint1e to rise, tl1en tl1e
deposited as point bars 011 the inside of n1eanders
water will cover a11 y adjacent flat land. �fhe land
(Figure 3.38) and can be wide11ed by the lateral
susceptible to flooding in this way is knoW11 as tl1 e
erosion of the meanders. Tl1e edge of tl1e flood­
floodplain (Figure 3.31 and Places 10, page 74). As
plain is often marked by a prominent slope k11ow11
tl1e river spreads over its floodplain, there will be a
• as tl1e blttff line (Figttre 3 .31) .
sudden intrease i11 both the wetted perimeter and
'
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
76 Drainage basins and rivers

. . . .
• •
'
---��--���--------�·-------- ---�- - - - -

Levees cor1tain tl1e river, the embank1nents are some­

Wl1e11 a ri, er overflows its ba11l,s, tl1e i11crease i11
1 times a1tificially stre11gtl1ened ancl heightened
frictio11 1Jrodt1ced by tl1e co11.tact witl1 tl1e floocl­ (the levee protecting St Lot1is from the Mississippi
plai11 cat1ses n1aterial to IJe deposited. --rhe coarsest is 15.8 111. higher tl1an the floodpJai11 which it
111.aterial is dropped first to for111 a small, natural is 111ean.t to [Jrotect). Some rivers, such as the
embank111e11t (or levee) alongsicle the cl1a11nel MississipJJi a11cl Yangtze, flow above the level of
(Figt1re 3.31). Dt1ri11g subseque11t [Jeriods of ]ow tl1eir f1oodJJlai11s wl1ich mean.s that if the Jevees
discl1arge, furtl1er deJ?OSitio11 will occt1.r within collapse tl1ere can be seriot1s damage to property,
tl1e mai11 channel cat1sing the bed of tl1e river to and loss of life (Case Study 3A).
rise and the risl, of floodi11g to increase. To try to
I I

I I
bluff line I I bluff line
I
I I
�------------------width of floo dplain--------------------:

coarser material I
deposited first I
levee levee I
I
channel

river

layers of silt deposited �,__� bedload c;:auses be.d finer material

:by earli�r floods of river to rise carr;ied further

Figure 3.31 Braiding Deltas

.. . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
For sl1ort periods of the year, so.me rivers carry a A delta is t1st1ally composed of fine sedi1ne11t
Cross-section of a
floodplain showing very higl1 load i11 relation to their velocity, e.g. wl1ich is deposited when a river loses energy
levees and bluffs during s11ow1nelt periods in Alpine or Arctic and competence as it flows i11to an area of slo\v-
areas. Wl1e11 a river's level falls rapidly, co1npe­ 111oving water sucl1 ·as a lake (Figure 4.22) or the
tence and capacity are reduced, and the channel sea. Wl1e11 rivers like th.e Mississippi or the Nile
may-become choked witl1 111aterial, causing the reach the sea, the meeting of fresh a11d salt water
Figure 3.32 river to braid - that is, to divide into a series of prodt1ces a11 electric charge which cat1ses clay
. . . . ' . .... ' ... . .. . . ........ " ...
' ' . . .. . . .

A braided river, South diverging a11d converging segme11ts(Figt1res 3.32 particles to coagulate and to settle on the seabed,
Island, New Zealand andS.16). a process called flocct1lation.
Delta.s a.re so called because it was thought
that tl1eir shape resembled that of delta, the
fot1rth letter of the Greek alphabet(�). In fact,
• deltas vary greatly in shape but geomorpholo­
gists have grouped tl1e1n into tl1ree basic for1ns:
• arcuate: l1aving a rounded, convex outer
margi11, e.g. tl1e Nile
• ct1spate: where the material brot1ght down by
a river is spread out evenly on either side of
its cl1annel, e.g. the Tiber
• bird's foot: wl1ere the river has ma11y dis­
tribt1taries bounded by sediment and whicl1
extend ot1t to sea like the cla.ws of a bird's
foot, e.g. the Mississippi(Figt1re 3.33).
Although deltas provide some of the world's
most fertile land, their flatness makes them high
flood-risk areas, wl1ile tl1e shallow and freque11tly
changing river channels hinder navigation.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .
Drainage basins and rivers 77
--,1,;,--
�c,• ..
4-.:,,,,
•.. ' ,

. '
-

.'

Figure 3.33
. . . ................
. ... . ..,.,,.,
Effects of combined erosion and
The Mississippi delta deposition
Figure 3.35
Pools, riffles and mea11ders .................. , ............. .... ,..., ... ,...

l�ivers rarely flow i11 a straigl1t li11e. I11deecl, A pool and riffles in the
River Gelt, Cumbria
testing u11der laboratory conditio11s suggests
tl1at a straigl1t coL1rse is abnormal and u11stable. spacing between tJools, areas of deeper water,
Figure 3.34 Ho\1\1 1neanders begin to for111 is u11certain, but a11_d riffles, areas of sl1allower ,;,,vater, is usually
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... very regular, beil1g five to six times tl1at of the
..
tl1ey appear to have tl1eir origins dt1ring ti1nes
" '

A possible sequence
of flood a11d in relatively straigl1t sections where bed width. '1�11e pool is an area of greater erosio11
in the development of
a meander pools and riffles develo1J (Figure 3.34). Tl1e usL1al where the available energy in the 1iver builds t1p
dt1e to a reductio11 in friction. Energy is dissipated
•

5 times tl1e bed width across the riffle area. As a higher proportion of
a
------------------ 1
---------
... . . ..
·1
----------
the total energy is then needed to overcome fric­
tio11, the erosive capacity is decreased and, except
.- ..;-·· •
. .... - .. . .... : ..:
•.

-------------------------------------
Ii s; a - tt
.
a.t ti111es of high discharge, material is deposited
(Figure 3.35). The regt1lar spacings of pools and
riffles, s·paci11gs which are almost perfect in an
b alluvial stretch of river, are believed to result fron1
- - --- --- ------ . -------,. ... .. ----- a series of seco11dary flows which exist witl1in tl1e
...
... . .. . ....,,. .. .. ' mai11 flow. Seco.ndary flows include helicoiclal
... � ,..""'. , ..

... .
..
. ..

-- - ----�� - - -------.. -- - -
.,

---- ----
� ,$

..
..
,
. ....
.. .. ' ..
...
.. ,t • ..
.. ., :: ..
-
, •'
,-
·..:� ,. #

1
,,._,.1, ,"
#
�·'· Y

flow, a corkscrew 111ovement, as shown in FigL1re

�

3. lSb, a11d a series of converging and divergi11g

· 5 times the bed width
lateral rotations. Helicoidal t1ow is believed to
be respo11sible for 111oving material fro111 the
20 •
outside of 011e meander be11d and then depositing
c mucl1 of it 011 the inside of tl1e next bend. It is
S timts the
bed width
thot1gh.t, therefore, tl1at it is tl1e secondary flows
- - --- .,..------ - ..,._ --- ---
�
, .,,-r-
,.
� ------- �'
,-----
"\
.. ..
\
tl1at increase the sinL1osity (the ct1rvi11g natt1re)
.. .....,.,.....
,, ."'.. .I'.
--------------
•• t

.... .
, � "

-----" •'"''-------- •:,-------

\

of tl1e meander (Figure 3.36), producing a regular

\ '"' •
;
#. �

...
' ..
# , . .. ,
-�,.
••• #
'
�
,,

111eander w·avelengtl1 wl1icl1 is about ten tiines

that of the bed widtl1. Si11uosity is described as:
Is , ......., 7 '

one wavelength
usually 10 times the b .ed width
�I ---- -
----- original course
l actual channel length
straight-line dista11ce
pool
riffle •

line. of main current

........................................... , . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. ... . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. ............................... .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . ..

78 Drainage basins and rivers
 ..
,

=igure 3.36 Figure 3.37

........ ...... ...... ......... ..... ....... .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
' ,

1"'Meanders on the River Cross-section of a meander

Au�uckmere, East Sussex
small river
bank will cliff
eventually
collapse . - . -. ,
slowest� _____.c....;:,=·-,.., ·-
"'"-'·�

, , ' · fastest-
. ...
, 1,- current current : I
,.,.r" // . J
I -.ll .
•"\\\ ,; ' l, _,·
... ..•' ..
t
j ... ;

,.":.. /

,
. ._. -::.\
::::/::� point bar
•• '
·'.·

;·
!
:·
. .·;:�:� :.:
·; ,_
.� 1
outside bank is
(

sand and shingle

undercut by lateral erosion deposited

• •

bluff line
direction
erosion .of flow
in time, the meander\//' ,. , · , ·-� riffles
migrates down the1r.r· ·-':·:-:;:: :f:--..
floodplain in this i p o o
oxbow lake direction
( / l floodplai�-:":_.�·· ·
- /,_ -- --
, •'; _ . ·.· . •: •
-� - .. '
...

·-
.

- - --
-;-,.-
- '
. ·····-·--
.... .. ..........
••�.
...........__
--.. ., • • •• .. •-"'="--..... ---....._ .. . j!

deposition results in -
�

the for.0er meander

I being blocked off
', former positions ', \',
... '.... '
, -w•• :;> • 1
.... '.,, _ of point bar 8 3,./ lj,Q �
-
from m�in river �� :.,.- - ,. ,. , ,. B ,r ------,"'/ '-- point bar I:
_ _------
::::::: _:::,.,,
- =..;:_--...-
valley is j
�
\'" .
point bar -�.
/�"' · � wi'dened r
pool formed adjacent to outside, by l�teral ·
"�
'\ concave bank·where velocity and erosion .
· erosion are greatest
direction of flow
deposition on inside, convex
bank where velocity is least:
erosion bluff line forms a point bar
- ...-- - ----- ._

Figure 3.38
.,, ........ ,,. ···--····· ····· · · · · ..... ......................... ················ . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . ,, , .. .
Meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes, showing migration of
Figure 3.39 meanders and changing positions of point bars over time
... .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . ..............
'

Meanders and
oxbow lakes,
Alaska, USA
any gradation 11p the slope itself). As erosion
co11tint1es 011 the outer bend, tl1e wl1ole 1neander
te11ds to 1nigrate slowly doWI1strea111. Material
Meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes forming the point bar beco1nes a contributory
A 1neander l1as a11 asymmetrical cross-section factor in tl1e formation of the floodplain. Over
(Figure 3.37) for1ned by erosion on tl1e outside time, the sinuosity of tl1e meander may 'beco111e
bend, w'l1ere discharge and velocity are greatest so pro11ounced that, d·uring a floocl, tl1e river
and frictio11 is at a mini111u1n, a11d depositio11 011 c11ts throt1gh the narrow neck of land i11 order to
the i11side, where discl1arge and velocity are at sl1orten its course. Ha.ving acl1ieved a temporary
a minimum and friction is at its greatest (Figure straigl1tening of its cl1annel, the main ct1rrent
3.25). Material deposited on tl1e co11vex inside of will then flow in mid-channel. Deposition ca.n
the bend may take tl1.e for1n of a cttrving point now take place next to the ba11ks and so, even.t11-
bar (FigL1re 3.38). Tl1e particles are L1sually gradecl ally, tl1e old curve of the riv·er will be aba11doned,
in size, with the largest material being found on leaving a crescent-shaped feattrre known as an
tl1e upstream side of tl1e feature (there is rarely oxbow lake or c11toff (Figt1res 3.38 and 3.39).

• • • • o • o o o "' • • • • o I • o o • • • • • • o • • o o o • o o • o o o o o • • • • o o o • • • o • • o • o • o • • o • o • o o • o o o • • o • o o f • o • o • o O • o • o O o o • • o o • • • o o o o o O o • o • o o o o f. o o • • o • o • • 0 0 o o • o • o • o " • o • • • • • • 0 o <I • • o • • • • o o o • • • o • • • • • • 0 .. o o • •

Drainage basins and rivers 79

--

------ �-------,
Boscastle, Cornwall: a flash flood

On the afternoon of 16 August 2004, 200.2 mm of

rainfall -the equivalent of three normal months - N 83263to
was recorded in only four l1ours on Bodmin Moor, Bude
an upland area lying bel1ind the Cornish village of area
flooded
Boscastle. As the ground was already saturated, most 0
of this water swept downhill and through two narrow, l1arbour
steep-sided valleys which converged on the village River Valency
itself (Fig Ltre 3.40). Added to this volume of water was built-up -­
an estimated further 50 mm of rain that fell between
Boscastle River o os km
Jordan
1300 and 1500 hours that same afternoon on Boscastle
itself. Tl1e result was a wall of water over 3 m in height
CORNWALL
tl1at swept tl1rough the village (Figure 3.41 ).
• Bodmin
B3263to to
The floodwater carried witl1 it cars, tree branches Tintagel Bodmin Moor:
and other debris which became trapped behind '

the two bridges in the village, whicl1 then acted as

Figure 3.40
dams. As the volume of water increased the bridges . . . .. .. , ...... ..... .

were swept away, causing furtl1er surges in the The flood at

Boscastle
height of the River Valency. Residents and tourists
Figure 3.42
alike were forced to flee. Altl1ough some managed .......... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
,,, ,

to reacl1 higher ground, the only means of escape Annotated photo from the Daily
for most people was to clamber upstairs and to Telegraph, Tuesday 17 August 2004
await eventual rescue by helicopter from either
upper-storey windows or rooftops.
Six helicopters (1 in Figure 3.42) rescued 120 people
fro_m rooftops and upper-storey windows (buildings
4, 5, 6, 7 and 8), while two lifeboats searched tl1e
harbour fearing people might have been swept
out to sea. The car park (2) and two bridges (9 and
16) were destroyed. Vehicles were carried through
the village by the torrent, some being deposited
en route (12 and Figure 3.41) and over 30 in the
harbour. Two shops (10 and 17) and four houses
were destroyed while other buildings were badly
damaged including the Visitor Centre (3) and two
tourist shops (11 and 15). Among buildings flooded
was a restaurant (13) and the village store (4),
museum (14) and Youth Hostel (18). Power had to be
Figure 3.41
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. switched off to protect rescuers and survivors from
Water rages through electrocution. When the floodwater receded, the
the village of Boscastle
carrying cars with it
village was left under a carpet of thick brown mud.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . .
 !Base leve! and the graded rover
Base level
This is tl1e lowest level to which erosion by
ru11ni11g water can take place. In the case of rivers,
this theoret:ical li111it is sea-level. Exceptions
occur when a river flows into a11 inla11d sea (e.g.
tl1e lliver Jorda11 i11to tl1e Dead Sea) and if there
hap1Jens to be a temporary local base level, sucl1
as where a river flows into a lake, where a tribu­
tary joins a 111ai11 river, or \i\ l1ere tl1ere is a resista11t
1
ba11d of rock crossing a valley.
Grade
Tl1e co11cept of grade is 011e of a river for111ing an
ope11 system (Fra1nework 3, page 45) in a sta.te
of dyna1nic equilibriL11n where tl1ere is a bala11ce
\
between the rate of erosio11 and tl1e ra.te of deposi­
tion. In its si111plest interpretatio11, a graded river
l1as a gently sloping long ·profile with tl1e gradient
decreasing towards its 1not1tl1 (Figure 3.43a). This
balance is always transitory as the slope (profile)
l1as to adjust consta11tly to ch.anges in discharge
and sedime11t load. These can cat1se short-ter1n
increases i11 either tl1e rate of erosion or deposi­
tion until tl1e state of eqt1ilibriu111 has again bee11
"'
reacl1ed. l l1is 111ay be illustrated by two situations:
c Tl1e lo11g profile of a ri,,er happe11s to contain
a waterfall and a lake (FigL1re 3.43b). Erosion
is like'iy to be greatest at tl1e waterfall, while
depositio11 occurs in the lake. I11 tin1e, both
features will be eli1ninated.
ci Tl1ere is a lengtl1y period of heavy rainfall
within a river· basin. As the volume of water
rises and consequently the velocity and load
of the river increase, so too will tl1e rate of
erosio11. Ultin1ately, the extra load carried
by tl1e river leads to extra deposition further
dow11 tl1e valley or ot1t at sea.
. Figure 3.43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
a the graded profile
River profiles
r--- smooth concave profile, decreasing in angle
and gradient towards the mouth
•
•
• • • • • . ........... .. ·. · · . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . ... . . .. . . . .. ..... . .' ..........•..... ...... ................ ....... , ...... .... .....•. ..... ..... ..
. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·: · · · · · · · · · ..
.
. •
·.
111 a wider i11terpretation, grade is a bala11ce 11ot
only i11 the lo11g profile, but also in the river's
cross-profile a11d i11 the rougl111ess of its channel.
In this se11se, balance or grade is when all aspects
of the river's channel (width, deptl1 and gradie11t)
are adjustecl to tl1e discharge and load of the river
at a given point i11 time. If tl1e volt1me and Joa.ct
cha11ge, tl1en the river's channel morpl10Jogy
mt. 1st adjt1st accordingly. Such cl1a11ges, wl1ere
and wl1en tl1ey do occur, are likely to take lengtl1y
periods of geological time.
Changes in base level
Tl1ere are three groups of factors vvl1icl1 inflt1ence
cl1anges in base level:
o Climatic: the effects of glaciation and/or
cl1anges i11 rain.fall.
� Tectonic: crt1stal uplift, following plate
1novement, and local volcanic activity.
c Eustatic and isostatic adjt1st111ent: cat1sed by
the expansion and contraction of ice sheets
(page 123).
f\s will be see11 in Chapter 6, changes in base
level affect coasts as vvell as rivers. Th
. ere are
two types of base level 1novem.ent: positive and
negative.
o Positive cl1ange occurs whe11 sea-level rises
in relation to the lancl (or the land sinks in
relation to the sea). Tl1is results in a decrease
in the gradient of th.e river witl1 a corre­
sponding increase in deposition and. poten­
tial flooding of coastal areas.
c Negative cha11ge occurs wl1e11 sea-level falls
in relation to tl1e land (or tl1e lancl rises i11
relatio11 to tl1e sea). This rnovement cat1ses
land to emerge from the sea, steep�11ing the
gradient of the river and therefore increasing
tl1e rate of fluvial erosion. Tl1is process is
called rejuvena.tion.
•
• moutli
. .
rno.uth
�
Drainage basins and rivers 8�
•
 Figure 3.44
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . ..

The effect of 0' . .

'91 nat graded pro
rejuvenation file
--------------------- --------- original sea-level
on the long first reg aded
profile r profil e
------------------- first fall in sea-level
knickpoints inost recent gr aded profile
----------- second fall in and
present-day sea-level

several partly graded profiles (FigL1re 3.44). Where

I••••'"'

the rise in tl1e la11d (or drop in sea-level) is too

rapid to allow a river st1fficient time to erode verti­
cally to the new sea-level, it may have to descend
as a waterfall over recen.tly emerged sea cliffs
(Figure 3.45). In ti1ne, the river will cut down­
warcls a11d backwards a11d the waterfall will retreat
upstrea1n. Tl1e lmickpoint, usL1ally i11dicated by
'
l
the presence of a waterfall, marks the maxi1nu111
extent of the 11ewly graded profile (Plac�s 13).
1
Should a river become co1npletely regraded,
whicl1 is unlikely becat1se of tl1e ti.mescale
•
i11volved, the knickpoint and all of the original
graded profile will disappear.
'
River terraces and incised meanders
Figure 3.45 Rejuvenation River terraces are remnan.ts of for1ner t1oodplai11s
. ................. , . . .. . . .
which, followin.g vertical erosion cat1sed by rejt1-
. . . .. . . . .
A rejuvenated river, A negative cl1ange in base level i11creases the
Antalya, Turkey: the venation, have been left higl1 and dry above the
potential energy of a river, enabli11g it to revive maxi1num level of prese11t-day flooding. They
land has only recently
experienced tectonic its erosive activity; in doing so, it upsets any pos­ offer excelle11t sites for tl1e location of tow11s (e.g.
uplift and the river sible graded lo11g profile. Beginning in its lowest Lo11do11, Figt1res 3.47 and 14.9). Above the present
has had insufficient reaches, 11ext to tl1e sea, tl1e river will tr)' to floodplai11 of the Thames at London are two earlier
time to re-adjust to regrade itself.
the new sea-level ones forming the Taplow and Boyn Hill terraces. If
Dt1ring tl1e Pleistoce11e glacial period, Britain a river CL1ts rapidly into its floodplain, a pair of ter­
was depressed by tl1e weight of ice. Following races of eqt1al height 1nay be seen flanking tl1e river
deglaciation, tl1e la11d slowly and intermitte11tly and creating a valley-i11-valley feature. However,
rose again (isostatic uplift, page 123). Thus 1nore often tl1an not, the river et1ts down relatively
rejuvenation took place 011 more than one occa­ slo,vly, enabling it to mea11der at the sarne tin1e.
sion, with tl1e result that many rivers today sl1ow Tl1e result is that tl1e terrace to one side of the river
'��-·������-�-�-·-·����·---�
Figure 3.46
. . . . . . . . . .,,. .............. ······ River Greta,Yorkshire E>ales National Par-k:
The River Greta (after
D.S. Walker)
a rejuvenated 11iver
·--�-�-�......._�----�----�������--���-
a before rejuvenation b after rejuvenation
The River Greta, in north-west Yorkshire,
graded River Greta meandering side of is a good example of a rejuvenated river.
over a wide floodplain lngleborough original graded section Figure 3.46a is a reconstruction to show
Hill of River Greta what its valley (upstream from the village of
bluff • Ingleton) might have looked like before the l
fall in base level. Figure 3.46b is a simplified
...,,,...­ Beezley Falls sketch showing how the same area appears
knickpoi· nt
fl.oodgtain
- - -_./.-..--
floodAlain
- ,. today. The Beezley Falls are a knickpoint.
Above the falls, the valley has a wide, open
rejuvenated River
er rf 1 appearance. Below the falls, the river flows
Greta flowing in a
errace /-
�

!'--- valley-in-valley over a series of rapids and smaller falls in a

due to an increase
deep, steep-sided 'valley-in-valley'.
in erosion

•
•

. .
• • • •••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•

. f
•

• • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
• • f . .. ·• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • # . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ... . . .. . . . . . .

'
8:2 Drainage basins an.d rivers •

•
 ------------- - -- - -

Boyn Hill terrace Taplow terrace (about Boyn Hill terrace (about
Taplow terrace 15 m above river) 320 m above river)
oldest floodplain----
------------- Figure 3.47

second-oldest floodplain Cross-section illustrating

bluff lin1ited ----..,,------------------=--- the paired river terraces of
early growth River Thames
-i-----: ,-----\
the Thames at London
of London ------ .......

Nortl1 South
I
buried channel floodplain terrace covered with silt

111ay be ren10\1ed as tl1e 1neanders 111igrate down­ river, or tl1e valley sides bei11g resista.nt to erosio11.
strea1n. l�igure 3.49 sl1ows terraces, 11ot 1Jaired, on (the River Wear at D11rham, FigL1res 3.48a a11d
a s111all strea,11 crossing a beach. on soutl1ern Arrat1. 14.6). Ingrow11 meanders occur whe11 the t1pli.ft
111 this case, .rejL1venatio11 takes place twice daily as of tl1e la11d, or i11cision by the river, is less rapid,
tl1e tide ebbs a11d sea-level falls. allowing tl1e river time to shift laterally and to
If the uplift of land (or fall i11 sea-le,,el) co11- procluce an asy1nmetrical cross-valley shape (the
tinLtes for a le11gtl1y period, tl1e river may CLtt River Wye at Tinter11 Abbey, FigL1re 3.48b). As witl1
downwards to for111 incised 1neanders. Tl1ere 111ea11ders in the lower course of a 11ormal river,
are two types of i11cised 1nea11der. Ent1·e11cl1ed incised 1nea11clers can also change their cl1a11nels
mea11de1·s l1ave a syi11111etrical cross-section a11d to leave a11 abandoned meander with a ce11tral
rest1lt fro111 eitl1er a very rapid incision by the meander core (Figure 3.48b).
Figure 3.48
a entrenched meanders: R. Wear, Durham b ingrown meanders: R. Wye, Tintern Abbey to
Incised meanders Symonds Vat
and associated cross­ -
valley profiles

J <Do rn 200m
'oom
-- -j
I
•
old meander core
700m
200m,

cross-valley profile: River Wear has cross-valley profile: River Wye had
cut vertically time to shift
- laterally as well
as vertically
Tintern Abbey

Figure 3.49
., .... . . , . . .... .... .......... . ...... . .
Rejuvenation on a + • •
•

micro scale: a small

,....- ' -
•
.
stream crossing a ,
•
•
...
beach at Kildonan,
Arran, has cut
downwards to the
level of the falling
tide - note the
ingrown meander,
river terraces and
valley-in-valley
features
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .
 ·.
co11verge L1po11 the 1nain river (trun. k). lt is a
•

Drainage patterns
•

A d1·ainage JJattern is tl1e vvay i11 which a river
a11d its tributaries arra11ge tl1e1nselves within their
drainage basi11 (see I1orto11's Laws, page 65). Most
patterns evolve over a lengthy period of time a11d
t1st1ally become adj Listed to the structure of tl1e
basin. There is no widely accept�d classificatio11,
1Jartly becat1se r11ost patter11s are descriptive.
Patterns independent of structure
Pa 1·allel Tl1is, the si111plest pattern, occt1rs on
newly uplifted land or otl1er t1nifor111ly sloping
st1rfaces which. a]low rivers and tribt1taries to
flow downhill more or less parallel with each
otl1er, e.g. rivers flowing sot1th-eastwards' fro111.
the Aberdare Jvfountai11s i11 I<enya (Figt1re 3.50a).
De11dritic Derivi11g its name fro111 tl1e Greek
Figure 3.50 word dendron, 111ea11i11g a tree, this is a tree-lil<e
.
.. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
Drainage patterns patter11 in which the many tributaries (brancl1es)
a parallel b dendritic
c radial d trellised
o11 patter11 a1 1d d ev el o p s in ba si n s h av in g
co1111n
011e rock type w it h n o va ri at io n s in st ru ct u re
(Figure 3.50b).
Patterns dependent on structure
. .
Radial In areas wJ1ere the rocks have been lifted
in.to a do111e structure ( e.g. tl1e batl1oliths of
Dartinoor a.nd Arran) or wl1ere a conical volca11ic
cone has formed (e.g. Mount Etna), rivers racliate
0L1twards fro111 a cen.tral point lil,e the _spokes of a
wheel (Figure 3.50c).
1,1·ellised 01· recta11gular In areas of
alterr1ati11g resistant and. less resistant rock,
tribtitaries will forn1 a11d join tl1e n1ain river
at rigl1t-a11gles c1:igL1re 3.50d). So111etimes each
individttal seg1nent is of approxirnately equal
lengtl1. Tl1e 1nain river, called a consequent
river becaLtse it is a conseqt1ence of tl1e i11itial
tiplift or slope (compare parallel drai11age), flows
i11 the same clirection as th.e dip of t11e rocks
(I�igure 3.5 la). Tl1e tributaries whjcl1 tievelop,
mainly by l1eadward erosion alo11g areas of
vvea ker roc ks, are called. subsequent strea111s
because they form at a later date tl1a11 tl1e con­
seque11ts. In time, these subseqL1ents create
wide valleys or vales (l�igt1re 3 .51b). Obseqt1e11t
st 1·ea.ms flow in tl1e opposite direction from the
conseq·t1ent streams, i.e. dow11 tl1e steep scarp
slope of the escarpment (Figure 3.51b). It is
t11ese obsequents that often provide the sources
of water for scarp-foot spri11gli11e settlements
(Figure 14.4). Tl1e clevelopment of this drainage
pattern is also responsible for the formatio11 of
the sca1·p and vale topograpl1y of south-east
E11gland (Fig·ure 8.9). Figure3.51
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .
Development of a
trellised drainage
pattern

a before river b after river capture

capture consequent rivers, a result of the uplift of the land, flow •

in the same direction as the dip of the rock

consequent cuts down to form

a gap in the escarpment
C = consequent
S = subsequent
, " escarpment O = .obsequent
sea
�-- clay vale _ escarpment

clay
-·---- sea
limestone chalk ••

. . .. ... . ................................. ....·.. .. . . . ... . . ... . . . . . .... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . ......... . .. . ..... . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . ..... . . .... . ..... . . . . . .. .... . ... . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
�

84 o·rainage basins and rivers . •

• •

•
 _, -
.... �· .;;;;.,., b_,,.,
--·

a before b after
• I
Eurasian Plate Plateau of Tibet
•
•

Pakistan
Brahmaputra

Tethys Sea (sediments deposited by Indus and "-­

Brahmaputra rivers are already being
squeezed upwards)

India India

(part of Inda-Australian· N
/
Plate)

Bay of Bengal
•
•

Sri Lanka

fold mountains 0 SOOkm

--

Figure 3.52
.. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... , . Patterns apparently unrelated to limestones a11d sandstones. The radial drai11age
struc ture pattern whicl1. developed, together with later
.

Antecedent drainage,
Himalayas A11tecede11t Antecede11ce is when the drainage
patter11 developed before sucl1 structural move-
111ents as the t1plift or folding of the land, and
wl1ere vertical erosio11 by the.river was able to
keep pace with tl1e later uplift. Tl1e Brahmaputra
River rises in Tibet, but tu.rns sot1thwards to flo�
through a series of deep gorges in the I-Iimalayas
before reachi11g the Bay of Be11gal (Figure 3.52).
It must at one stage l1ave flowed soutl1wards
into tl1e Tethys Sea (Fig11re 1.4) which had
existed before tl1e lndo-Australian Plate 1noved
northwards and collided witl1 tl1e Et1rasian Plate
forming the �Iimala.yas (pages 19 and 20) · The
Brahn1a1?utra, witl1 an increasing gradient and
load, was able to cut downwards tl1rough the
rising Himalayas to maintain its original cottrse..
Superim1Josed In several parts of the world,
inclt1ding the E11glisl1 Lake District, the drainage
pattern see1ns to J1av·e 110 relationship to tl1e
present-day surface rocks. Wl1e11 tl1e Lake District
was uplifted into a don1e, tl1e 11ewly-formed
volcanic rocks were covered by sedi111entary
glacial processes, cut throt1gl1 a11d ultimately
removed tl1e surface layers of sedime11tary rock
to superimpose itself ttpon the u11derlying vol­
ca11ic rocks.
River capture
Rivers, in attempti11g to adjust to structt1r�,
may capture the head.waters of their neigh-
bours. For exa1nple, 1nost eastward-flowi11g
Englisl1 rivers betwe/n the ·1-1umber and central
NorthL1mberla11d have l1ad their courses altered
by rive 1· caph1re or piracy (Figt1re 3.53).
Figure 3.54a shows a case where there are
two consequent rivers with one havi11g a greater
disc11arge and 11-igher erosioi::ial activity than the
a tributary (subsequents X and
.other. Eacl1 l1as·--
Y) flowing along a valley of weaker rock, bt1t st1b-
sequent X (the tributary of the 1naster, or larger,
conseqt1ent) is likely to be the more vigorous.
,� Subseque11t X will, tl1erefore, cut bac·kwards by
headward erosion L1ntil it rea. ches subsequent Y
(the tributary of the weaker consequent); then.,
by a process known as watershed migration
•

Figure 3.53
•
.. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......... . '
a former drainage - 0 30km b present-day pattern ---- wind gap
River capture, ...
Northumberland
pattern
. •
�--- -

Wansbeck flor.
-?ede North Sea North Tyne --- rol/rn
North Sea •

--../.... Wansbecik____2::=>--�
- --- •

•
••
• North Tyne Tyne
.•
N • •

Original Northumbrian consequent rivers, with The North Tyne, the subsequent, has cut
the. early begionings of the North Tyne subsequent backwards by head.ward erosion to capture the
headwaters of the Blyth, Wansbeck and Rede. In

--
time, it cQuld capture the headwaters of the Coquet

... · ·. ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · · · · ·. · ... · · . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . f .. . . .,, . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • i • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .

..

Drainage_ basins an.d rivers 85

•

•
 . . .. --: -·- ----�----�---�-.._.. _______ ---..----- -.- .
• •
' . (
• •
�

I •
- -
.
.•• .. ., ..
•
• . .

(Figure 3.54b), it will begi11 to e11large its own elbow of c a pture. Below tl1is point, a wind ga p
drai11age basi11 at tl1e expense of tl1e s111aller river. marl<s the for1ner course of the 11ow bel1e aded
In time, tl1e l1ead,,vaters of tl1e 1ninor co11seqL1e11t consequent (a wi11cl gap is a dry valle)1 which
Figure 3.54 will be captL1red a11d. diverted into the drainage was ct1t throt1gl1 tl1e l1ills by a for111er river). Tl1e
........................................ ::igt1re 3.54c). bel1eacled river is also la1own as a misfi·t strea 1n, as
Stages in river capture
basi11 of tl1e 111ajor conseqt1ent (l
shown in plan and The point at wl1icl1 tl1e l1ead,1vaters of tl1e its discharge is far too low to accot111t for tl1e size of
cross-profile 111i11or river cl1a11ge direction is kI1ow11 as tl1e the valley tJ1rough which it flows (Figure 3.54c).
.
a before capture (piracy) occurs (iii) block diagram

(i) plan (ii) cross-profile

minor consequent
(B
watershed
subseqL1entY c
minor
C • watershed sea consequent
•
B
�
-
subsequent x-............
major conse uent A because the major
.......--...-( �
consequent has cut
local base level at A is lower than do�n more rapiqly
(major (minor than"the minor
that at B, subsequent Xis therefore consequent) consequent) consequent,point
b A
more active than subsequentY is l'Wer ,than point B
' major consequent
. . . •

b watershed migration (recession)

•

•
watershed retreats
and is lowered
•

/ ....... -,
....... - .... c
'
-­
/
,,.., :::.. :.-
.......
/
---
A �� / �
....... :;.::.-
r--- ., --
• l '
•

c after capture has taken pla�e

(i) plan
- (iii) block diagram

(ii) cross-profile B is at the elbow

wind gap of capture
misfit
\ stream
---:--..._.....:jB x
or
elbow of.capture beheade
consequ
sea A XandY misfit stream/
A ___ ;___:._
· �,�::::-::.--- beheaded
m_ajor consequent G9nsequent
(major (minor
consequent) consequent) maJor , ortginal subsequent X
consequent

Charlton, R. (2007) Furzdamentals ofFlt,vial Oakes, S. (2006) 'Hi-tech flood warnings' in www.environment-agency.gov.
Geomorpfzology, Routledge. Geograp11y
.
Revie1- v Vol 20 No 1 (September). ttk/?lang=_e
Environment Agency (2000) River Robert, A. (2003) River Processes: An introd1,1c­ WW\v.floodarchive.co.ttk
Rel1abilitation - Practical Aspects fro111 tio_n to fli1vial dy11arr1ics, Hod.der Arnold.
Minnesota. River Basin:
16 Case Sti,dies, ,E11vironment Agency Weyman, D.R. (1975) R11r1offProcesses arJd
Pt1blications. WWvv�soils.umn.edt1/researc11/ lllil-ri ver/
•
Strearrzflow Modelling, Ox . ford_ University
Gregory, K.J. and. Walling, D.E. (2005) Press. Newfotmdland a11d Labrador site
Drainage Basin: Form, Process and
•
(exa111ples of drainage basins and flood-risk
·� River 1na11agement: zones):
Management, WileyBlackwell. http://earthsci.org/Flooding/unit3I www.herita.ge.nf.ca/siten1 ap.html
Leopold, L. (2006) A View ofthe .River, u3-01-06.ht1nl •

Harvard Universi.ty l)ress. Norfolk Broads Authority:

www.broads-authority.gov.uk/ www.broads-authority.gov.ukfbroads/
Newson, M. (1994) Hydrology a11d the River 1nanaging/rivers-a.nd-broads.html pages/river4.htinl
Environrrzent, Ox.ford University Press. Environment Agency, environmental
Yellow River, Gl1ina:
'
infonriatio11 index (OK rivers, floods):
www.cis.umassd.edu/-gleung/

.... ... , ................................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •••• • •• • • • •

·· ·············
86 Drainage basins and rivers '
 A River flooding: the
Mississippi, 1993 1 Where is the river/drainage basin located? The Mississippi - together with its main tributaries, the
Missouri and the Ohio - drains one-third of the USA and a
Flooding by rivers is a natural event wl1ich, small part of Canada (Figure 3.56).
--
because people of1en choose to live in 2 What is the frequency of flooding? Left to its own devices, flooding would be an almost annual
fiood-risk areas, becornes a hazard (page event with late spring being the peak period.
31 ). To people living in the Mississippi valley, 3 What is the magnitude of flooding? Until recently, major floods occurred every 5-10 years (there
'that their river sl1ould fiood is as natural as were six in the 1880s) and a serious/extreme flood occurred
sunshine in Florida or snowfall in the Rockies: approximately once every 40 years.
Witl1out human i11tervention, the Mississippi 4 What are the natural causes of flooding? Usually it results from heavy rainfall (January-May) in the
would fiood virtually every year. Indeed, it has Appalachian Mountains, especially if this coincides with
been tl1is freque11cy of fiooding which l1as,
snowmelt (Figure 3.56).
over many centuries, allowed today's river to 5 What are the consequences of flooding? Initially, it was to develop the wide, alluvial floodplain. The
1927 flood caused 217 deaths; 700 000 people were
flow for n,ucl1 of its course over a wide, fertile,
evacuated; the river became up to 150 km wide (usual width
flat, alluvial floodplain (Figures 3.55 and 3.56). 1 km); livestock and crops were lost; services were destroyed.
- ·---
6 What attempts can be made to reduce the Until the 1927 flood, the main policy was'hold by levees' - by
Figure 3.55 flood hazard? 1993, some levees were 15 m high (Figure 3.57). After 1927,
. . . . . . . . . ...
. . . .. . . . .
The flood hazard and new schemes included building dams and storage reservoirs
the Mississippi River (6 huge dams and 105 reservoirs on Missouri);
afforestation to reduce/delay runoff; creating diversion
spillways (e.g. Bonnet Carre floodway diverts floodwater
into Lake Pontchartrain and the sea); cutting through
----- meanders to straighten and shorten the course (Figure 3.57).
l1 7 Ho.w successful have the attempts to reduce In 1883, Mark Twain claimed that'You cannot tame that
f
U s u a lly , o ·f c o tt rs e , tl 1 e g r e a t flooding been? lawless stream: By 1973, it appeared that the river had been
e r, \ : tamed: there was no further flooding .. . until 1993. Has
1·1oo d s o c c t1 r in tl 1e l o w e r ri v
human intervention made the danger worse? (page 96)
in tl1e la s t 16 0 0 k 11 1 b e lo w C a ir o ,
Illi 1o is . T h is is w l1 e re tl 1e p la i 11
flatten
1
s o t1 t ( th e r iv e r cl ro p s le s s i j Figure 3.56
s n 1o u th ) . .. , . . . · ·�· · ·· ·

tha11 120111 fro1n here to it Flooding in the

a11d w h e re th e O l1io a 11 cl T en 11 e s s e e Mississippi Basin

flow i11to tl1e Mississippi.

Of tl 1e w
,
a
o
te
n
r
ly
tl 1a
a
t
b o
fl
u
o
t
w
3
s
8
p
p
a
�
s t
r
---- ---- - Canada
Mein phis -- - -'\.. ,s---
ce11t c o in .e s fr o n 1 th e M is s o tl r t­ - .. "'-. _r-,
lk .. ":,I
Mississip p i 11 e tvv o 1: k . T h e b u �.;.;...�,
.,
,
5
f1/r--._� \.�-.:J '
c o n1 e s fr o in t 11 e O 11 i O a 11 d
If \. �-
th e lu sl 1 Missouri and other right-bank,,
T e n ne s s e e , f ro 1n
tributaries drain the relatively \ u SA d d
Appala c l1i a 11 s, ra th e r tl 1� IJ tl 1e d ry
dry Mid-West.
........___ 38%of
total
0' Ohio-T®�ssee rise
in the Aipalachians
Mid -W e s t. 'W e d o n 't m in cl to o
Most rain falls in summer whi��iceive heavy.
,' sa y s when evapotranspiration
'

1nucl1 ab o L1 t th e M is so t1 ri "' cyulonfl:: rainfall

le tt , s p e a k in g fo r tl 1e is at its highest. Arkan St Louis r:,t::• betJ�n January and
Do 11i1 a W il sos,n. £..e;e, ·, :},..
May. Flood risk
US Army Co1·1Js of Engineer s e,'>" �
iefl� \o increa.;-ed following
::P)

(who l1ave the res1Jo11sibility of. O sno melt.

Memphis
Mississippi
flo o d p re v e 11 ti o 11 ) . 'It ca 11 ra i11 th e re �

drainage
�
�

for weeks, and \Ve wo11ldn' t ini11cl. basin

/
W c e a n h a n d le tl 1r e e ti 1n e s th . e
watershed Lower Mississippi
usually receives the
w at er coming d ow n in tl1o s e largest and most
floods. But tl1e Ol1io, well, tl1at's frequent floods
anotl1er story. W h e11 that st arts Gulf of-Mexico ·
· · g , w e start watc]1ing ... '
r1s1n
fl'-- 0 SOOkm
 •

1 a Height (metres) of levees at Memphis b The 1993 flood at St Louis

12.5 17.5 1.5 .8 m
riverside landside -
----- -- -
---...::.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
10.0 15.0 previous 1993 flood peak 15.05 m
QJ
highest 12.3 m
7.5 -� 12.5
- flood level
"-- , 9-m---11
0 10.0 flood I.ever''-· --- --
5.0 • .....
..c
- rn 7.5

I
2.5 QJ
St Louis
o 1882, 1896 ,,, 1914 1928 , ·
I
5.0
1----�/ usual level of Mississippi
4m
0 25 so 75 100 2.5 /
Base widtl, of levees at Memphis (metres) ./ height of St Louis
Q..______________::___:.____�--------'
. .,.._..... -�-- By making the course straighter and shorter, floodwater could
2 new original
be removed from the river basin as quickly as possible. It was
levees � meandering
achieved by cutting through the narrow necks of large
course of the
meanders. Between 1934 and 1945 one stretch of the river alone
Mississippi
was reduced from 530 km to almost 230km. By shortening
the distance, the gradient and therefore the velocity of the
new 'artific1al' floodplain river increases. (But rivers try to create meanders rather
course than flow naturally in straight courses.)
i
!

Figure 3.57
Engineering/planning schemes Why did the Mississippi flood .... . . .. . . . . . . . ....
Two engineering schemes
in the Mississippi basin in 1993? to try to control flooding
Prior to the 1993 flood, it was perceived Tl1e Mid-West was already l,aving a wet year
that the flow of the Mississippi l,ad been • when record-setting spring and summer After the flood: should rivers
controlled. Tl,is had bee1, achieved through rai,,s l,it. The rain ran off tl,e soggy ground
run freer?
a variety of flood preventio1, schemes and into rapidly rising rivers. Several parts
(Figure 3.57). of tl,e central USA had over 200 per cent Since the first levee was built on the
• . Levees had bee11 heigl,tened, in places rnore rain than was usL1al for the ti1ne of year Mississippi in 1718, engineers have been
to over 15 m, and strengthene,p. There (Figure 3.58). It was the ferocity, location and cl,annelling tl,e river to protect farmland
were almost 3000 krn of levees along timing of tl1e flood that took everyone by and towns from floodwaters. But have the
tl,e main river a1,d its tributaries. surprise. Nor111ally, river levels are falling in levees, dan,s and diversion channels actu­
• By cutting through meanders, the midsummer, the upper Mississippi was not ally aggravated the flooding? There are
Mississippi l,ad been straightened and perceived to be the 111ajor flood-risk area, two schools of thought. One advocates
shortened: for 1750 km, it flows in and people believed that Aooding in tl,e accepting that rivers are part of a complex
artificial channels. basin l,ad been controlled. Floodwater at St ecological balance and that flooding should
• Large spillways had been built to take Louis reached an all-tir11e l,igh (Figure 3.58). be allowed as a natL1ral event (Figure 3.71 ).
excess water duri1,g times of flood. Satellite photographs showed the extent The otl,er argues for better defences and a
• The flow of the major tributaries of the flooding (Figure 3.59). Figure 3.60 more effective control of rivers (Figure 3.70).
(Missouri, 01,io and Tennessee) had describes some of its effects.
been controlled by a series of dams. Figure 3.58
. . . . . . , . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
Extract from US Today, a daily newspaper

April-July 1993 rainfall (in inches) D Normal D

- "'' ___,..__..,,� Rain in the Mid-West J 23.2 (59.3 mm)
. .-
I "'-·-
MarshaII, Minn. i---""---- ----.-----'
.. 13.5 ( 34.3mm)
30 .5 (7 7 .5 mm)
"

Waterloo, Iowa i-· -- --------- -'""-----.------=:.....

- =------1·
. 16.6 (42.2mm)
St Louis
Although there were some nervous moments, the city's massive 11-
mile long, 52-foot floodwall protected the downtown from flooding.
Heavy rains in the
The river crested here August 1 at a record 49.4 feet, and the amount
past two months
of water flowing past the Gateway Arch surpassed a record 1 million
1,ave kept land
cubic feet per second.
saturated a11d rivers
/
running high soi--���-::=====--���
D 200°/o
or more 40 L--./-------
.-
- -- river level
than normal
N .., 30'­ -- bankfull. level
lSOo/o-200% flood stage: 30 feet 1
D of normal
(1)
Cl)
� 20'-
9.1 m
" ,� highest crest
v 125%- 1so010 peak discharge
-- \

0 SOOkm D of normal
10 ._ Aug 1: 49.4
(15.05 m)
• Q ,_____ �-�,·_____
___:__
July 1 Aug 8
 . �' - � ,l.• ,. '(-:
,t

Figure 3.59
.... ,. ................ .....................,. ......
Satellite photograph showing
flooding at the confluences
of the Mississippi with the
Illinois and Missouri. The
water surfaces are shown as
blue, built-up areas as purple,
and farmland/vegetation
as green

�- •·t-:,........ .:::::.-... . � Figure 3.60

...... ,................................... ........................................................ ,.._ .
�
� 1
• ' -c:,.
,
f)
�
, �)J
The consequences of flooding in the St Louis area
<'� . "" \/

US Today, 9 August 1993 .

•• - :<-'\
' �---·� ..,,,
·'I-'·\?� ' ,� .....' •.·. • ,, ..... ,••· ;...<, ••• •41L,:ca sx,p ""' •>, ...--� '.,�
rm,......�.,,.....,..,..
,

,
�� - . \.

=IWil©TI·�
. ;

�J..

�I�-� 't.
-� •
c .•;:,: SIII� 1
12
;e.•: ffi C: ,�.::::;= o :�•: ':::,
, '

)f
Nearly l1alf of tl1e counties in nine states bordering the upper reaches of the - (\
r'
Mississippi and Missouri rivers have been declared federal disaster areas. This Illinois: · In the figl1t against flooding rivers, 17 Ie,,ees ,vere
is the first step ir1 becoming eligible for federal aid, including direct grants from breached, i11c.ludi11g one that flooded the to,vn of
�}
Congress, Federal Emergency Management Agency and many other groups:
-
Valn1eyer and 70000 acres of surround.ing farmland.
011e flood-related death \Vas reported.
<\--\ =
In f\lton, the treat�ent pla11t \Vas flooded Aug 1,
cutting off water to the town's 33000 residents. "Our
levee did not breach, bt1t the ,vater came in throtiob0
the street, the d.rains, anywhere tl1ere ,vas a l1ole, at
such a rate that ptunps couldn't kee1J up," says Mayor
Bob Towse. . \
Statewide J)roperty losses n1ay top $365 million, \\
rl

incl udjng damage to 140 1niles of roads ru.1d eight

bridges. Agricultural dan1age is esti1nated at 111.ore
than $610 million. An estjmated 4% of tl1e state's
cropland-900000 acres-was flooded. In additjo11,
15 727 peo1)le ,vere dis1Jlaced, 860 bt1sinesses closed
and 11early' 9 000 jobs lost.
Missouri: The J1ighest death toll-25-a11d the greatest property
cla1nage-$l .3 billion-of all flooded states ,vere
· reported here. Statewide, 13 au-ports have been '
<''\_
closed, and 25 000 resiclents evacuated. Flooding 011 ,I
((
1.8 nlillion acres of farmland l1as cattsed abot1t
$1.7 billion in crop losses. •
,r
fleroic efforts a1)parently saved historic Ste ;,
Ge11evieve, whicl1 has been battling rising waters
since the start of Jtily.
3 j;(ase,
. -
. St�dy:
. The need for river management

B River flooding:
Mozambique
Mozambique has a pronounced single
wet season followed by a ler,gthy dry
season. As sl,own in Figure 3.61, both
Maputo, the capital city, and Beira, the
second city, receive almost 75 per cent of
tl,eir an1,ual rainfall during the five or six
summer months when the sun is almost
overl,ead (Figure 12.12) and when the
soutl,-east trades, blowing over the warm
offsl,ore Mozambique Current, are at their
strongest (page 319). This rai1,fall pattern is
repeated in the countries to the west and
wl,ere Mozambique's three main rivers, the
Zambezi, Save a1,d Li1npopo, l,ave their
headwaters.
The people of Mozambique are accus­
to1ned to the threat of seasonal fiooding.
In 2000 the country experienced its worst
floods for over 50 years, an event that, in the
following years, seemed to become an almost
annual occurrence until 2008 when the gov­
ernment introduced its 'prevention-focused
rather than response-oriented' policy.

N
Zaire Tanzania

Pemba
Malawi Indian Ocean
Zambia

------- Cabora Bassa •

Lake+ HEP e Nampula
�==k;��-PI •

.... ,.... --- � --- ··---�-- .. -�----- - ---- � .. t .......

,� ••

Beira
240�-�--+--�-��
Total 1523 mm

Zimbabwe
- 160+--+--t---t--+--t---t--+--+---+-�f---+--�
• Beira
Buzi -
c
·-
,u
·a.. 120-1---+---t--l---+---t--+---1----l---�---d,--b--.....:i
·-
(1)

� 80-1---t---+---t--+--t---+---+--+-----+--!,,---4--�

•
I 40·
R. Lin1popo
0 )

Tropic of Capricorn I
I
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D

Chokwe 160

•
Maputo
Republic of
Map to
Xai-Xai -Ec 120 -...:!iii:=

Total 761 mm
South Africa

s azilan
-
·-
·-
·-
�
80

40·
�

0 200km
F M A M J J A s 0 N D

2000 the worst-hit being those living in flimsy Figure 3.61

. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . ................ ..
Rivers, especially the Limpopo, began to shanty settlements located on the edges of '

Mozambique, with rainfall

overflow their banks in early February after the city. Houses, roads, bridges and crops graphs for Maputo and Beira
several days of heavy rain, with the extreme were destroyed, electricity supplies were
south of the country the most severely disrupted and towns were left without a
•

affected. In Maputo, tens of thousands of clean water supply after pumping stations
people were forced to leave their homes, were either inundated or swept away.

..........
. . ........................ , .............................. , ................................... , ................................·........... . .... .... .... , .......... ........ . '

90 Drainage basins and rivers

 The need for river management

01122 February the coastal region near

2 million had their lives affected, 11 per the death toll was down to 21. However, i1,
Beira received the full in1pact of tropical
cent of farmland was ruir,ed, 20 000 cattle 2007, several weeks of heavy rain resulted
storm Eline - a relatively rare hazard eve11t ir1 were drowned and local industries in in tl,e worst Zambezi floods since 2000.
Mozambique. Winds of up to 260 km/l1r hit MapL1to were forced to close. Fears tl1at tl,e huge Cabora Bassa dam
a coastal area just north of tl,e still-affected
(Figure 3.61) might overflow led to water
fiooded regions. By 24 February, furtl,er heavy 2001 being released from tl,e lake bel,ind it. This
rainfall over much of southern Africa l,ad resulted in tl,e level of the Zambezi rising
Over a month of l,eavy rain caused rivers in
swollen Mozambique's rivers by up to 8 m ever, higl,er, and increased Aooding in tl,e
central areas, including tl,e Zambezi near to
above tl1eir 11ormal level (Figure 3.62). On 27 lower basir,. As a result 30 people died ar1d
Chokwe, to overflow. These floods led to 41
February, fiash floods i11undated more areas 70 000 people were forced to leave tl,eir
deaths, made 750 000 people homeless and
near to Cl,okwe and Xai-Xai. Estimates sug­ homes.
affected half a millio1, people i1, total. Roads
gested that up to 7000 people, without food
and bridges, some only just repaired from
and water for several days, were surviving in 2008
the previous year, were swept away.
the tops of trees or 011 small islands of higl1
Although an estimated 115 000 people
ground (Fig Lire 3.63). lnternatio11al relief aid,
2006 and 2007 were affected by the 2008 Flood, the death
wl,eri it eventually arrived, was to last for
Followi1,g droughts in 2004 and 2005, toll was limited to 20. This was, according
several montl,s.
l,eavy rainfall at the end of December 2005 to UN aid workers, due to MozarnlJique's
Final figures stated that 7000 people
and througl, early 2006 agai1, affected success in prepari1,g for tl,e flood event
died, half a million were left homeless,
thousands of people, althougl1 this time (Figure 3.64).

[......-,-,•.... -�-,---·
i
f

'
·L, '\

-�'

.•
'
,.
� J •

�
� �
�
r
•

- .. •
•
�"'"-�
:-.:�-·�
,.,,. .
.'JI
�
�'
\.
("
••
·�
-·· •
•

Figure 3.62
................ , . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .
Aerial photo showing the
extent of the 2000 fiood

. ----- � ,,.. . . ' , - ,

''
� - ., I ' .. •

.-
Tl1ere l1as bee11, tl1is year, a ope11ed regjonal brancl1es a11d
bega11 111011itoring weatl1er -
significa11t improveme11t in the
' •
'
gover111ne11t's disaster forecasts, L1pst.ream da111 •
.
capacities and rai11fall i11 •
111anage1.ne11t. Duri11g the
previous year tl1e governme11t neigl1bouring countries. It also
'
'
11ad reva111.ped its policies, set up a11 early-warn.i11g syste111
'/
n1aki11g tl1en1 preventio11- a11d moved boats, togetl1er with
.
focused rather tl1an respo11se­ reserves of foocl a11d 111edical
''
•
orie11ted. Realisin.g tl1at floocls supplies, to places witl1 a l1igl1
l (a11d droughts) are going to flood risk. Finally it drew 11p
,
haJJpen, tl1en tl1e best approacl1 co11tingency plans ai111ed at Figure 3.64
.. ....... ............ . ... . . .... . .... .
is to try to min.i1n.ise their evacuating low-lying villages
\ ) ,,

' : Extract from a 2008 UN

i111pact. The Disaster Age11cy should the need arise. -
.
' report (UN/BBC News Africa)
•l-
' -·. '"' - ' ...,. . .... .......
,
. , . ., - ... .

.... . . .. ..... . . ' ... . ....... . ......... . . .............................................. . ..... ' ...... .·································"······································
Drainage basins and rivers 91

•
 ••
3 }Case Study The need for river management

C Flooding: the Severn in 20July the Severn and Avon, hacl begL1n to leave
tl1eir l1omes. The flooding and the volume
England, 2007 Although forecasters !,ad warned of heavy
of traffic caused gridlock on major roads in
rain for up to a week beforel1and and tl,e
For many parts of England and Wales, 2007 Met Office l1ad issL1ed a severe weather the area, vvith an estin1ated 10 000 motorists
was the wettest year, and certairlly the warni119 tvvo days before, no one quite left stranded for up to 10 hours on the MS
wettest summer, ever recorded. The main expected tl1e doV'1npours of 20 July. Two between Worcester and Gloucester (Figure
reason vvas a failure by the polar fro11t jet montl,s of rain fell in two l1ours, and three 3.66). This gridlock prevented the emer­
strear11 to r11ove 11orthwards as it usL1ally tin1es JLtly's normal total in 24110L1rs in gency services moving equipment such as
does at this time of year (Figure 9.37). This parts of tl1e Midlands wl,ere tl1e soil was portal)le steel flood barriers to places like
meant that instead of the drier, more settled already saturated a11d ma11y rivers were Upton-upon-Sever11 which were threatened
weatl1er associated witl, a British su111mer, close to their ba11kfull level. Pershore, in by flooding, and hampered tl1eir attempts
winds still ca111e from the now warm Worcestershire, received 145 mrn in that one to rescue people already trapped. Tl1e result
Atlantic Ocean. Bei11g warrn, tl1ese winds day. Flash Aooding irnmediately affected was the largest deployme11t of rescue heli­
were able to collect more moisture tl,ar, several towns in the Avon and lower Se,,ern copters and the biggest peacetime emer­
was usual as tl,ey crossed tl1e sea, resulting valleys (Figure 3.65). By early evening 111uch gency ever in tl,e United Kingdom.
in l1eavy rainfall as they reached the British of Evesl1am and parts of Stratford-upon­
Figure 3.66
Isles. Torrential rain durir,g June caused Avon were under water, 1 billion litres of
severe floodir,g ir, Hull, Do11caster and Gridlocked traffic on a flooded
water was pouring through Gloucester
Sheffield tl,at was to leave some properties road near Tewkesbury
where up to 2000 people were to sper1d
unir,habitable for over a year. the night in emergency shelters, and resi­
Figure 3.65 dents in Tewkesbury, at the confluence of
.. . .. . . .
Lower Severn valley .,

N
7
1 MS
/ (to Birn1ingham)

W O R C E T E R S H R E
Pershore
••,
•
(heaviest rain) � R. Avon
�""""'
..
Evesham
(one of the first
Upton-upon-Severn• places flooded)
(cut off for several days)

-- - -- ' --, ... ----------

---
--- -
----- areas most affected
within this zone

MS
R. Severn (gridlocked
on first night)

Cheltenham
G L O C E T E R S H I R E

Severn
Gloucester
estuary (many people h o
(tidal) leave their floo ,, omes)

R. Thames
\ (towards
Oxford)
O 10 km
11111111111

Thames The River Thames

Lechlade Oxford
head
\...r-. __,
Cricklade Wallingford Marlow
HenleY.
Maidenhead
·�

LONDON
Goring
�
Win �taines
Reading Tedd1ngton
�

.............................................. , ...............................................................................................................................................
92 Drainage basins and rivers
 The need for river management

..
·-.
'
, • '--� ...•
-.
•
•

. ,
"· .... •

. -: ,, ...........
Figure 3.67
............. ... ... .............
Flooded Tewkesbury,
at the confluence of
the Severn and Avon

22July in it. This was achieved despite having \tvere warned it would be over a year
More rain, together witl1 runoff arriving only six hours before a higl1 tide at nearby before they could return. While the Severn
from the headwaters of the River Gloucester would cause tl1e level of the was still over its banks in several places
Severn, made the situation even worse. Severn to peak at almost 8 m above its and severe flood warnings remained
usual level. Meanwhile further heavy rain in place between Tewkesbury and
Helicopters were still rescuing people from
Tewkesbury where 75 000 residents were was beginning to cause major disruptions Gloucester, it was now people living close
to places fL1rtl1er east in the Thames Valley. to the Thames in Oxfordshire who were
completely cut off (Figure 3.67). Nearby,
the Avon begar1 to flood a water treatment faced with a real threat from flooding.
works at the Mythe, forcing it to close 23July
down and leaving 350 000 people witl1out Half of Gloucestershire was now without 24July
water for washing, cooking or sewerage. water and people were told that it might Floodwater l1ad by now receded from
Some 20 km to the south, a major crisis be two weeks before supplies could be most places in the Severn valley apart
arose as floodwater began seeping into an restored, and 50 000 l,omes were witl1out from properties adjacent to the river itself.
electricity sub-power station, threate11ing electricity. Freshwater tankers and bottled Mopping up could begin bL1t the real
to cut off supplies to 600 000 people. This water suppliers were struggling to reach clean-up was expected to take months.
led to the military being called in to help places still cut off, while supermarkets Initial estimates of flood damage were put
construct a 1 km embankment around the were experiencing panic buying. Of the at over £2 billion.
station to prevent further flooding and tl1ousands of people who l1ad had to
then to purnp out water that was already evacuate their homes in the region, some

.. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . , . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .. . . . . . � · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · -- · · · ··· · ·· · · · · , · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · ., · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. , . . . . . . . .. . . . 4

Drainage basins and rivers 93

•
 The need for river management

• managing floods and providing the

D Flood and river on rivers and tidal waters. It also has tl,e
flood warning service.
lead role in r)roviding flood warnings a1,d,
management wherever possible, to protect people and Flood incidents vary in scale and impact,
Economically more developed countries property at risk. Dynamic issL1es such as from low impact of unpopulated floodplains
such as tl,e United Kingdom have tl,e climate change, floodplain development to severe flooding in large towns and cities
capital and technology that enable them and evolving technology mean that tl,e EA which can disrupt key parts of tl1e urban,
to better predict, plan for, manage and l,as to frequer1tly update its flood warning and even regional, infrastructure. According
respond to the flood risk than do less eco­ service and advice. The EA aims to reduce to tl1e EA, a flood incident involves plan­
nomically developed countries sucl, as the irnpacts of flooding by: ning for floods, communicating tl1e risk of
Mozambique. • strategic and development planning flooding, detecting a1,d forecasting flooding,
Flood mar,agement in tl,e UK is the • investment in pla1,ning and managing issuing flood warnings, providing informa­
responsibility of tl1e Environment Agency flood defences tion on flooding and responding to flooding
(EA). Tl,e EA has the powers to set meas­ • mapping areas at risk of flooding and (Figures 3.68 and 3.69).
ures in place to reduce the risk of Aooding managing Aoodi1,g information

Figure 3.68
•
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ,
'. . .

How the EA prepares for and

manages a flood event

Planning for flooding We constantly plan for flooding and organise how we Police, ambulance, fire and rescue services. Local authori­
will respond to each incident. We regularly meet with our ties, utility companies and community groups
professional partners to create multi-agency response
plans and major incident plans for flooding. These detail
how each organisation will respond to flooding in specific
locations.
Communicating flood risk We talk to the public throughout the year about all aspects Residents and property owners living or working in the
of our flood risk management work. We focus on flood area
awareness, our flood warning service (Figure 3.69) and
providing information about what to do before, during and
•
after the event .
Detecting flooding We monitor rivers and sea conditions, 24 hours a day, 365 Met Office
days a year, so we are prepared for potential flooding. We
use remote detection systems to measure rainfall, wind
speeds and direction, water levels and water flows in rivers
and seas.
Forecasting flooding We use flood forecasting so that we know when and where Met Office, emergency services, utility companies, local
to issue flood warnings and when to operate our flood authorities
defences. We share this with our professional partners so
that they can also respond to flooding.
Issuing flood warnings We send warnings by automated voice messages to land­ General public, professional partners, the media
line and mobile phones, and by fax, pager, SMS text, email,
static sirens, public address loudhailers and broadcasts by
radio and television.
Providing information on flooding If the public have not received flood warnings or want Website, the media, telephone
confirmation of the warnings issued, they can view
warnings in force by: visiting our website at www.
environment-agency.gov.uk/fl9odline, viewing Teletext
(page 154} and Ceefax (page 149), or contacting
Floodline on 0845 988 1188.
.
Responding to flooding During a flood our priority is to issue flood warnings and Emergency services, local authorities
make sure that our flood defences are working properly.

'
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , t,, . . ' • .. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ..

-

94 Drainage basins and. rivers

--�--
The need for river management

Figure 3.69
., ··············· · · · · · · · . . .
...... . . .... . . . . , ... ····· · • · . . . , , ,

Guide to the EA's flood warning codes

Triggers Triggers Triggers

• Recorded rainfall that will cause flooding As for Flood Warning plus:
• Heavy rainfall that could cause flash flooding
• Recorded or forecast water levels that will cause flooding • Snowmelt • Site observations of severe flooding or major problems
• Snowmelt forecast with infrastructure and services
• Observed rising level - critical trigger point reached
• Forecasts predict a worsening situation and severe
• Forecast level or flow - trigger point for Flood Warning
flooding likely
forecast
• Actual flooding
• Site observations, e.g. blockages or defence failures
r • Actual flooding . • Professional judgement, including consultation with
professional partners
Impact on the ground Impact on the ground Impact on the ground

• Fast-flowing rivers • Flooding of homes • Large numbers (at least 100) of homes/businesses
• Bankfull rivers • Flooding of businesses expected to flood
• Flooding of fields and recreation land • Flooding of cellars and basements • Large numbers of people are likely to be affected by
• Minor road flooding • Underground rail stations and lines vulnerable flooding
• Car park flooding • Flooding of major road infrastructure • Highest risk to life
• Farmland flooding • Flooding of rail infrastructure • Severe adverse impact on local infrastructure antici­
• Surface water flooding (linked to river flooding) • Significant floodplain inundation (high risk to caravan pated, e.g. transport, hospitals, utilities
• Overland flow from rivers and streams parks or can1psites) • Significant impact on the capacity of professional
• Localised flooding due to heavy storms • Flooding of major tourist/recreational attractions partners, organisations and the public (e.g. vulnerable
• Damage to flood defences groups) to respond effectively
• Flood defence failures or overtopping which could result
in extreme flooding
All Clear
We also use an 'All Clear' message to indicate receding floodwaters and a settled outlook.

Management in the future for the excess water to go. A government the water might get and how long it might
Climate modellers are now predicting that report of 2004, 'Making Space for Water: take before draining away.
came to the same conclusion, proposing Others are pointing out that by con­
by 2080, due to climate change, floods
the sacrificing of farmland, meadows and structing hard defences and Aood walls
like those experienced in Eng . land in 2007,
other areas of open space as a way of (Figure 3.70) all that is achieved is to push
whicl, have previously only happened once
ensuring leQst damage to property and the problem further downstream. They
in every 150 years, could happen every 20
disruption to human activity (although this suggest that there needs to be a major
to 30 years. Insurers expect that by that
seemed at odds with government plans to upgrading of the sewerage network and
time annual' losses will be £21 billion - five
build thousands of new homes in flood-risk drainage systems to cope with more severe
times greater than in 2007. Since the floods,
areas - page 400). storm events, that houses should be built
environme·ntal risk consultants have been
Flood experts have begun detailed with the ground floor used for car parking
urging the British gover:nment to take
mapping of large urban areas in Britain. and living space ·above it, and the use of
urgent steps to deal with the increased risk
They hope, by using three-dimensfonal stone and concrete for flooring would
of heavy rainfal.l events and that, instead
maps, not only to show which places are at enable a flooded house to be hosed down
of trying to control and conteiin the flow of
greatest risk, but also to predict how deep and dried ou� more quickly than at present.
rivers as in the past, space should be found

•••• •• • • • ................................................... ,...................................................................... . . . . . . .. . . ' . .' . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

�

Drainage basins and rivers 95

3 kC:as.e Study.. The need for river management
. -.,h......"';",

�. ..

Farming (field drains) and urbanisation Greater volume and velocity can
(drains and sewers) increase the speed i11crease the river's load and its 1 Flood banks (levees) built too close
of throughflow ability to erode to rivers leave no storage space for
I

excess water
•

l--- Banks and beds· lined with concrete

allow the river to flow more quickly
,.. - . ,-
Farming (bare fields in winter)
and urbanisation (tarrnac)
increase surface runoff

\
' Straightened, artificial courses - �-
increase tl1e river's velocity Artificial defences expensive to
'
'-���=""""-=---=---=�:--��- construct and later to maintain
·- -....
A culverted river may not be able to
'
take the extra water of a flash flood
1 and can trap debris at tl,e same time '
Water draining away faster from
upstream locations can cause
High flood banks (levees) can cause greater problems downriver
I the bed of tl1e river to rise and, if they

i are overtopped, to give a more severe

flood event (Mississippi 1993)

-__ _... __........-� ... -

'Much expense a11d environ,nental degradation is involved in forcing a river to flow w/1ere it is put,
J

1 rather t/1an where it wants to be, and w/1ere the designed plan is inappropriate to that reach of the
Figure 3.70
. . . .. . .. -. . . . . .. . .
A managed river river.' (Newson)

---- ---- -·- - ... ___ --..-- -

l
... _ -- ,,. ---- --·------ .....,.,. __.._ ..------ - -------- ..--..,
Rivers can use tl1eir floodplain for extra l Less risk of flooding and erosion downstream
storage capacity while the increased althougl, a greater risk where houses and
. factories have been built upstream on the
1\ wetted perimeter reduces the river's
velocity l!
floodplain

_______ ___........ ..... lU f 4J < I I peappl(, Ia C(

, - -� ---..-·-· �---- -----

�,
......

Rivers allowed to meander more slowly , New housing and factories

over their floodplains reduces erosion built above the floodplain
'\...--.�7-���---��.-:-:-�

---------{._�o

-----------
............ -- ...,_...- ................... ___ ---.,---,��-

Natural river banks are �

cl1eaper to maintain
- .-..-. "I......

I
Rivers in flood deposit
silt over the floodplain
,. ICr? , tv :•./ir• T& .... •_..,.,.__..,_:7o ,,..._----.,.,..

1 Floodplains and river banks

provide habitats for wildlife
� ..-.. �- ----""----·· ...........

l
------- -·-<
Less throughflow and surface
Vegetation improves the visual runoff reduces the risk of
Figure 3.71 appearance and helps create buffer
. .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. flooding
A free-flowing river strips \_�-�·�-��
- �-���,���-�·--;;:=,;;��

........................ ...................... ......... .......... , ................... , ..................... , ............................... .....................................

..- �

96 Drainage basins and rivers •

 The need for river management

Should rivers be managed or not? severity, there may come a time when it is The River Skerne, near Darlington in County
People living and working in fiood-risk areas impossible to finance new defences or main­ Durl1arn, had, over 200 years, been progres­
naturally want their lives, property and way of tain existing ones. Figure 3.71 sl1ows some of sively straigl,tened for fiood control, drainage,
life protecting yet increasir1gly this can only be tl1e ways by wl,ich the EA l,as, in a published housing and indL1strial developme11t (Figure
done at greater financial and environmental pack of 16 scl1emes, tried to rehabilitate both 3.72). The floodplain had been a place for
costs. Some of the problems created by trying rivers and their floodplains in an attempt to tipping contaminated waste while the river
to control rivers are shown in FigL1re 3.70. Yet allow people to live witl1, rather than trying to itself had become polluted, unsightly and, in
as flood events increase in frequency and control, them. places, inaccessible. Towards tl1e end of the
20th century various organisations, including
the EA, Northumbrian Water, English Nature,
the Countryside Commission and Darlington
Borough Council, worked together, with con­
siderable effect, to rehabilitate the river (Figure
3.73).This has been achieved without com­
promising flood protection standards.
Rivers may be rehabilitated by:
Figure 3.72 ..' • creati11g new habitats for wildlife
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... .
�
,) ,
The River Skerne before (otters, birds, fisl,)
rehabilitation • reshaping river banks and cl,annels
and replacing artificial beds and banks
('hard' engineering) with natural
materials
• recreating meanders and riffles
• reopening culverts.
Floodplains may be rehabilitated by:
• restoring former ponds and wetland
areas or establishing new ones
• raising water tables and allowing
increased flooding on floodplains
Figure 3.73
. . . " . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ....... .................. ................. • planting trees a11d shrubs and creating
rA The River Skerne after rehabilitation buffer strips
...._..·�_!fi?lzt�
.. • creating recreation areas .

Sources of maps E11vironment Age11cy

www.environ1en.t-agency.gov.t1k/maps
National Hurrica11e Center
www.nl1c.noaa.gov
(see pages 98-99) Geological St1rvey of India On1nin1ap.com
rfextbool<S www.gsi.gov.in www.on1nimap.com
Ross, S. (2002) Essential MaJJwork Skills, Get Ma1Jpi11g Ord11ance Survey
Nelson Thornes, ISBN 978-0-7487-6461-7 ww·w.getmapping.co1n www.ordnancesurvey.eo.uk/oswebsite
Ross, S. (2006) Esse11tial MaJJwork Skills 2, GOAD maps available tl1rougl1 w-wvv.ord11ancest1rvey.co.uk/oswebsite/
Nelson. Thor11es, ISBN 978-0-7487-8436-3 Experia11 at geta1na1J/
Shops www.bu.si11ess-strategies.c0.t1k/sitecore/ Orcln
. an.ce Survey of Nortl1er11 Ireland
In tl1e UI<, Stanfords (branches in London conten t/Products01U20and.o/o20services/ www.osni.gov.ttk
an.d. Bristol) carries an astonisl1ing range Goad.aspx Po1Julatio11 Reference Bt1reau
of n1a1Js a.nd is well wortl1 a visit (website Google ma1Js wv,.rw.prb.org/Pt1blicatiq11s/
address below). www.maps.google.co.uk GraphicsBank/PopulationTrencls.aspx
La11d use maps Brigl1ton and Hove School for Disaster Geo-lnforn1atio11
Online
www· .sussex.ac.uk/geography /1-2-4-1-2. Manage1nent
British Geological Survey
html www.itc.:nl/un11/dgin1/diag/pakistan.asp
www.bgs.ac.uk/enqt1iries/rocks_
be11eath.l1trnl Florida Soil Survey Maps
www.map¥.1 ise.corn/ma1Js/florida/la11d.­ www.cra11field.ac.uk/sas/11sri/i:nclex. jsp
Caribbea11 Disaster E1nergency
use-zoning.html Stanfords Maps
Response Agency (CDERA)
www.cdera.org M·ap Action www.stanfords.co.uk
www.n1apaction.org Streetmap
Cassini Historical Maps
ww·w.cassi11imaps.co.uk Met Office www.streetmap.co.uk
CJ1ina (topogra.phic 1naps)
www�1netoffice.gov.uk u·s Geological Sl1rvey
htt1J://cartographic.com Mt1ltimap www.usgs.gov
www.multixnap.com

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drainage basins and rivers 97

Figure 3.74
... ............ ·- · ··
Extract from a geology
map. Notice how rock
types (coloured) are
superimposed onto a
traditional OS map
Source: www.bgs.ac.uk
··· ··· · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · · � · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · ········ · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··········· · · · ··········· ·· ······· · · · · · ····· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ···· · · · · · · · ···· · · ·· · ··· · · · ·· · · ··
98 Drainage basins and riyers
fr;o�u-sing on maps forr Geograpli¥
----�-------------��----·-----........:=-_.:---�::.._.----........:.--�--�__,.___�--..-.�----�--"--�--'
Maps provide a rich source of information for
geograpl1ical study. Tl1ere are many different types,
including the traditional topographic Ordnance
Survey (OS) maps, and sp.ecialist ones such as soil
maps, geology maps and historical maps. Detailed
maps exist for many parts of tl1e world, providing a
h�ge amount of information on land use, tourism
and communications. The Internet is a great source
of maps, enabling the user to have control over scale
and coverage. See page 97 for some useful sources of
maps, including those described below.
Paper maps
In the UK the maps most commorily used by
geography students are the topographic OS maps.
These are widely available and cover England, Wales
. - and Scotland. Maps of Northern Ireland (produced
by the OS of Northern Ireland) are slightly different,
although there is widespread coverage. Tl,e most
commonly used OS maps are the Landranger 1:50 000
·. maps and the Explorer 1:25 000 maps. Now that all the
cartographic details are stored digitally it is possible to
obtain site-centred maps at a great variety of scales,
including 1:10 000, 1:5000 and even 1:1250, which give
detailed layouts of houses and gardens.
Across the world, topographic maps similar to the
UK's OS maps have been produced mostly using
satellite information and exploiting GIS. Recently
1:50 000 topographic maps of China have been
_produced and these are now widely used to support
. economic development.
..
Many specialist paper maps are available for
geographical study:
... ..................... .
• The National Soil Resources Institute at the UK'. s
Cranfield University publishes extremely detailed
soil maps.
.
• geography.
The British Geological Survey has produced
similarly detaile� geological maps identifying
•
rock types _ and geological features
. '
(Figure 3.74).These have many
applications, for example in studying
the location of landslides or the
distribution of farms.
· • The Geological Survey of India
publishes geology maps at various
scales. These show details of
geology as \Yell as hazards and earth
resources.
• Histori<::al ·maps are now available·
for many parts of the UK and these
•
are an excellent resource wl1en investigating
cl1anges over time, for example for an inner city
area such as London Docklands or on a rural­
urban fringe..
• Land use maps provide a further useful historical
record for geographical study. Two sets of such
maps cover the UK. These were drawn up in the
1930s and 1960s. More recently in 1996, the UK
Geographical Association conducted a land use
survey of 1000 x 1 km 2 squares - 500 rural and
500 urban - to enable comparisons to be made
witl1 the historical land use maps. Similar maps are
· available for other parts of the world.
• In South Africa a large range of city maps is
available from Omnimap.com, together with a
selection of topographic maps at different scales
and thematic maps covering land uses, resources
and geology. Omnimap.com also sells a range of
, maps of Malaysia, including land use maps and
detailed geology/mineral maps.
• International Travel Maps (printed in Canada) give
an excellent coverage of South America including
the Amazon rainforest. These maps can be
obtained from Stanfords bookshop (see 'Sources
of maps' on page 97). Similar maps published by
Globetrotter give good coverage of the Middle
East, and are also available from Stanfords.
• In the UK, students may come across GOAD maps
at GCSE. Essentially these plot commercial land
uses in towns and cities. Buildings are drawn
to scale and the nature of the building use is
described; individual shops and stores are named.
GOAD maps provide wonderful historical records
and can be used to demonstrate changing urban
land use (particularly retailing).While these
maps are only available for the UK, they are a
useful source of info·rmation for anyone studying
Maps on the Internet
Today when asked for a map, most students •
automatically turn to the Internet. There are several
Internet map providers, including Google Maps,
Multimap, Get Mapping and Streetmap. The Ordnance
Survey also provides maps online, and has a service
Get-a.:Map by whi<::h it is possible to find a map for a
named place and print it, subject to certain conditions.
The Internet gives access to.maps of all kinds, quickly
•
and cheaply (often free of charge), and usually offers
interactivity, with zoom and navigation faEilities.
Increasingly GIS enables the user to select particular
 Figure 3.75 ,.

.... , ....... , ................. , , , , ..

relation to other places, or important features of the
Track of Hurricane llurricant Ille

Ike, September 2008

Stpttmberl>. 2008
1 f AU £OT Tue•diy landscape. Geography is about interrelationships and
111·,s Jl'Cllmi.,,111111mic•nc Cmtrr

Source: www.nhc.
1'cM1ory,S
�,
CtATtnt Cmi.r locA!lon n.. mo VI connections and maps are often invaluable in this
U..5v11.&W4Vll...t IIO•ph
C"'7Tnl u,,.._, d Ylt,.., .. , :, """1
respect.
noaa.gov ") ClltTml �trlKllkH!
• rOl'l'aMCr111<rl'o,-lon1
II Sv111mr, """4 • T.J "''"
S ,.,....,r,""'4:r:1·7Jo>pb
C'::::,,
CI:
l'<'lt•1h1Dayt·)Tnc1An1
l'ouli1!.tl Dr,+S TAO fin•
Information on maps can be directly relevant to
- ,1urr1c .... v,....1n9
, - ,,.p1u1s,.... v,....in, geographical study, providing an alternative source of
information about an area. In physical geography, for
example, maps can be used to identify features such
as corries, raised beaches and sea stacks. In human
geography they provide information about services,
patterns of roads and settlements, and land uses.

•- Sketch maps
information to include on a map. Aerial photographs Topographic maps are wonderfully detailed but
and so-called'hybrid'maps (traditional maps sometimes they contain too much information so
superimposed over aerial photos) provide a further that it is difficult to see the overall picture. A sketch
dimension for the geograpl1y student. map enables a geographer to be more focused by
Many organisations provide specialist maps. For · making a careful copy of just a few selected pieces
example: of information. Sketch maps are invaluable when
researching case studies, for example in identifying
• Map Action produces maps of areas hit by natural landforms along a stretch of coastline. When drawing
disasters such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes a sketch map you must be clear about its purpose
or hurricanes. These maps are produced very and avoid adding irrelevant detail. Ensure that your
quickly following an event to support relief map is as accurate as possible and remember to
agencies in their work. always include a scale and a north arrow. Use labels or
• The School for Disaster Geo-Information · annotations to provide interpretation of your map.
Management l1as a tremendous selection of maps
relating to the 2005 Pakistan earthquake; some 40 Using maps in exams
maps have been produced at a scale of 1:50 000 to There is a strong chance that you will be given a map
assist aid workers in the region. extract in one or more of your exam modules; so you
• Maps plotting hurricanes can be found at the do need to prepare yourself thoroughly as part of your
National Hurricane Center (Figure 3.75). revision. Practise the essential ma·pwork skills such as
• A huge variety of maps to support the study of using grid references, measuring distance, describing
tectonics, water resources and geology can be orientation. and drawing simple sketch maps. Make .

found at the US Geological Survey. sure you know most of the symbols so that you can •

• For disasters in the Caribbean, such as earthquakes, 'read' a map without having to keep referring to the
key.
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and landslides, the •

Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency Take time to learn how to interpret a map in different
provides excellent information including maps. geographical contexts. For example, be clear what
• Up-to-date and archive weather maps can different types of housing look like in an urban area,
be found at the Met Office and a range of UK and make sure that you can identify a high tide line
postcode-related environmental maps can be when examining a stretch of coastline.
found at the Environment Agency's website.
• .A great site providing population maps is the
Population Reference Bureau.

Using maps in geographical research

Maps are an essential part of study at AS/A level and
you should make use of the� when conducting your '.

own individu.. al research. At the most basic level a map Figure 3.76
. .. . . ... . . ..
identifies the location of a study area. It also helps
�

, Detailed topographic map of

to provide context, for example where a place is in S{ngapore
Source: www.omnimap.com

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Drainage basins and rivers 99

 •

Activities
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channel precipitation and fast runoff
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surface runoff
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0 storage and groundwater . "
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<lJ torage soil and rock type)
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interception
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start of storm middle of storm end of storm Figure 3.78
' . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .
time from start of storm Fieldsketch of
Figure 3.77 a meander
........ .. . .. . .... ···-·�· ·········,. ..
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The relationship between rainfall and

runoff in the course of a typicalstorm •

>

1 Study Figure 3.77. iii Why is there no soil moisture deficit shown in
Figure 3.3? (4marks)
a i
What is surface storage? (2marks) b Why would a farmer need to understand the water
ii Why does interception decrease during a storm? balance of farmland? · (6 marks)
(3 marks) c · Why do water companies in Britain depend on winter
iii What happens to surface runoff during the storm? rainfall to maintain reservoirs? (6 marks)
(4marks)
.
3 Study the diagram of a meander (Figure 3.78) and
.
b Wbat 1ould happen t9 a river at the following stages: a i
i at the start of this storm identify the location of the following landforms:
ii at the middle of the storm inside of the bend; outside of the bend; floodplain;
slip-off slope; river cliff. (5 marks)
• iii at the end of the storm? . (8 marks)
ii Describe the features of the channel cross-section
c The figure shows the reaction of a vegetated area to a
of a typical river meander. (5 marks)
.. ' heavy rainstorm. Describe and explain which parts
. of the
b Choose one of the following features of a river: waterfall;
.
model would change if the. area were covered in concrete
.paving and drains. (8 marks) cascade; rapids. Using one or more sketches/diagrams,
.
.� .
describe the features of your chosen landform and
2 · · a Study Figure 3.3 (page 60) and,answer the.following explain how it is eroded by a river. (7marks)
questions: c i How does a meandering river form an oxbow lake?
i What is a 'soil moisture budget'? (2 marks) (6 marks)
ii Explain each of the following terms used in the ii How could the formation of an oxbow lake lead to
description of a soil moisture (water) budget: field management problems on the floodplain of a river?
capacity; water balance; soil moisture utilisation. (4marks)
•
(7marks)

•
•
• . . '

Exam practice: basic structured questions

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '

4 a I. What is a 'storm hydrograph'?, (3 marks) ii : With reference to specific example/s, suggest how
••
II What is meant by each of the following terms used in river management strategies may be used to alleviate
relation to a storm hydrograph: lag time; peak the problems caused by a 'flashy' regime. (9 marks)
discharge; recession (falling) limb? (6 marks)
5 a i Study Figure 3.27 (page 74). Describe the river bed
bi Identify two drainage basin characteristics that make sl1own in the photograph. (3 marks)
a river react quickly to a rainstorm (have a 'flashy'
regime). For each one explain why it has this effect. ii Suggest where the loose boulders shown beside the
(7marks) river have come from. (4marks)
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . j , 1 0 • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .
· o O I I I I I o f f f I O I I O O f I .. I t I f O O I t I I f I I I t I f I t t t t t f I t j I o f f 1 1 I j o o ,t 1

1·00 Draina.ge basins and rivers

 iii How does a river erode a river bed such as the one in the ii Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
pl1otograpl1? (6 marks) development of a trellis drainage pattern. (8 marks)
b Explain two ways in which you would know that loose b i Study Figure 3.53 (page 85). Describe the valley shape
rocks found on a field trip had been worn away by a river. you would see if you were walking from the River
(6 marks) Wansbeck to the Hart Burn. (2 marks)
c With the aid of diagrams of a waterfall, show how it is ii Explain how the present drainage pattern evolved
being changed over time by river processes. (6 marks) from the former drainage pattern. (6 marks)
c Choose and name an example of a drainage pattern other
6 a i Describe tl1e characteristic features of a dendritic
drainage pattern . than a trellis pattern. Describe it and explain how it has
(3 marks)
been formed. (6 marks)
•

Exam practice: structured questions

• • • o • • o o o • o o • o • • o • • • • o • o • • • o • • • • o o o • o o o o o • o o o o • o o o e o • o o • • o • o o o • o o e o o • o • o • • o o o • • o o • • • o

7 a Usi11g annotated diagram/s to l1elp your answer, illustrate the b Identify and suggest reasons for two variations in the
components of a storm hydrograp/1. (5marks) long profile of a river. (13 marks)
b Explain how it is possible to measure the discharge of a
stream in the field and how the results collected will be 11 a i What is the difference between general base level and
processed. (1o marks) local base level? (6 marks)
c Why do lag times differ on the same stream at different ii Explain what happens to base level in a river system
times? (10marks) if sea-level falls. _ (4 marks)
b Choose two landforms forry,ed in a river valley by a
8 When a housing estate is built on the rural/urban fringe, pre­ change in base level. Identify the direction of change
existing drainage patterns are changed and river systems involved and describe and explain the formation of
respond in a different way to storm events. each landform. (15 marks)
a Study of sucl1 cl1anges must start before building to
establish a 'baseline' for change. Briefly describe one 12 a Under what circumstances do rivers deposit m'aterial?
technique you could use to measure the discharge of a (12 marks) •

stream in a rural catchment. (5 marks) b i Explain how levees form as a result of natural river
b Describe and account for two changes to discharge which processes. (5marks)
may occur once the l1ousing estate is built (1O marks) ii How do levees affect rivers and their tributaries?
c Describe two problems that could occur in the area due (8 marks)
.
to the altered discharge pattern. (7 0marks)
13 Study Case Study 38 on pages 90 and 91.
9 a Using annotated diagram/sonly, show how the velocity of a a Describe the seasonal rainfall pattern in Mozambique and
typical river varies across its cross-section. (5marks) explain why this distribution of rainfall makes flooding
common in the country's major river basins. (7 marks)
b i Describe tl1e processes by which the load of a river is b Population densities are increasing in both the rural and
transported. (8 marks) urban areas of Mozambique. S·uggest how this increases the
ii What factors affect the size of the particles eroded, flood hazard in the country. · . · · (8 marks)
transported and deposited by a river? (12 marks) c ' ... the government introduced its prevention�focused rather
than its response-focus.ed p·olicy:
10 a Describe and suggest reasons for the cross-section shape of •

a river: Suggest what these policy changes might have meant in

different parts of Mozambique. . . (1O marks)
i near the source of the river
ii close to the mouth of the river. (12 marks)
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Exam practice: essays
•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••• • •••••••••••••
14 With reference to one or more river basins that you have studied, 16 'Flood hazards, resulting from a combination of physical and
describe and evaluate river rehabilitation schemes. · human influences, are increasing in many parts of the world:
(25marks)
Discuss this statement with reference to rivers in countries at
15 Explain how changes in.the base level of a river can affect the · different stages of economic development. (25marks)
valley cross-section and the river's long profile. (25marks) . .
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Drainag� basins and ri\lers � 01