GROUP-6 HIS103 REPORT on

“How bio-polar security architecture had influenced the out

of Bangladesh liberation war of 1971? Make an assessment
with particular reference to the role of super powers.”

To
Maj Gen (Retd.) Dr Md Sarwar Hossain Sir
Department of History and Philosophy, North South University
HIS103, Section 19
 Page |2

Contents
Introduction:................................................................................................................................................3
Aim..............................................................................................................................................................3
Background/Origins:...................................................................................................................................3
Key Events..................................................................................................................................................5
Formation of two Global Security Alliance namely NATO and Warsaw Pact...........................................5
Race for Control over Asia (South Asia) – India and Pakistan joined different camps.............................5
India remained non-aligned but unofficial friend of USSR.......................................................................6
Rise of China and its split with Russia......................................................................................................6
Split between Russia and China widened over 1962 Sino-Indian war.....................................................6
Pakistan came even closer to China following Indo-Pak war of 1965 as USA suspended supply of
military munitions...................................................................................................................................7
US inclination towards China for combating common enemy USSR........................................................8
Emergence of Russia and India vs US, China and China over Bangladesh issue.......................................8
India-US relations:...................................................................................................................................8
US-Pakistan relations...............................................................................................................................9
Indo-Pak war of 1965:.............................................................................................................................9
Barbaric acts of west Pakistan on East Pakistan....................................................................................10
India’s support to East Pakistan:............................................................................................................11
The Emergence of Bangladesh through Liberation War........................................................................12
Consequences............................................................................................................................................13
The elite forces of the Mukti Bahini and the Indian army.....................................................................13
The nation's finest win...........................................................................................................................13
India's strength vis-a-vis Pakistan..........................................................................................................13
The nation's most defining event..........................................................................................................13
Pakistan’s nuclear program...................................................................................................................14
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................15
References:................................................................................................................................................16
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Introduction:
Bipolarity is a form of international order in which two states control the majority of global
economic, military, and cultural influence. The authoritative case of a bipolar world is the Cold
War between the United States and the Soviet Union. Bangladesh was born as a nation-state in a
bipolar international system in 1971, after a violent independence struggle. During the Cold War,
it was bipolar and the two superpowers, the United States of America (USA) and the former
Union of Soviet Socialist Countries (USSR), became the two poles, respectively leading the
Western capitalist and Eastern socialist blocs. Both superpowers acted as preponderant powers,
shaping the strategic choices of the majority of nation states. Bangladesh's birth in 1971 was a
game on the world stage in which many teams, including superpowers, played their cards
directly or indirectly when grappling with the power balance in the international arena at the
time.

Aim
The aim of this research is to identify the influence of the bipolar security architecture and the
role of the global superpowers at that time on the liberation war of 1971 and formation of
Bangladesh.

Background/Origins: 
Global superpowers existed since as early as 27 BC, the great Roman Empire being considered
the first global superpower. Then there was the Mongol Empire that once had the largest empire
in terms of land (1206-1294). Later, the British Empire was a global superpower, setting up
colonies and trading posts around the globe (Shankar, 2020). The last century of the world’s
history saw two great World Wars. Although, during World War II, USA and the Soviet Union
fought together and defeated Hitler; however, right after World War II these two countries
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emerged as the two most powerful global superpowers of that era, and due to very different
political ideologies, mainly regarding the restructuring of Europe, engaged in a Cold War (1947-
1991) (‘Two Super Powers: The United States and the Soviet Union’, 2014).

Being the two rival global superpowers of that era, both USA and the Soviet Union were eager to
expand their influences over South-East Asia (Ashrafi, 2021). Therefore, it can be agreed upon
that the emergences of these two super powers essentially set the stage for an intricate bipolar
security architecture that eventually had a very significant impact on the 1971 Liberation war of
Bangladesh.
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Key Events 
(Development of bio polar Security Architecture & its Ramifications on Bangladesh
Independence)

Formation of two Global Security Alliance namely NATO and Warsaw Pact
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was a military alliance initially between 12
nations including USA, signed in Washington, D.C. on the 4 of April, 1949. The formation of
th

NATO meant that the USA could place weapons in member states. This was an agreement
between the member nations to support each other in the event of an attack from other outside
nations, and to oppose the growing power of the Soviet Union (McLean, n.d.).  This would allow
more effective defence in the event of a Soviet attack.

The Warsaw pact was a treaty of cooperation, friendship and assistance between the Soviet
Union and seven other Soviet satellite states in 1955. This pact was a reaction to West
Germany’s entry into NATO, and an attempt to confront USA’s influence on the world, mainly
on Europe (McLean, n.d.).The Warsaw Pact was dominated by the USSR. This allowed the
Soviets to force their foreign policy on the rest of the Eastern Bloc.

Race for Control over Asia (South Asia) – India and Pakistan joined different
camps
Pakistan wanted to join a superpower to strengthen their stance, however, due to the fact that
Pakistan was a capitalist nation and Soviet Union a communist nation, these two nations did see
eye to eye. Moreover, due to the fact that USSR was an unofficial friend of India giving India
military, economic and technical assistance, created doubts for Pakistan in joining USSR
(Wikipedia contributors, 2021). USA wished to curb communist expansion in Southeast Asia.
Therefore, in September 1954 they formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
which involved several countries, including Pakistan as a collective defences ally (Wikipedia
contributors, 2021).
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India remained non-aligned but unofficial friend of USSR

India's initial relations with the Soviet Union after independence were ambivalent. In 1954, the
U.S. gave arms to Pakistan and Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO. The developing situation
alarmed India, which had uncomfortable relations with Pakistan. It also provided Moscow with
the opportunity to develop relations with India. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, a scholar of
Indian foreign policy, 1965 to 1977 was the "golden age of Indo-Soviet relations". Jawaharlal
Nehru decided to remain non-aligned with global power struggles as two hundred years of
British plunder had reduced India’s GDP way down-23% to 3% and he wanted to focus on
India’s economic condition. However, due to the relationships formed between USA and
Pakistan (1954 SEATO), India was alerted, because India and Pakistan had an unamiable
relationship. As a result, the Soviet Union thought that forming an unofficial relationship with
India was a necessary opportunity not to be missed, in order to counter the threat of USA. The
relationship between the Soviet Union and India further improved during the Sino-Indian War of
1962, when USSR provided military aid to India (Wikipedia contributors, 2021).

Rise of China and its split with Russia

In the Western world, the Sino-Soviet split transformed the bi-polar cold war into a tri-polar one,
a geopolitical event as important as the erection of the Berlin Wall (1961), the defusing of the
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and the end of the Vietnam War (1975), because the rivalry
facilitated Mao's realization of Sino-American rapprochement with the US President Richard
Nixon's visit to China in 1972. Moreover, the occurrence of the Sino-Soviet split also voided the
concept of Monolithic Communism, the Western perception that the communist nations were
collectively a unitary actor in post–Second World War geopolitics. 

Split between Russia and China widened over 1962 Sino-Indian war
On October 20, 1962, China's People's Liberation Army invaded India in Ladakh, and across the
McMahon Line in the then North-East Frontier Agency. The initial Chinese assault was stopped
by accurate Indian mortar fire. According to China's official military history, the war achieved
China's policy objectives of securing borders in its western sector. The continued losses forced
the Indian troops to escape to Bhutan and then to India. Split between Russia and China widened
over 1962 Sino-Indian war
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India was attacked on October 20, 1962 in what came to be known as Sino-India war of 1962.
China's perception of India as a threat to its rule of Tibet became one of the most prominent
reasons for the Sino-Indian War. The war arose when China occupied Tibet and tried to capture
Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama, he went to exile. China warned every country in Asia not to
protect Dalai Lama but India provided refuge to Dalai Lama. (“India-China War of 1962: How It
Started and What Happened Later,” 2016)

USSR provided a neutral stance during Sino-Indian war but Khrushchev perceived the events of
Tibet as the fault of the Communist Party of China and refused to support China. He also
emphasized on the need to help Nehru [the then Prime minister of India] stay in power. But Mao
had contradicting thoughts and blamed the situation on Nehru. Soviet’s indirect support to India
in its border issues with China was one of the factor for the 1950s-60s Sino-Soviet split. (“India-
China War of 1962: How It Started and What Happened Later,” 2016)

Apart from the border issues, the Soviet Union under Khrushchev’s rule gave India economic
and military assistance and by 1960 India received more assistance from Soviet than China.
[Wikipedia]

All these factors led to Sino-Soviet split and the start of friendship between Russia and India.

Pakistan came even closer to China following Indo-Pak war of 1965 as USA
suspended supply of military munitions
The most significant outcome of the 1965 war was that Pakistan, in the years that followed
became increasingly dependent on China for its defence needs and began to get closer to the
Muslim nations. Countries like Indonesia, Jordan and Saudi Arabia had provided help to it
during the war. Seeing the tension arising between China and USSR and India, Pakistan
strategically allied with China and was the was first among few to end diplomatic ties with
Taiwan in order to show support towards China. This made USSR distrustful towards Pakistan,
sowing seeds for the formation of allies between India and USSR.

On the other hand, USA was dissatisfied with India for its nonaligned movement and appreciated
Pakistani assistance in holding the line against communist expansion by joining SEATO and
CENTO. Soon after joining the pacts Pakistan started receiving military aid from USA which
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assisted them in the 1965 Indo-Pak war. But China was not involved in this war as it was facing
a leadership crisis between Republic and the communist party.

US inclination towards China for combating common enemy USSR

The perception of grave threat from the Soviet Union were the common concerns of both US and
China. Pakistan being the common friend between the two countries played an important role in
improving relationship between China and USSR. Using Pakistan as an intermediary, the then
president of USA, Nixon visited China in 1972. Sino - Soviet split offered economic opportunity
for both USA and China to increase trade with each other and to stand together against their
common foe- USSR. 

Emergence of Russia and India vs US, China and China over Bangladesh issue.
Naval units from the Soviet Pacific Fleet had already been dispatched. The vessels were armed
with anti-ship cruise missiles and escorted by nuclear submarines. Henry Kissinger: "I must warn
you, Mr. President, if our bluff is called, we'll be in trouble... we'll lose" The White House had
also been hoping for some sort of a Chinese move to complicate India's military operations.
Kissinger offered to provide "tactical intelligence" on "the disposition of Soviet forces" on
China's borders. Mao Zedong was not going to take a chance again after Russia's military
escalation to Chinese provocations in 1969. For China to "invite a conflict" after the conclusion
of the Indo-Soviet Treaty would be tantamount to "courting a disaster" Zhou Enlai told Kissinger
that the U.S. bluff had been called by the Soviets. The turmoil occurring between East Pakistan
and West Pakistan soon pulled different nations [ Russia, India China and USA], each played
significant roles in the liberation of Bangladesh. USA and China expressed support for Pakistan
whereas India and Russia for Bangladesh. 

India-US relations:
The US has had a tumultuous relationship with India in the past. Due to India's participation in
the non-aligned movement, especially its prominent position at the Bandung Conference of 1955,
US officials treated Indian leadership with some caution during the 1950s. The US hoped to
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maintain a regional power balance by preventing India from influencing the democratic growth
of other countries. However, a 1962 border dispute between India and China resulted in a
decisive Chinese victory, prompting the US and the UK to supply military supplies to the Indian
army. Following the conflict with China, India sought support from the Soviet Union, putting
pressure on US-Indian ties. During the 1960s and 1970s, however, the United States provided
India with significant development assistance.

US-Pakistan relations
Ties between the United States and Pakistan have been more consistently optimistic. By joining
the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954 and the Baghdad Pact (later called the
Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO) in 1955, the United States saw Pakistan as an example
of a moderate Muslim state and valued Pakistan's assistance in holding the line against
communist expansion. Pakistan was interested in these pacts because it wanted to improve its
military and defence capabilities, which were well behind those of India. During this time, both
the United States and the United Kingdom supplied Pakistan with weaponry.

Indo-Pak war of 1965:

The 1965 war between India and Pakistan was the second time the two countries were at odds
over the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The conflict did not end the dispute, but it did confront the
US and the Soviet Union in ways that would have significant consequences for any superpower
participation in the region. In early 1965, when Pakistani and Indian troops fought over contested
territories near the two countries' frontier, the conflict erupted once more. As the Pakistani army
tried to take Kashmir by force in August of that year, tensions escalated. The effort to annex the
state failed, and the second India-Pakistan War came to a halt.

India moved swiftly to internationalize the border conflict after Pakistani forces occupied
Kashmir. It requested that the United Nations play a role similar to that of the First India-
Pakistan War in ending the current conflict. On September 20, the United Nations Security
Council passed Resolution 211, calling for an end to the conflict and talks on a solution to the
Kashmir crisis, and the US and the UK backed the UN decision by cutting off weapons supply to
both belligerents. Both belligerents were influenced by the embargo, but Pakistan felt the
 P a g e | 10

consequences more acutely because its military was much smaller than India's. The United
Nations resolution and the suspension of weapons sales had an immediate impact. On September
21, India and Pakistan agreed to a cease-fire, and on September 22, Pakistan agreed.

The cease-fire did not settle the status of Kashmir on its own, and both parties agreed to use the
Soviet Union as a third-party mediator. In January 1966, negotiations in Tashkent came to a
close, with both sides relinquishing territorial rights and withdrawing their armies from the
contested territories. About the fact that the Tashkent agreement met its short-term objectives,
violence in South Asia flared up again a few years later. (The 1965 India-Pakistan War, n.d.)

Barbaric acts of west Pakistan on East Pakistan

Pakistan's status as a pro-American and anti-communist government aided the US' geopolitical
interests in South Asia. Pakistan served as a vital outlet for the United States' opening to China in
the early 1970s, in addition to reducing the threat of communism and posing a barrier to India's
interests. China's dominance in South Asia at the time was largely based on its animosity with
India over boundary disputes. Pakistan had already established close relations with China and the
US. In the face of such an agreement, Bass demonstrates how then-President Richard Nixon and
his national security advisor, Henry Kissinger, couldn't pass up the chance to use Pakistan as a
backchannel for US-China trade. In reality, Kissinger's first trip to China, in 1971, was
orchestrated via Pakistan. To forge good ties with a major regional player, the United States
needed to open up to China.

However, although the US sought to maintain good relations with Islamabad in order to prevent
jeopardizing the opening to China, the Pakistani military was massacring civilians in East
Pakistan. Blood's memoir, US and British witness testimony, and Bass's own analysis all point to
"a disconcerting fact": Pakistan was cracking down on its own civilians while being "heavily
armed" by the US. The role of US weapons in West Pakistani military operations in East
Pakistan was clear, from M-24 Chaffee light tanks and.50 calibre machine guns to planes like F-
86s and C-130s.

Harold Saunders, then a member of the U.S. National Security Council, warned Kissinger about
the Pakistani Army’s possibility of cracking down on East Pakistani civilians. “There was still a
 P a g e | 11

last chance to avoid slaughter by leaning hard on [then-Pakistani President] Yahya [Khan],” Bass
writes. Saunders recommended an economic aid embargo to Pakistan to divert the government
from unleashing its troops on its people. Despite warnings and condemnation from officials like
Saunders and Blood, Bass shows that Kissinger was keener on keeping Pakistan satisfied than
taking any moves that hinted at a U.S. interest in splitting the country apart.

India’s support to East Pakistan:

Refugees flooded over the frontier into India after the slaughter of East Pakistanis started. By
May, India had taken in nearly 2 million refugees, with 50,000 more arriving every day. The
refugee situation was a major factor in India's decision to accept East Pakistan's call for
independence.

Apart from putting pressure on Pakistan, India's support for East Pakistan enraged China, a
Pakistani ally who despises secessions due to its own experience with Tibet and Taiwan. India's
intelligence reports indicated that it had good cause to be suspicious of Chinese violence,
including its role in East Pakistan's struggle for independence. India and China already had a
tense relationship and had fought a war in 1962. In the event of an open war between India and
Pakistan, the possibility of China selling arms to Pakistan and attacking India's borders loomed
high.

Until mid-1971, India seemed to be alone in its support for East Pakistan's Liberation War. But,
in the form of the landmark Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation, its friendly
relationship with the Soviet Union eventually paid off. According to Bass, despite the fact that
the treaty did not guarantee all-out security against enemy powers, it essentially served as a
"deterring message to both China and Pakistan." India benefited from the Soviet alliance in terms
of weapons as well. The USSR's supply of PT-76 amphibious light tanks and Mi-4 transport
helicopters came in handy when India was publicly engaged in a war with Pakistan in December
1971. On the political front, the USSR backed India by vetoing two UN Security Council
resolutions calling for an immediate truce and troop withdrawal. Through vetoing the
resolutions, India gained enough time to prepare for victory in the war's final stages.
 P a g e | 12

Meanwhile, the USSR was mostly tied to India due to strategic considerations. According to a
paper by Professor Abul Kalam of the University of Dhaka published in “History of Bangladesh
1704-1971” (edited by Sirajul Islam), the Soviet Union's geopolitical influence in South Asia
was largely focused on India, which acted as an ideal outlet for Soviet trade with non-communist
Asian and African nations. India served as a blueprint for the benefits that a Soviet coalition
could have on the international level, and it was also helpful to Soviet interests. (Ashrafi, 2021)

The Emergence of Bangladesh through Liberation War

The Cold War's power structures eventually casted their shadows on Bangladesh's Liberation
War, pitting India and Pakistan against one another over the question of East Pakistan and
rekindling old ethnic wounds. The South Asian chapter of the Cold War shows the Nixon
administration's stunning inability to avert a large-scale defeat – the Liberation War cost 3
million lives, according to Bangladeshi figures – in order to protect the US geopolitical interests
in a desperate atmosphere of competition with the USSR. It immortalizes how a big world
power's foreign policy actions, such as the United States', reverberate in far-flung conflicts.
(Ashrafi, 2021)
 P a g e | 13

Consequences

The elite forces of the Mukti Bahini and the Indian army
Operation Jackpot was one of three operations undertaken by Bengali Mukti Bahini in
former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during the climax of the Bangladesh Liberation War.
The goal of the operations was to demoralize Pakistani soldiers and disrupt their supply network

The nation's finest win

Pakistan lost half its country, its forces in the East, and had to publicly surrender to India. It was
also the largest military surrender after World War II. 75 million people of Bangladesh gained
independence after the war. It is estimated between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians were killed.
On December 6, she announced in Parliament that India had accorded recognition to the
Bangladesh Government. On August 2, 1972, India and Pakistan signed the Shimla Agreement
under which the former agreed to release all the 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war.

India's strength vis-a-vis Pakistan

During the 1971 Bangladesh war, Indian and Pakistani militaries clashed on the eastern and
western fronts. The war ended after the Eastern Command of the Pakistan military signed the
Instrument of Surrender on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the formation of East Pakistan
as the new nation of Bangladesh. Approximately 90,000 to 93,000 Pakistani servicemen were
taken prisoner by the Indian Army.

The nation's most defining event

In Pakistan, 1971 remains one of the most defining events in the nation's history, shaping its self-
identity and regional policies. The loss of East Pakistan created a "never again" mentality in the
country. Pakistan increased its defense spending and launched a nuclear program aimed at
developing a nuclear weapon as early as January 1972.
 P a g e | 14

Pakistan’s nuclear program

Pakistan increased its defense spending and launched a nuclear program aimed at developing a
nuclear weapon as early as January 1972. Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in May 1998, shortly
after India's nuclear tests, declaring itself a nuclear weapon state. Pakistan currently possesses a
growing nuclear arsenal, and remains outside both the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
 P a g e | 15

Conclusion
In conclusion, as it is the case with history, global power struggles or strife between nations or
alliances all these leave considerable impacts on other nations of the world. Similarly, it is
without a doubt the power struggle between the global superpowers of that time had indeed
shaped the Liberation War of 1971 and the story of the birth of Bangladesh we tell today. Had
the role of the superpowers were non-existent in the past, our origin of Bangladesh as a country
would be an entirely different story.

“Waves in large oceans make up a tsunami in a small lake…”

Likewise, the waves of the power struggle between the global superpowers during that time and
the bi-polar security architecture were indeed like a tsunami for the outcome of the liberation war
of 1971 that resulted in the emergence of an independent nation called Bangladesh.
 P a g e | 16

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