ELECTRICALS

4.1 BASICS

4.1.1 AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The route along which the electricity flows is called an electrical circuit. The circuit
shown below has a power source, fuse, switch, two lamps and wires connecting each into
a loop or circle. When the connection is complete, current flows from the positive
terminal of the battery through the wire, the fuse, the switch, another wire, the lamps, a
wire and to the negative terminal of the battery.
4.1.2 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS
A complete Electrical Circuit is required in order to make electricity practical. Electrons
must flow from and return to the power source.

There are three different circuit types; all require the same basic components:

1. Power Source is needed to supply the flow of electrons (electricity).

2. Protection Device prevents damage to the circuit in the event of a short.
3. Load Device converts the electricity into work.
4. Control Device allows the user control to turn the circuit on or off
5. Conductors provide an electrical path to and from the power source.

BASIC CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

1. Power Source (Battery, Alternator,

Generator, etc.)
2. Protection Device (Fuse, Fusible
Link, or Circuit Breaker)
3. Load Device (Lamp, Motor,
Winding, Resistor, etc.
4. Control (Switch, Relay, or
Transistor)
5. Conductors (A Return Path,
Wiring to Ground)

LOADS

The illustration below has a horn in place of the lamp. Any device such as a lamp, horn,
wiper motor, or rear window defogger that consumes electricity is called a load. In an
electrical circuit, all loads are regarded as resistance. Loads use up voltage and control
the amount of current flowing in a circuit. Loads with high resistance cause less current
to flow while those with lower resistance allow high current rates to flow.

4.1.5 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

In an automotive electrical circuit, one end of the wire from each load returning to the
battery is connected to the vehicle body or frame. Therefore, the vehicle body or frame
itself functions as a conductor, allowing current to flow though the body or frame and
back to the battery. The body or frame is then referred to as the body ground (or earth) of
the circuit (meaning that part of the circuit that returns the current to the battery).

4.1.6 WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits.
Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical problem
diagnosis and repair.

OHM'S LAW

Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage
goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the
current goes down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical
troubleshooting. But calculating precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not
always practical ... nor, really needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of
Ohm's Law would be to simply apply the concepts involved:

a. SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too

low, normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will
be high if resistance is low, or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too
high, current will be high.

b. CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the

resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high,
current will be low.

c. RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or
too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too
high, current will be low if voltage is okay.

NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current
goes up as resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up. Bypassed
devices reduce resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase resistance,
causing low current.

OHM'S LAW FORMULA

When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit. The following
special relationship exists among the voltage, current and resistance within the circuit: the
size of the current that flows in a circuit varies in proportion to the voltage which is
applied to the circuit, and in inverse proportion to the resistance through which it must
pass. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows:

E=IR

Voltage = Current x Resistance

E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V)

I Current flowing in the circuit, in amperes (A)

R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms

 In practical terms "V = I x R" which means
"Voltage = Current x Resistance".

1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance.

NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How you learned
Ohm's law will determine which one you will use. Personal preference is the only
difference; anyone will get you the correct answer.

OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT

Mathematical formulas can be

difficult for many who don't use
them regularly. Most people can
remember a picture easier than a
mathematical formula. By using
the Ohms law symbol below,
anyone can remember the correct
formula to use. By knowing any
two values you can figure out the
third. Simply put your finger over
the portion of the symbol you are
trying to figure out and you have
your formula.

APPLICATIONS OF OHM'S LAW

As an application of Ohm's law, any voltage V, current I or resistance R in an electrical

circuit can be determined without actually measuring it if the two others values are
known.

This law can be used to determine the amount of current I flowing in the circuit when
voltage V is applied to resistance R. As stated previously, Ohm's law is:
Current = Voltage / Resistance.

In the following circuit, assume that

resistance R is 2 and voltage V that is
applied to it is 12 V. Then, current I flowing
in the circuit can be determined as follows:

This law can also be used to determine the

voltage V that is needed to permit current
I to pass through resistance R: V = I x R
(Voltage= Current x Resistance).

In the following circuit, assume that

resistance R is 4 ohms. The voltage V that
is necessary to permit a current I of 3 A to
pass through the resistance can be
determined as follows:

Still another application of the law can be used to determine the resistance R when the
voltage V which is applied to the circuit and current I flowing in the circuit are already
known:
In the following circuit,
assume that a voltage V of 12 V
is applied to the circuit and current
I of 4 A flows in it. Then, the
resistance value R of the
resistance or load can be
determined as follows:

4.1.7 TYPES OF CIRCUITS

Individual electrical circuits normally combine one or more resistance or load devices.
The design of the automotive electrical circuit will determine which type of circuit is
used. There are three basic types of circuits:

Series Circuit

Parallel Circuit

Series-Parallel Circuit

SERIES CIRCUITS

A series circuit is the simplest circuit. The conductors, control and protection devices,
loads, and power source are connected with only one path to ground for current flow. The
resistance of each device can be different. The same amount of current will flow through
each. The voltage across each will be different. If the path is broken, no current flows and
no part of the circuit works.
Christmas tree lights are a good
example; when one light goes out the
entire string stops working.

A Series Circuit has only one path to

ground, so electrons must go through
each component to get back to ground. All loads are placed in series.

Therefore:

1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit.

2. The voltage divides (shared) between the loads.

3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit.

4. The resistance of each load can be different.

SERIES CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

If, for example, two or more lamps (resistances R1 and R2, etc.) are connected in a circuit
as follows, there is only one route that the current can take. This type of connection is
called a series connection. The value of current I is always the same at any point in a
series circuit.

Resistance R0 (a combination of
resistances R1 and R2, which are
connected in series in the circuit as
illustrated) and current I flowing in
this circuit can be determined as
follows:
VOLTAGE DROP
A voltage drop is the amount of
voltage or electrical pressure that
is used or given up as electrons
pass through a resistance (load).
All voltage will be used up in the
circuit. The sum of the voltage
drops will equal source voltage.
A voltage drop measurement is
done by measuring the voltage
before entering the load and the
voltage as it leaves the load. The
difference between these two voltage
readings is the voltage drop.

VOLTAGE DROP TOTAL

When more than one load exists in a
circuit, the voltage divides and will
be shared among the loads. The sum of the voltage drops equal source voltage. The
higher the resistance the higher the voltage drop. Depending on the resistance, each load
will have a different voltage drop.

0V + 5V + 7V + 0V = 12V

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION

When current flows in a circuit, the presence of a resistance in that circuit will cause the
voltage to fall or drop as it passes through the resistance. The resultant difference in the
voltage on each side of the resistance is called a voltage drop. When current (I) flows in
the following circuit, voltage drops V1 and V2 across resistances R1 and R2 can be
determined as follows from Ohm's law. (The value of current I is the same for both R1
and R2 since they are connected in series.)

The sum of the voltage drops across all resistances is equal to the voltage of the power

source (VT):

The voltage drop across

resistances R1 and R2 in the
following circuit can be
determined as follows:
PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A parallel circuit has more than one path for current flow. The same voltage is applied
across each branch. If the load resistance in each branch is the same, the current in each
branch will be the same. If the load resistance in each branch is different, the current in
each branch will be different. If one branch is broken, current will continue flowing to the
other branches.

In parallel connection, two or more resistances (R1, R2, etc.) are connected in a circuit as
follows, with one end of each resistance connected to the high (positive) side of the
circuit, and one end connected to the low (negative) side. Full battery voltage is applied
to all resistances within a circuit having a parallel connection.
A Parallel Circuit has multiple paths or branches to ground. Therefore:

1. In the event of an open in the circuit in one of the branches, current will continue to
flow through the remaining.

2. Each branch receives source voltage.

3. Current flow through each branch can be different.

4. The resistance of each branch can be different.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2) in a parallel connection can be

determined as follows:

From the above, the total current I

flowing in
this circuit
can be
determined
from Ohm's
law as
follows:
The total current I is also equal to the sum of currents I1 and I2 flowing through
individual resistances R1 and R2

Since battery voltage V is applied equally to all resistances, the strength of currents I1
and I2 can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:

Resistance RO (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which are connected in parallel

in the circuit as shown below), the total current I flowing in the circuit, and currents I1
and I2 flowing through resistances R1 and R2, can be determined respectively as follows:
SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A series-parallel circuit has some components in series and others in parallel. The power
source and control or protection devices are usually in series; the loads are usually in
parallel. The same current flows in the series portion, different currents in the parallel
portion. The same voltage is applied to parallel devices, different voltages to series
devices. If the series portion is broken, current stops flowing in the entire circuit. If a
parallel branch is broken, current continues flowing in the series portion and the
remaining branches.
A resistance and lamps may be connected in a circuit as illustrated below. This type of
connecting method is called series-parallel connection, and is a combination of series and
parallel connections. The interior dashboard lights are a good example. By adjusting the
rheostat, you can increase or decrease the brilliance of the lights.

The combined resistance R02 in this series-parallel connection can be determined in the
following order:

a. Determine combined resistance R01, which is

a combination of resistances R2 and R3
connected in parallel.
b. Then, determine resistance R02, which is a combination of resistance R1 and
combined resistance R01 connected in series.

Total current I flowing in the circuit can be

determined from Ohm's law as follows:

The voltage applied to R2 and R3 can be found by the following formula:

Currents I1, I2 and I flowing

through resistances R1, R2 and
R3 in the series-parallel
connection, as shown below,
can be determined as follows:
 4.1.8 COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS

Description of
Component Schematic Symbol Actual appearance
Function
A resistor is used to
resist electric current.
Its value is measured
Resister in ohms, and the
colors on the body of
the resistor are a code
for the value.
This is a resistor that
can change in
resistance by means of
Variable a wiper on a coil of
Resister wire or carbonized
plate. This is the heart
of the volume control
in many devices.
A capacitor stores
electrical charge and
can release it upon
demand. There are
many types, and the
one pictured on the
left is an electrolytic
capacitor, capable of
Capacitor
storing much
electricity. Another
type is the ceramic
disc, and it is useful
for high voltages and
low values.
Capacitance is
measured in farads.
 A diode is a
semiconductor device
that allows current to
flow in one direction
Diode
only. The current
flows from the left to
the right on the
schematic diagram.
LED's are popular
devices that emit
Light light, and similar to
emitting plain old diodes, they
diode allow current to flow
in one direction.
(LED) LED's come in many
colors, with the
newest being blue.
This is done by a
wire. The point is to
connect all of the
Chassis This is just a connection to
Ground ground. wires that one wants
at zero potential to a
common reference
point.
Earth ground is just a
connection down to
This is just a connection to earth, usually through
Earth Ground
ground. a cold water pipe or a
metal rod driven
through the earth.

The transistor is used

to control current.
They have the
NPN Bipolar advantage of being
Transistor able to amplify
currents with a small
amount of heat
dissipation and very
little spatial waste.
Although the label of
the picture is a
LM7812 (voltage
regulator), for people
who can actually
identify these chips, a
transistor, namely, a
power transistor will
have the same
packaging as the
pictured one.