Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural
control
Y. V. R. K. Prasad and T. Seshacharyulu
Bulk metal working processes are carried out at
elevated temperatures where the occurrence of
simultaneous softening processes would enable
the imposition of large strains in a single step or
multiple steps. Hot working also causes a
significant change in the microstructure of the
material and this contributes to one part of
workability generally referred to intrinsic
workability, which is sensitive to the initial
conditions of the material and the process
parameters. The other part, related to the state of
stress existing in the deformation zone, is specific
to a metal working process and may be controlled
by changing the applied state of stress and/or
the geometry of the deformation zone. An
understanding of the constitutive behaviour of the
material is essential for the optimisation of the
intrinsic workability and control of microstructural
evolution during hot working. In recent years,
modelling techniques have been developed for this
purpose and these are critically reviewed. These
include: (1) the kinetic model, (2) the atomistic
model, (3) the dynamic materials model, and
(4) other models including activation energy maps
with stability criteria and polar reciprocity model.
Since the first two models do not lead to workability
optimisation directly and are not useful for
commercial alloys, the dynamic materials model
has been developed. This model forms a bridge
between the continuum mechanics and the
microstructural mechanisms occurring during hot
deformation, and consists of principles of
irreversible thermodynamics of large plastic flow.
The dissipated power is related to the rate of
entropy production due to metallurgical processes
obtained by partitioning the total power between
that due to the temperature rise and the
microstructural change. In view of the viscoplastic
nature of hot deformation, the strain rate sensitivity
of flow stress has been found to be the power
partitioning factor. The development of processing
maps using this model, their interpretation and
application for optimising hot workability and control
of microstructure are reviewed. The development of
activation energy maps and their use in the control
of microstructure are useful for obtaining robust
process control for microstructural optimisation,
while the use of the stability criteria puts undue
restrictions on the processing regimes. Several
mechanisms of hot deformation, with special
reference to dynamic recrystallisation, are discussed
in the light of results from processing maps obtained
on a wide range of materials. Finally, the application
of the processing maps in designing bulk metal
working processes is briefly explained. IMR/332
© 1998 The Institute of Materials and ASM International.
At the time the review was prepared the authors were in
the Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012, India. The authors are currently at the
Materials Process Design Branch (MLMR), Air Force
Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH
45433, USA.
International
Introduction
Bulk deformation processes like rolling, forging, and
extrusion are conducted at temperatures higher than
about two-thirds the melting point of the material.
These processes generally involve large strains and a
high speed of deformation, both of which help in
achieving high productivity. The high temperatures
of the process permit the imposition of large strains
in a single step without the onset of fracture thus
obtaining the final product shape in the fewest poss-
ible steps. In addition to forming near net shapes, hot
deformation is associated with a change in the micro-
structure. Thus, one of the important objectives in
hot deformation is to control the product micro-
structure such that it does not contain micro- or
macro defects or flow instabilities and that it is
achieved on a repeatable basis in a manufacturing
environment. The development of a robust control
system for metal processing requires a fundamental
understanding of the constitutive behaviour of the
different elements.1•2
A generic method of representation is in terms of
physical modelling concepts3 in which sources, stores,
and dissipators of power are identified, constitutively
characterised, and linked together for designing a
control system. A schematic of such a representation
is shown in Fig. 1 with reference to an extrusion
process. Here, the hydraulic power pack is the source
of power, the tools including the extrusion container,
ram, die holder, and die are the stores of power, and
the workpiece and interface friction are the dissipators
of power. Energy is generated by the source, trans-
mitted to the tools, which elastically store the power
and transfer it to the workpiece through an interface
(lubricant). The workpiece itself dissipates the power
while it undergoes plastic flow in the deformation
zone. Since such a system is 'dynamic', it is important
to consider the energy transactions occurring in the
system in terms of power (or rate of energy conver-
sion) thus making time an independent variable. Thus,
the response of the system depends on how fast or
slow the energy is being input to the system. While
sufficient research has not yet gone into integrating
the various system elements, the characterisation of
the mechanisms of hot deformation has been the
subject of intense study.4.5
The key word that describes the material behaviour
in bulk metalworking is 'workability'. A detailed
review of all the parameters influencing workability
has been presented by Dieter.6 Workability is sensi-
tively dependent on (a) the material's chemistry, the
initial microstructure, and the processing history
including the thermomechanical treatments, (b) the
applied temperature, strain rate, and strain, (c) the
applied state of stress (SoS), and (d) the SoS existing
in the deformation zone. It is now generally accepted
that workability may be considered to consist of
two independent parts: (1) intrinsic workability which
Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6 243
244 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation
CONTAINER LUBRICANT DIE
PRODUCT
---.
1 Schematic representation of metal processing
system with extrusion as example
depends on the constitutive behaviour of the material
(aspects (a) and (b)), and (2) SoS workability which
depends on the nature of the applied state of stress
in the process and the deformation zone geometry
(aspects (c) and (d)). The factors influencing the SoS
workability are briefly discussed first.
During plastic flow through the deformation zone,
the workpiece will experience a three dimensional
SoS which consists of six independent components -
three shear stress components and three hydrostatic
stress components. While the shear stress components
cause plastic flow of the material, the nature of the
hydrostatic components will decide the SoS work-
ability. For example, if these are tensile, the occurrence
of fracture or damage processes is promoted since the
weak interfaces in the microstructure will get opened
Up.7 On the other hand, compressive hydrostatic
components are beneficial for improving the work-
ability. Since the SoS workability depends on the
applied SoS in the process and the geometry of the
deformation zone, the techniques needed for its con-
trol are specific to the particular process. For example,
in rolling it may be optimised through the roll pass
design (geometry and sequence of the roll pass and
the reduction per pass), or in forging by the preform
or blocker die design, or in extrusion by the design
of the die cavity. However, for a given geometry of
the component, the available variations in the roll
pass or preform geometry are somewhat restricted.
In extrusion, on the other hand, for a given product
and container geometry, there is considerable scope
for innovation to design the geometry of the die
cavity such that the SoS in the deformation zone is
essentially compressive. Streamlined die design8 is one
such option in that direction. For reducing the lead
time in manufacturing and for designing dies without
resorting to expensive trial and error methods, finite
element method (FEM) modelling techniques9 are
generally advocated and commercial codes are avail-
able for this purpose. Other than by controlling
the die geometry, the SoS may be enhanced by the
application of external hydrostatic compression
(classical Bridgman experiment, now advocated for
reducing porosity in superplastic forming) or by side
pressing in open die forging or by a ring constraint
in upsetting. It is generally recognised that the SoS
workability is not sensitive to the constitutive behav-
iour of the material and can be optimised independ-
ently. Also, numerical simulation techniques are very
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 No.6
for microstructural control
useful in evaluating the die designs without resorting
to expensive and time consuming shop floor trials.
The intrinsic workability of the material depends
on its constitutive behaviour which is the response of
the workpiece with a given 'history' to the imposed
processing conditions including temperature, strain
rate, and strain. The response is implicitly embedded
in the constitutive equations which depict mathemat-
ically the manner in which the flow stress varies with
the above process variables.1o,11However, explicitly
the response of the material is in two complementary
ways: initially as a temperature rise and more import-
antly as a change in the microstructure of the material.
As the microstructural changes decide the intrinsic
workability, modelling techniques were developed for
predicting them during hot working and for optimis-
ing intrinsic workability. In this review, the current
status of development of these models is presented
and the models are critically evaluated. Significant
changes in the microstructure also occur during post-
deformation process cooling and these are not covered
in this review. Such changes are modelled using
empirical and phenomenological equations as dis-
cussed by Sellars12 and Yoshida et al.13
Materials modelling in hot
deformation
The materials models for hot deformation are
expected to predict (1) the response of the workpiece
material in terms of microstructural evolution, (2) the
optimum process parameters without trial and error,
and (3) the process limits for controlling the process
in a manufacturing environment. It is an added
advantage if the model is generic and applicable to a
wide range of commercial materials. Also, models
based on science based principles are preferable
to the phenomenological models. The approaches
available for modelling hot deformation have
been reviewed by Prasad14 and Kutumba Rao and
Rajagopalachary,15 and are essentially of the follow-
ing types: (1) kinetic model, (2) atomistic model,
(3) dynamic materials model, and (4) others. The
principles, applications, and relative merits and limi-
tations of these models are discussed below keeping
in view the requirements of modelling. For consist-
ency, the experimental data on 316L stainless steel
published by Venugopal et al.16 are utilised for evalu-
ating these models wherever needed.
Kinetic model
It is experimentally observed that the steady state
flow stress in hot deformation may be related to
strain rate and temperature through an Arrhenius
type of rate equation4
8 = Aan exp( - Q/RT) . (1)
where 8 is the strain rate, A a constant, a the steady
state flow stress, n a stress exponent, Q the activation
energy, R the gas constant, and T the temperature.
In order to fit the experimental data more closely
and over a wider range, several functions of a like
the hyperbolic sine function have been used,4 but
apparently these do not have any other significance.
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 245

24
o
T ~ °c
2.8
~
• • • • 600
23
0
700
800
€ ,5-1

2.6 900 22 0 0.001

1000 6 0.01
1100 0 0.1
2.4 I
en
21 0 1. a
1200 ~
2.2 1250 8' 20 0
co
a.. LJ n=5
~
~2.0 19

C)
o o
1.8 18
o
1.6 17
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.4
log (a, MPa)
1.4
3 Variation of Zener-Hollomon parameter Z with
flow stress a for 316L stainless steel for
1.2
1050-1250°C (data from Ref. 16)

1.0 deviations have occurred for higher strain rates (e.g.

-4 3 1·0 s -1) and these may be accounted for in terms of
changes that would have occurred during post-
deformation cooling.
2 Variation of flow stress a with strain rate t for
The above example demonstrates that the kinetic
316L stainless steel at strain of 0'4 for wide
temperature and strain rate ranges (data from
rate equation (equation (1)) is valid over a narrow
Ref. 16) range of temperature and strain rate, and when
considered over a wide range, nand Q become
temperature and strain rate dependent. The apparent
For use in finite element models, simple polynomial activation energy estimates are too complex to inter-
fits are found to be convenient.ll From plots of n log (J pret in terms of a single rate controlling mechanism.
versus 1jT, apparent activation energy is evaluated The correlation of Z with the microstructural para-
and compared with that for a known process like meters is valuable but it exists only in a narrow range
diffusion, to evaluate the mechanism of hot deforma- of temperature and strain rate. Further, the kinetic
tion. Further, a temperature compensated strain rate
parameter (Zener-Hollomon), defined as
26
Z = 8 exp(QjRT) . (2)
is plotted against log (J to establish the validity of
equation (1) and is correlated with the grain size
24
variations occurring during hot deformation.17
With respect to the hot compression data on 316L
o 0.001
• 0.1
stainless steel16 in the temperature range 600-1250°C
and strain rate range 0'001-100 s -1, a plot of log (J
o 1.0
~ 22
versus log 8 is shown in Fig. 2. It is clearly seen that I
en
the stress exponent n, given by the inverse of the slope, ~
is temperature and strain rate dependent when consid- 0')
o
ered over a wide range and hence equation (1) is not - 20
valid. However, over a narrow range (1000-1250°C
and 0'001-0'1 s -1), the stress exponent is nearly con-
stant (~5). The apparent activation energy in this 18
range is estimated to be about 600 kJ mol-1, which
is higher than the activation energy for self-diffusion
(280 kJ mol-1) (Ref. 18). The values of the Z para-
meter (equation (2)) are evaluated and plotted against 16
log (J in Fig. 3 to establish the validity of equation (1)
20 40 ro 80 mo 120
AVERAGE GRAIN DIAMETER, IJm
and against the measured grain size in Fig. 4 to obtain
a microstructural correlation. The latter plot may be 4 Variation of average grain size with Z parameter
used for controlling grain size in a component by in 316L stainless steel at different strain rates
evaluating the local Z values. However, significant (data from Ref. 16)

International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6

246 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control

model does not specifically lead to optimisation of 10

2
intrinsic workability nor can it be applied universally I
I
for microstructural control without knowing the I ADIABATIC
specific ranges or domains where it is valid. 10 I SHEAR
I /
\ //
DUCTILE \ /'
FRACTURE I')...---~
Atomistic model - Raj maps 1
I
I
Several atomistic mechanisms that can cause micro- ("-

I
I
I
structural damage during hot working, have been Vl
SAFE I
I
~161
modelled by Raj19 with the aim of calculating the eW
I
I
I
limiting conditions of temperature and strain rate for I
I
their occurrence. If these boundaries are established,
it is possible to arrive at a 'safe' regime where hot
16
2
,
I
I

working may be done without the onset of any of
these fracture processes and the component will be
free from microstructural damage. Four different pro-
cesses are considered by Raj: (1) void formation at
hard particles (lower temperatures and higher strain
rates), (2) wedge cracking at grain boundary triple
junctions (higher temperatures and lower strain rates),
(3) adiabatic shear band formation (very high strain
rates), and (4) dynamic recrystallisation (higher tem-
peratures). Of these mechanisms, the first three are
damage mechanisms and the fourth one is a safe
process for hot working.
Considering the void formation (ductile fracture) at
hard particles, the critical strain rate is calculated for
the condition that the stress concentration around
the particles due to deformation of soft matrix would
be more rapidly relaxed by creep or diffusional pro-
cesses than it is produced. Above this critical strain
rate and at temperatures where the recovery processes
are slow, the regime of ductile fracture will dominate.
On the other hand, at slower strain rates and higher
temperatures which promote grain boundary sliding,
a different type of damage occurs at grain boundary
triple junctions resulting in wedge cracking. If the
strain rate is high, the matrix deforms faster than the
grain boundaries can slide and wedge cracking will
not occur. If the strain rate is very slow, the high
stresses at the triple junctions will be relaxed by
diffusional flow and wedge cracks get repaired. The
upper limit of the strain rate above which wedge
cracking does not occur depends on the grain bound-
ary sliding rate and the grain size. Dynamic recrystal-
lisation (DR) is a safe process for hot deformation
and Raj modelled this process using the kinetic
approach described in the section 'Kinetic model'
above, the Z parameter (equation (2)), and the critical
strain for the onset of DR. Raj also calculated the
strain rate regime (generally very high) where adia-
batic shear bands occur. It is assumed that they
are caused by flow softening where the stress value
decreases by more than a factor of 2·7 when the true
strain increases by unity. This stress depends on the
adiabatic temperature rise during deformation and
therefore on physical constants such as the density
and specific heat. The approach is somewhat phenom-
enological and again uses the kinetic rate equation
to convert the critical stress to strain rate.
Raj maps were developed for pure metals and dilute
alloys20 for which the required fundamental data are
available. A typical map for 304 stainless steel having
a grain size of 50 Jlm, (carbide) particle size of 0·5 Jlm,
and a particle volume fraction of 0·05 is shown in
I
I
I WEDGE
163 , I CRACKING
,,
10
4 ,,
25 275 525 n5 1025 1275 1525
TEMPERATURE~C
5 Raj map for 304 austenitic stainless steel with
grain size 50 Jlm (Ref. 20)
Fig. 5 (Ref. 20). There is, however, a serious limitation
in extending the calculations to commercial alloys
because of lack of data on the fundamental para-
meters. Also, the map gives only a broad regime for
safe processing (not a specific set of optimum process
parameters) and leads to a control of microstructure
essentially through the avoidance of defects. More-
over, it is not possible to know a priori all the
atomistic mechanisms that possibly occur in a given
material for adequately modelling them. Nevertheless,
the concept of atomistic maps for processing is a
pioneering attempt in modelling the constitutive
behaviour of the material.
Dynamic materials model
With a view to introduce the constitutive behaviour
of the material explicitly into the finite element flow
analysis, the dynamic materials model (DMM) was
first developed.21 It is based on the fundamental
principles of continuum mechanics of large plastic
flow,22 physical systems modelling,3 and irreversible
thermodynamics.23 Dynamic materials modelling may
be viewed as a bridge between the continuum mech-
anics of large plastic deformation and the develop-
ment of dissipative microstructures in the material
and encompasses the area of deterministic chaos24 in
describing the patterns of the dynamic response of
the material in hot deformation. In this model, the
workpiece is considered to have the following
characteristics:
1. Dissipative: The workpiece essentially dissipates
power during hot deformation and does not store
energy significantly. There are four different types
of stress-strain curve that represent the dissipative
nature: (1) flat types as for aluminium where the
stress does not vary with strain, (2) flow softening
after a critical strain leading to a steady state at larger
strains (e.g. copper and nickel), (3) stress-strain curves
with oscillations which become damped at larger
strains, and (4) continuous flow softening curves

International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6

 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 247

J Co-CONTENT

( ~'(7)

,b
3
G - CONTENT
--Dynamic
----- Kinetic

(0 )

7 Comparison between dynamic and kinetic

constitutive equation curves for viscoplastic
solid

J The above characteristics of the workpiece make it

m=1
G hot deformation is represented by the constitutive
(b)
..1.
€ of flow stress given by
6 Dynamic constitutive equation for a viscoplastic
solid following power law behaviour and b ideal
linear dissipator, at constant temperature and
strain; see text for definitions of symbols
without any critical strain as in spheroidisation of
acicular or WidmansHitten structures and in flow
localisation.
2. Dynamic: The constitutive response of the
material at a given temperature during hot deforma-
tion depends essentially on the strain rate and to a
smaller extent on strain as in the flow softening
systems mentioned above. Thus, it is viscoplastic.
3. Non-linear: The response of the workpiece (e.g.
flow stress) to the imposed variables such as strain,
strain rate, and temperature is non-linear.
4. Away from equilibrium: The workpiece under-
going large plastic flow at high temperature is away
from equilibrium since the strain is not being applied
an ideal candidate for the occurrence of deterministic
chaos which leads to specific or strange attractors in
a given state space.24 This aspect is not discussed in
this review.
At a constant temperature and strain, the dynamic
response of the workpiece material undergoing
equation
. . (3)
where K is a constant and 111 the strain rate sensitivity
111 = v(ln o-)/8(ln £) . . . (4)
The dynamic constitutive equation given by equa-
tion (3) is represented by the curve given in Fig. 6
which represents the stress-strain rate path the work-
piece system takes to reach the limiting value set by
the applied strain rate. If the limiting strain rate is
changed, the path may be different (different 111 value)
and so will be the response (flow stress). Joining all
such stress-strain rate points for different strain rates
(Fig. 7) gives the 'kinetic' constitutive equation, which
relates the flow stress to strain rate in a non-linear
fashion. Referring to Fig. 6, the rectangle (0-. £) gives
the total power dissipated instantaneously by the
workpiece and manifests as a temperature rise in
the material and a change in the internal energy of
the material through a change in the microstructure.
The dynamic constitutive equation (equation (3))
decides how the power is partitioned between these
two manifestations. The total power P may be rep-

r
in infinitesimally small increments. resented as a sum of two complementary functions
5. Irreversible: As the large plastic flow at high
temperatures causes major changes in the micro-
structure of the workpiece and in an irreversible fashion,
P=er.B= f erdB+ Bder .. (5)

the extremum principles of irreversible thermodynamics In systems modelling terminology,3 the first integral
as applied to large plastic flow22 are applicable. is called the G content and the second integral the J
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 No.6
248 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling
co-content which is a complementary function of G
content. From equation (5) the G content represents
the area under the dynamic constitutive equation
curve and the J co-content represents the area above
it. The factor that partitions power between these two
complementary parameters is the strain rate sensi-
tivity of flow stress m, since
dJ £ dO" £(J d In 0" ~ log 0"
-=--=---~---===m . .
dG 0"d£ 0"£ d In £ ~ log £
Power partitioning interpretation
In D MM, special significance is attached to the
physical interpretation of power partitioning using
strain rate sensitivity. The origin of viscoplasticity in
hot deformation is in the dissipation of power by a
change in the microstructure of the workpiece that
does not directly contribute to plastic deformation
(strain). These processes that occur simultaneously
with deformation at elevated temperatures (e.g.
diffusion) cause a change in the potential energy
because of the change in the energy of atoms associ-
ated with their new positions (e.g. at a grain bound-
ary). The rate of this potential energy change is time
and temperature dependent and hence is influenced
by strain rate and temperature in hot deformation.
However, their occurrence has a significant effect on
the movement of dislocations since they affect the
stress required for causing slip. The rate of potential
energy change that occurs due to dislocation move-
ment is discussed using a simple slip model by
Ziegler.22 When slip occurs by dislocation movement,
an extra half-plane of atoms moves over a slip plane
when the applied stress increases the potential energy
to a peak corresponding to the top position of the
atoms of the plane below. Further movement into the
adjacent low potential energy position does not
require any more energy since it is a downward
movement and the potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, which is instantly dissipated as heat.
For simplicity of the present discussion, this may be
called kinetic energy conversion, which depends
directly on the rate of plastic deformation. In hot
deformation, the rate of potential energy conversion
due to microstructural changes and the rate of kinetic
energy conversion due to dislocation movement are
complementary, since the stress for causing dislo-
cation movement at a given strain rate is influenced
by the extent of microstructural changes that would
occur during that time period. The dynamic constitut-
ive equation (equation (3)) describes how the stress
for the dislocation movement is varying with strain
rate and the area under the curve therefore gives the
power that is converted instantly into a temperature
rise associated with the conversion of kinetic energy
associated with dislocation motion. The complemen-
tary part of this power is associated with the metallur-
gical changes.
The different types of behaviour of viscoplastic
solids are illustrated by Ziegler25 and are shown in
Fig. 8. For stable flow, the limits for the strain rate
sensitivity are between 0 and 1. The lower limit is
easily understood, since the material does not dissi-
pate power through metallurgical processes when the
strain rate sensitivity is zero or negative but acts
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43
of hot deformation for microstructural control
. (6)
b
€
8 Response of viscoplastic solid when strain rate
sensitivity is on either side of unity (after Ref. 25)
essentially as a store of power. The power is dissipated
as a temperature rise due to dislocation movement
which may be unstable (discontinuous or jerky flow).
The common example of this behaviour is the process
of dynamic strain aging. When the strain rate sensi-
tivity is unity, the material reaches a situation close
to that of a viscous fluid and a superplastic material
may be considered as an example. In this case, the
rate of dissipation through diffusional flow is high
and matches that by dislocation movement. There
can be situations where m can be higher than unity25
and these materials are called 'locking solids'26 where
the power law breaks down, the curvature of the
stress-strain rate curve is reversed and at a critical
strain rate the flow stress increases steeply to become
nearly independent of strain and strain rate. Experi-
mentally, such a behaviour is observed at very high
strain rates27 where the phonon and electron drag
together with the relativistic effects restrict the plastic
flow by dislocation movement. Processes of twin-
ning, micro cracking, adiabatic shear banding, or even
incipient melting may occur under high strain rate
conditions.
The above physical interpretation of the power
dissipation does not directly follow from the consid-
erations of classical continuum mechanics as expected
by Montheillet et al.28 since it borders on the physics
of the process. But it does not go against any of the
continuum conditions required for stable flow. The
theory of viscoplastic deformation as dealt with in
the continuum mechanics of large plastic flow,
considers only the area under the curve described
by the constitutive equation without giving any
interpretation as to the origin of viscoplasticity in
NO.6
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu
materials. Only in the thermomechanics considera-
tions by Ziegler,29 was the origin of high temperature
creep behaviour discussed.
Power dissipation maps
The integral for the instantaneous power J co-content
may be evaluated as follows
J =
r
J
a
0 8 d(J =
(J81n
,n +1 . . . .
The value of m in the dynamic constitutive equation
(equation (3)) is a constant and hence the above
integration is valid. The value of 111 in the kinetic
constitutive equation (Fig. 7), however, could vary
with strain rate and is not relevant to the above
integration. Since the value of 111 varies non-linearly
with temperature and strain rate, the J co-content
variation is also non-linear. The variation may be
normalised with respect to a linear dissipator for
which In is unity and then the J co-content will
assume a maximum value given by
J=Jmax=(J8/2 . .
The value of J may be normalised with respect to
J max to obtain a dimensionless parameter called the
efficiency of power dissipation defined as
'1 = J/Jmax = 21n/(ln + 1)
Thus, efficiency is directly related to the strain rate
sensitivity. The question arises then instead of the
efficiency parameter, why not use strain rate sensi-
tivity itself since its connection with superplastic
deformation is well known? This question is answered
below where the power dissipation is correlated with
the rate of entropy production. The efficiency para-
meter should not be confused with the process
efficiency or overall efficiency of energy for the process
since it only refers to that with respect to a linear
dissipator.
The variation of efficiency of power dissipation
with temperature and strain rate constitutes a power
dissipation map which exhibits various domains in
which specific microstructural mechanisms occur. The
efficiency map itself represents the power transactions
within a continuum and the understanding of its
origin and its interpretation in terms of atomistic
mechanisms requires a correlation with some of the
concepts of irreversible thermodynamics. It is possible
to extend the theory of deterministic chaos and inter-
pret the behaviour in terms of domains of local order
separated by bifurcations. Also, it helps in interpreting
the microstructures resulting from hot deforma-
tion as 'dissipative' and characterise them in terms
of atomistic mechanisms. In terms of irreversible
thermodynamics, the total power P dissipated at a
given temperature is related to the rate of entropy
production22 according to the equation
diS
P=(J8= T- ~O
dt
where diS/dt is the rate of entropy production and
the inequality is for irreversible processes. Under
isothermal conditions, the rate of entropy production
is totally 'internal' and consists of two separable parts.
The first part may be called the rate of conduction
Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 249
entropy,30 which is due to the conduction of heat
generated by dislocation movement to the colder
parts of the body, and the second part is due to the
rate of change in the microstructure of the material.
The power dissipation through the temperature rise
(G content) is related to the rate of conduction
entropy generation while that due to the micro-
. . (7)
structural change (J co-content) is related to the rate
of 'microstructural' entropy production. Since
efficiency is obtained by normalising J with Jmax, it
represents the relative rate of entropy production due
to microstructural dissipation. The power dissipation
maps therefore are the relative rate of entropy maps
and efficiency characterises a dissipative state. Since
the system has deterministic chaos, there will be
domains within the state space to which the dissipat-
ive states will be attracted and these represent certain
microstructural processes. Thus each of the domains
corresponds to a specific microstructural process and
may be characterised with the help of a typical value
of efficiency of power dissipation and the variation
. . (8) of efficiency with temperature and strain rate. Such
interpretations may be validated by the micro-
structural observations. It may be noted that it is not
possible to freeze a dissipative state and that the
'quenched' microstructures would have undergone
. (9) some changes during cooling depending on the dissi-
pative state, rate of cooling, and the nature of phase
transformations in the system. On the basis of the
above discussion, it is clear that the use of the efficiency
term has the advantage of interpreting the domains
in terms of dissipative states unlike the 'mechanical'
parameter m. Further advantage of the efficiency term
is realised when the extremum principles of irrevers-
ible thermodynamics are applied to delineate the flow
instabilities in the system; this is discussed below.
Continuum instability criterion
Ziegler22 has shown that the condition for the plastic
flow to become unstable is given by
dD D
d8 <-; . (11)
where D is the dissipative function that is character-
istic of the constitutive behaviour of the material and
is given by the dissipated power. If the power is
separated into two parts G and J, D may be replaced
with J and a condition for flow instabilities that are
microstructure related is obtained as
a In [In/(ln + I)J
~(8) = + In < 0 . (12)
a In 8.
The parameter ~(8) may be plotted as a function of
temperature and strain rate and the regime where it
is negative will give flow instabilities. Such a plot
is called an instability map. The above instability
criterion has the physical meaning that if the system
is not able to generate entropy at a rate that at least
. (10) matches with the imposed rate, the system will localise
the flow and cause flow instability.
Processing maps
The instability maps may be superimposed on the
power dissipation maps and the regimes of flow
instabilities may be delineated. Such maps are called
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 No.6
250 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation
processing maps. The processing maps for metallic
materials exhibit several domains safe for processing
and may also contain regimes of flow instabilities
and cracking that should be avoided. In general, the
safe domains represent atomistic mechanisms such
as dynamic recrystallisation, dynamic recovery, and
superplasticity. The damage processes include ductile
fracture at hard particles, wedge cracking, intercrys-
talline cracking, cracking along prior particle bound-
aries, and the instability processes include flow
localisation, adiabatic shear band formation, flow
rotations, and dynamic strain aging. The temperature
and strain rate regimes for several of these processes
match with those calculated by Raj19,lOas discussed
in the section 'Atomistic model- Raj maps' above.
The technique of generating a processing map,
general guidelines for the interpretation of the
domains in terms of metallurgical processes, and their
use for designing industrial processes are all discussed
in a recent publication?l Briefly, a processing map is
generated using data of flow stress as a function of
temperature and strain rate over a wide range and
these are best obtained using a hot compression test.
The flow stress variation with strain rate at a given
temperature is curve fitted using a spline function
and the strain rate sensitivity is calculated as a
function of strain rate. The efficiency given by equa-
tion (9) is then calculated and plotted as a contour
map in a frame of temperature and strain rate. The
instability parameter ~(8) given by equation (12) is
calculated and plotted as an instability map which
may be superimposed on the power dissipation map
to obtain a processing map. The following inform-
ation is useful for the interpretation of processing
maps:
(a) the DR domain generally occurs in the temper-
ature range 0·7-0'8 Tm and at intermediate strain rates
0'1-1 s -1 for materials with low stacking fault energy
(SFE) while it is 0·001 s -1 for high SFE materials.
The maximum efficiency of dissipation is about
30-35% for low SFE materials, 40% for medium
SFE metals, and 50-550/0 for high SFE materials.
The microstructure of the specimen exhibits major
reconstitution and generally has wavy or curved grain
boundaries. The average grain diameter measured as
a function of temperature across the domain increases
sigmoidally and a 500/0 change in the grain size occurs
at about the temperature for the peak efficiency.
The grain size variation with log strain rate at the
DR temperature exhibits a minimum at the peak
efficiency. The tensile or torsional ductility variation
with temperature at the DR strain rate is similar to
that of the efficiency,
(b) the superplasticityjwedge cracking domain
occurs at temperatures in the range 0'7-0'8Tm and
strain rates lower than 0·01 S-l. Both processes are
characterised by a high efficiency of power dissipation
(> 600/0) and a steep rise of efficiency with decrease
in strain rate (contours in the map appear closer).
There will be no major change in the microstructure
but if the angles of the grain boundaries with respect
to the direction of applied stress are measured, there
will be much higher population at about 40-45°
(diamond configuration). Wedge cracking may be
identified by microscopic observation of the grain
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6
for microstructural control
2
1
'If""
I
til
•..
W
~ 0
0::
Z
«
0::
r- -1
V')
~
S
-2
-3
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
TEMPERATURE: C
9 Power dissipation map showing contours of
efficiency of power dissipation expressed as
percent, as function of temperature and strain
rate for 316L stainless steel (data from Ref. 16)
boundary triple junctions particularly in the area of
the specimen where a tensile component of stress
occurs (e.g. bulge region of a compression specimen).
For confirming superplasticity, it is important to
measure tensile ductility under the peak conditions
of the domain,
(c) the manifestation of flow instabilities is easily
identified by microscopic examination of deformed
specimens. The adiabatic shear bands occur at an
angle of 45° with respect to the applied stress axis
and, under intense conditions, there could be cracking
along these bands. Bands due to flow localisation
occur at an angle of about 35° and exhibit inhomo-
geneous deformation.
For optimising intrinsic workability and controlling
microstructure, the domain of DR is identified and
the temperature and strain rate corresponding to the
peak efficiency in this domain are chosen as the
optimum processing parameters. The temperature
and strain rate ranges for this domain are the pro-
cessing limits on the basis of which the controls may
be set. For obtaining finer grain size in the component
at the finishing stages of the operation, lower temper-
atures of the domain may be chosen at the strain rate
corresponding to the peak efficiency. The process is
safer if the temperature and strain rate ranges do not
enter the instability or cracking regimes of the maps
at any stage of operation.
The power dissipation map, the instability map,
and the processing map for the sample material
chosen, namely 316L stainless steel, as obtained by
Venugopal et al.16 are shown in Figs. 9-11, respect-
ively, for a strain of 0·4. The power dissipation map
exhibits only one domain in the temperature range
1000-1250°C and strain rate range 0'001-1 s -1 which
is characterised to represent the process of DR. The
peak efficiency in this domain is about 35% and the
grain size and hot ductility have increased with
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 251

2 700 130
F
G
H 650 110
1

E
:::l.
I 600 90 ~
~o Ill)
"0
E
App. activation
QnQrgy
UJ
N
U5
.~ ~(E) ~
"""')

d 550 70
z
«a:
Ol A -0.88
.Q -1 8 -0.75 t9
C -0.63
o -0.50 500 50
E -0.38
-2 F -0.25
G -0.13
450 30
H -0.00 800 1000 1100 1200 1300
-3 I TEMPERATURE,oC
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
TEMPERATURE ~C 12 Correlation of apparent activation energy with
grain size in dynamic recrystallisation domain
10 Instability map for 316l stainless steel showing of 316L stainless steel for strain rate 0'1 S-1
contours of instability parameter c;(lt) in frame (data from Ref. 16)
of temperature and strain rate; instability is
predicted when this parameter is negative There are two aspects that need some attention:
(within contour H) (data from Ref. 16) (a) strain, and (b) state of stress; which may have
some effect on the processing maps. The vast amount
increasing temperature (Figs. 12 and 13). The map of experimental data available has shown that strain
gives the temperature and strain rate for optimum has no influence on the processing maps for materials
hot workability for 316L to be 1250°C and 0·1 S-l. with flat type stress-strain curves. However, some
In the regime of instability, the various micro- minor changes have been recorded in the case of flow
structural manifestations are validated by Venugopal softening materials excluding the continuous flow
et al.16 Processing maps for a large number of metals, softening types. The results indicate that the strain
alloys, intermetallics, and metal matrix composites effects in hot deformation may be safely neglected at
have been systematically compiled together with a large strains. This is consistent with the concept in
summary of metallurgical interpretations.31 Maps continuum mechanics of large plastic flow that the
have also been generated on TiAI- TiB2 composites rate of entropy production inside a micro system with
by Zhao et aI.,32 micro alloyed steel by Omar et aI.,33 given initial conditions is determined by the strain
and are applied for the rolling of aluminium.34 rate alone and the strain itself defines the frame of
the micro system.22 As regards the effect of state of
stress, processing maps have been generated using
2 data from hot compression tests, hot torsion tests,
and hot extrusion.16,35 It has been concluded that the

50 10

••
Vl

w
~ 0 40
a::
z ~
~
a:: >
u
Efficiency

til -1 z
UJ 30
~ U Ductility
g u:
LL
UJ

-2 20

-3 10 I 2
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
TEMPERATURE ;C TEMPERATURE,oC

11 Processing map for 316L stainless steel where 13 Correlation of torsional ductility variation
contours of efficiency of power dissipation are with that of power dissipation in dynamic
expressed as percent and instability region is recrystallisation domain of 316L stainless steel
shaded (data from Ref. 16) for strain rate 0'1 S-1 (data from Ref. 16)

International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6

252 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control

safe domains are unaffected while the instability 2

regimes have been expanded under the influence of
shear stress. It is well known that flow localisation is
more intense under shear stress conditions. Likewise,
the domains representing cracking processes will
expand in the map obtained under tensile conditions.
~- 0 1------,
III
Other models I I

Activation energy maps .~ I Pro~ess I

I DesIgn
The kinetic model discussed in the previous section ~-1 I Window
has shown that the strain rate sensitivity of flow stress I
I
and the activation energy are temperature and strain L _
5
rate dependent when considered over wide ranges. -2
One of the techniques used to delineate deterministic
domains where a single atomistic mechanism controls 4
3
the rate of deformation, is to plot the variations of
-3
apparent activation energy given by 900 1000 1100
Q = R[a In O"/a(l/T)][a In 8/a In 0"] . . (13) TEMPERATURE ~C

as a function of temperature and strain rate which
gives an activation energy map.36 In the regimes
where a single rate controlling process controls the
deformation, the apparent activation will remain con-
stant and hence it is possible to apply linear controls.
Also, in the regime of activation energy plateau, the
microstructural variations will be small and less sensi-
tive to the fluctuations in the process parameters. A
typical activation energy map is shown in Fig. 14 for
316L stainless steel.37 The map exhibits an activation
energy plateau in the temperature range 1000-1150°C
and strain rate range 0'01-1 s-\ where the apparent
activation energy is about 500 kJ mol-i. In this
region, the grain size is finer and nearly constant with
temperature and strain rate.37 Further, the grain size
variance has been found to be much smaller enabling
good microstructural control. It is interesting to com-
pare these observations with those obtained from the
efficiency map (Fig. 9). The activation energy plateau
occurs in the lower temperature part of the efficiency
domain and the activation energy increases with
temperature and strain rate when the temperature
exceeds 1150°C and so does the efficiency. The vari-
ation of apparent activation energy with temperature
is compared with that of the grain size in Fig. 12 and
the agreement is good. However, the hot ductility
variations match with the efficiency variations very
closely (Fig. 13).
The activation energy maps are generally combined
with 'stability' maps which are based on the follow-
ing four different criteria36 developed on the basis of
Lyapounov functions:
1. 0 < m < 1: this criterion is based on the principle
that the material will no more be dissipator of power
when m = 0 or negative and will undergo fracture. It
is also well known that increasing m reduces flow
localisation and leads to superplasticity.
2. ami a log 8 == m < 0: the material flow will be
stable if the strain rate sensitivity decreases with
increasing strain rate. If this function is positive,
catastrophic fracture occurs.
3. [a log O"/a(l/T)] == S > 1: this ensures that the
rate of entropy production is always positive as
required for an irreversible process. It also means
that the process occurring in the stable region should
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6
14 Apparent activation energy map for 316L
stainless steel, numbers against each of
contours represent apparent activation energy
in hundreds of kJrriol-'; process design
window represents regime where grain size is
fine and its variation is small (Ref. 37)
have sufficiently high temperature dependence of flow
stress. Processes that have lower temperature depen-
dence of flow stress are likely to develop flow
instabilities.
4. aSIa log 8 == S < 0: this means that the temper-
ature dependence of flow stress should decrease with
increasing strain rate for stable flow. This criterion is
directed towards flow localisation due to adiabatic
heating and if the temperature dependence of flow
stress is less at higher strain rates, the temperature
increase in the adiabatic shear bands will be less and
hence less localised and more stable will be the flow.
All these criteria are necessary conditions for ident-
ifying stable flow regimes and are probably not
sufficient to ensure that flow instabilities occur in the
rest of the regimes. The use of flow stability criteria
to avoid instabilities imposes considerable restrictions
on the useful ranges of processing parameters and
these restrictions may often be unnecessary. Also
considerable validation and microstructural corre-
lation will have to be made before they can be used
for industrial process design.
Polar reciprocity model
This model was conceived with the purpose of includ-
ing history dependence of flow stress like that required
in work hardening material, while at the same
time retaining that the strain rate dependence of flow
stress represents the flow characteristics of the work-
piece.15,38 In this model the associated flow rule of
classical plasticity is used as the basis for splitting the
power into two complementary components with
dual potential functions.39 The two potential functions
have a pole and its polar plane relation and the
constants are presumed to be scalar functions of
deformation history and temperature. In this model,
an intrinsic workability parameter is given by
,= 1- [2m'/(m' + l)]{[S - H(EP)]/O"} (14)
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling
where In' is a strain rate sensitivity exponent, H(EP)
a function of strain history. When the material exhib-
its ideal viscoplastic flow (no history dependence), the
history dependent term in equation (14) will be unity
=
and 111' ,n and ,= (1 - 17). The features that are
identified as hills in the efficiency maps will be basins
in the' maps and vice versa. Thus, the predictions of
the polar reciprocity model become identical to those
of the dynamic materials model in the absence of
strain history. As the strain effects in hot deformation
are considered insignificant at large strains, this model
does not add anything more than that characterised
by the D MM for bulk metalworking. Its usefulness
in predicting transients is yet to be established. The
model does not contain any criterion for predicting
instabilities, the limiting conditions for which are
more important for designing industrial bulk metal
working processes than the optimum parameters.
Hot deformation mechanisms
The general regime of hot working covers a tem-
perature range of 0'6-0'8T/Tm and strain rates
of 0·00 1-1 00 s - 1. In these ranges, several domains
(stable) and regimes (unstable) may occur and these
represent several atomistic mechanisms. Although
some of them are covered in Raj maps, the approach
of processing maps has revealed several important
characteristics of these processes. A comprehensive
look at these mechanisms indicates that the follow-
ing are the dominant ones for hot working: (1) dyn-
amic recrystallisation, (2) superplastic deformation,
(3) adiabatic shear band formation, (4) flow localis-
ation, (5) wedge cracking, and (6) intercrystalline
cracking. The processes of dynamic recovery (stable
flow) and dynamic strain aging (flow instability) are
more relevant to warm working, though not com-
pletely restricted to that range. Out of all these
mechanisms, the DR process is safe (the product will
be free from microstructural defects or flow instabilit-
ies), the superplastic deformation under controlled
conditions is relatively safe, while the rest are not
desirable and will have to be avoided in hot working.
Further, DR is used extensively for bulk metal
working and its importance in hot rolling of steel is
emphasised.40 Dynamic recrystallisation is a highly
beneficial process in hot deformation since it not only
gives good intrinsic workability by simultaneous
softening but also converts the microstructure. The
as cast (columnar, dendritic, or microcrystalline)
structure may be 'broken down' to produce a wrought
microstructure, the acicular preform microstructure
may be spheroidised as in titanium and zirconium
alloys, the prior particle boundary defects may be
redistributed in powder metallurgy (P /M) compacts
to facilitate further processing or the discrete particle
effects in P/M compacts may be eliminated by trans-
ferring mechanical energy across the hard particle
interfaces to refine them by recrystallisation. Thus,
DR is a chosen domain for optimising hot workability
and controlling the microstructure. Since DR occupies
a special significance in bulk metal working, the
characteristics of this process are discussed in much
greater detail than the rest of the hot working
mechanisms.
of hot deformation. for microstructural control 253
Dynamic recrystallisation models
Traditionally, DR is associated with the hot working
of low SFE metals such as copper and nickel, which
exhibit flow softening after reaching a critical strain.
The flow curves eventually reach a steady state at
large strains. At lower strain rates, oscillations in the
flow curves are observed before reaching a steady
state. Nucleation and growth models have been pro-
posed to explain the DR process41,42 and these models
consider the effect of simultaneous hardening (due to
the generation of dislocations) and softening (due
to grain boundary migration). The initial model of
Luton and Sellars41 considered the relationship
between the critical strain and the strain for the
completion of DR for explaining the transition from
single peak to multiple peak flow curves. To explain
this transition, the dislocation mechanics occurring
during DR are modelled by Stuwe and Ortner,43
Sandstrom and Lagneborg,44 and Roberts and
Ahlblom.45 Reviewing the mechanism of DR, Sakai
and J onas17 have correlated the transition to the
initial grain size with that obtained from micro-
structural observations made on carbon steel speci-
mens deformed under steady state conditions. Such
correlations, however, are not valid for other materials
such as non-ferrous alloys and microalloyed
steels.46-49 An important limitation in most of these
models is that the microstructures observed may not
be true representations of those existing under the
dynamic conditions due to post-deformation recrys-
tallisation during cooling and/or the actual DR
domain may be away from those conditions where
microstructures are being observed. It may be noted
that the dissipative processes are highly sensitive to
the initial conditions like the chemistry, processing
history, and the preform microstructure. Thus, great
care is to be exercised in identifying the T -8 conditions
for the DR process before microstructural investi-
gations are attempted.
Another area of debate has been whether or not
aluminium exhibits DR. Neither the flow curves exhi-
bit flow softening features nor the 'frozen' micro-
structures show significant DR features such as nuclei
at the prior grain boundaries and grain refinement.
A strong school of thought reviewed recently by
McQueen50 is that DR does not occur in aluminium
in view of its high SFE and the primary softening
mechanism is only dynamic recovery, though excep-
tions have been made for very high purity aluminium
and some particle containing alloys. While the basis
for these exceptions has not been clearly understood,
several different DR mechanisms have been proposed
and these include continuous DR in the initial stages
of superplasticity and 'geometric' DR, both of which
refine grain size. Since these models heavily rely on
the observations and measurements on frozen micro-
structures, the limitations explained above apply to
the conclusions. On the other hand, processing maps51
revealed a domain of DR in aluminium of different
purity in which the DR temperature increases with
impurity content in a way similar to that of static
recrystallisation. These conclusions are based on the
measurements of flow stress under dynamic defor-
mation conditions and can therefore be considered
to be more reliable than those based on frozen
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6
254 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation
microstructures. The recent direct observations of
Yamagata52,53and Ponge et al.54 have confirmed DR
in high purity aluminium. The characteristics of DR
in aluminium, as revealed by processing maps are
discussed in the section 'Stacking fault energy' below.
Recently, Monte Carlo simulation of DR has been
attempted55 in which the stored energy of the grains
is increased at a fixed rate and nuclei of new grains
are added continually at a constant rate. It is interes-
ting that these simulations suggest that DR can occur
without obvious oscillations in the flow curves or
necklacing in the microstructure. Indeed, these fea-
tures are observed to occur only at under lower
temperature and strain rate conditions of the DR
domain. Another recent simulation technique is that
using cellular automata 56in which a grid of uniform
cells are updated randomly at every time step and
connected to neighbouring cells. The predictions of
the model compare well with the experimental results
on DR. The critical conditions for the onset of DR
have been modelled57 using principles of irreversible
thermodynamics where the energy storage v. rate
of dissipation are considered. These conditions are
found to be very similar to those required for flow
localisation.
The linear dependence of the steady state grain size
on flow stress has been established in DR by Derby58
and is modelled by Derby and Ashby59 on the
basis of competing processes of rate of nucleation
and rate of grain boundary migration. Prasad and
Ravichandran60 have used simple calculations based
on the rate of nucleation and the rate of grain
boundary migration, which are the two processes
competing under a given constraint like a constant
true strain rate. The rate of nucleation has to reach
a critical value before DR can occur and this is
proportional to the rate at which dislocations are
generated times the probability of recovery PR
N = f3(e/bl)PR . . . . (15)
where f3 is a constant, I the dislocation link length,
and b the Burgers vector. The highest probability is
chosen by the material for recovery and this depends
on SFE. For high SFE metals, where cross slip
occurs easily
where ex is a constant, G the shear modulus, d the
stacking fault width, and k the Boltzmann constant.
For low SFE metals, however, cross slip process gives
very low probability of recovery and hence it occurs
by the dislocation climb process for which
PR = exp(-QsD/RT) . . (17)
where QSD is the activation energy for self-diffusion
and R the gas constant. The mobility of the grain
boundaries which decides the rate of grain boundary
migration is given by
M=cDr/kTb . . (18)
where c is a constant, D the diffusion coefficient, and
r the driving force for grain boundary migration. In
the DR process, this energy force may be taken to
consist of essentially the reduction of subboundary
energy. Simple calculations have shown that DR in
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43
for microstructural control
3 1.0
DR Parameters
e. T/Tm
2 0.9
e A Cd ( impure)
• «-Ti
~
I
:.:€O
en OCZr
•
•
• Mg(impure)
0)
.1Fe ~ oe fcc
.Q Pb
o 9,ltZr 6 Mg 6. hcp
-2
6
«Ti Cd
-4
o 10 20 30
(y/Gb) X 103
15 Correlation of dynamic recrystallisation strain
rate with normalised stacking fault energy for
some fcc and hcp metals
low SFE metals is nucleation rate controlled since it
is lower than the migration rate while vice versa in
high SFE metals. On the basis of this model, the
characteristics of the DR process as revealed by the
processing maps,31 are explained in a wide range of
materials including pure metals, single and multiphase
materials, metal matrix composites, and aluminides.
Some of the results are reviewed below.
Stacking fault energy
The DR temperature and strain rate corresponding
to the peak efficiency in the DR domain of some
fcc and hcp metals are plotted as a function of their
stacking fault energy y normalised with shear mod-
ulus G and Burgers vector b in Fig. 15. This plot
shows that DR in low SFE metals occurs at higher
strain rates and homologous temperatures. In
Fig. 16, the peak efficiency in the DR domain is
plotted as a function of the SFE and lower SFE
metals have a lower efficiency of power dissipation.
These two plots clearly indicate that the SFE is the
most important fundamental parameter influencing
. (16)
DR characteristics.
The nucleation rate controls DR in low SFE metals
and since it is lower due to the requirement of thermal
recovery, the efficiency of power dissipation is lower.
Also the flow curves exhibit a critical strain at which
the critical nucleation rate is reached for the migration
to start and the second order effects result in a steady
state at large strain. If the nucleation rate is slowed
further by lowering strain rate or decrease of temper-
ature, repeated nucleation and migration will have
to occur as a function of strain (time) to satisfy the
imposed constraint (e.g. constant true strain rate). On
the other hand, in high SFE metals, there is no
nucleation barrier and DR is controlled by the rate
of migration and hence the rate of diffusion and the
driving force will decide the characteristics of DR.
Thus, DR in aluminium has a higher efficiency and
occurs at lower strain rates which permit the occur-
rence of diffusional processes.
NO.6
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu
20
o 10 20 30 40
(-, 1Gb) x 103
16 Correlation of peak efficiency of power
dissipation in dynamic recrystallisation dom-
ain with normalised stacking fault energy for
some fcc and hcp metals
Impurities
In aluminium, the DR temperature increases with
increasing impurity content while the DR strain rate
remains nearly unchanged, i.e. the domain moves on
the temperature axis.51 The DR temperature is higher
than the static recrystallisation temperature by about
200 K. It is well known that impurities segregate to
the grain boundaries and reduce the driving force for
their migration. Since DR in aluminium is migration
controlled, a higher temperature is required for the
migration and hence higher DR temperature. On the
other hand, in low SFE metals the DR strain rate as
well as temperature are lowered by the interstitial
impurity content, e.g. oxygen in Cu (Ref. 61) or C
and Ni (Ref. 62). Since DR in low SFE metals is
nucleation rate controlled, these interstitial impurities
pin dislocations and reduce the average dislocation
line length and reduce the strain rate required for
reaching the critical nucleation rate (equation (15)).
Thus the interstitial impurities help the DR process
in low SFE metals.
Hard particles and dispersoids
The presence of a large volume fraction of hard
particles in the aluminium moves the DR domain to
higher strain rates and temperatures and also reduces
the efficiency of power dissipation.63 Particles in alu-
minium reduce the rate of dynamic recovery in alu-
miniumso and hence the rate of nucleation for DR is
lowered to levels below that of the migration rate.
Thus, the rate of nucleation controls DR rather than
the rate of migration unlike in pure aluminium. This
change is reflected in the increase of strain rate and
temperature for DR as well as the decrease in the
efficiency of power dissipation. Dynamic recrystallis-
ation thus becomes similar to that occurring in low
Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 255
SFE metals and even flow softening is observed in
the flow curves of these materials.31
In low SFE metals, hard particles in the matrix
move the DR domain to lower strain rates and higher
temperatures, the effect being more significant on the
temperature than the strain rate. Typical examples
are oxides in tough pitch copper,61 and stable precipi-
tates, carbides, or carbonitrides in nickel alloys64 or
austenitic stainless steels.65 The rate of nucleation is
increased by the presence of these particles since they
increase with the rate of dislocation generation. The
long range back-stress is also higher and therefore
higher temperatures are required for reaching the
required rate of recovery for the nucleation to occur.
Also, if the dispersoids pin the grain boundaries to
ODS alloys, DR may not occur at all. Instead a
domain of dynamic recovery is exhibited as in MA 754
(Ref. 66).
Solid solutions
In substitutional solid solutions of low SFE metals,
the strain rate and the temperature for DR are
influenced by the solute content.31,62,67 For example,
in (X-brass the DR strain rate decreases with increasing
zinc content in the same way as the activation energy
for diffusion of Zn in Cu (Ref. 67). This effect is
explained in terms of nucleation controlled DR since
these materials have a very low SFE. In general, a
higher DR temperature is required in solid solutions
since the long range back-stress due to solid solution
strengthening has to be overcome for the process to
occur. If the activation energy for diffusion is not
greatly influenced by the solute additions as in
(X Cu-AI alloys, the DR characteristics in the maps
are essentially unaffected.31
In solid solutions of high SFE metals such as
AI-Mg alloys, the DR domain is shifted to higher
temperatures with increasing Mg additions and the
DR strain rate is unaffected.31 Although there is
an uncertainty in the SFE measurements in AI-Mg
alloys, these results suggest that the SFE in aluminium
is not significantly lowered by the addition of Mg, at
least to the degree that it can cause a change in the
rate controlling step in the DR process.
Superplastic deformation
Materials with a stable fine grain structure when
deformed at elevated temperatures and slow speeds
exhibit abnormal elongation. The process is termed
as superplastic deformation,68 which basically consists
of grain boundary sliding with a simultaneous occur-
rence of diffusion accommodated flow at a rate that
can repair the wedge cracks forming at grain bound-
ary triple junctions. Superplasticity is also observed
in coarse grained bcc materials like p-brass69 and
Mg-Li alloys,70 in which the diffusion rates are very
high. In these cases, it is believed that subboundaries
play an important role. Although traditional super-
plasticity requires low strain rates « 0·1 s -1), there
have been recent reports of high elongation at higher
strain rates in certain metal matrix composites 71 and
ultrafine grain materials.72 This is referred to as high
strain rate superplasticity and is expected to be ben-
eficial for mass production of components. In super-
plastic deformation, the flow curves are steady and
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6
256 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation
the flow stress is smaller and hence low capacity
machines may be required. However, superplasticity
at large strains may generate microporosity particu-
larly when the local state of stress is tensile and
may require external application of hydrostatic com-
pression. Further, the process does not cause any
large scale reconstitution of microstructure unlike DR
and hence may not be useful for billet conditioning.
In view of the slow strain rates, superplastic forming
is done under isothermal conditions and may be
conveniently combined with diffusion bonding for the
manufacture of sheet metal components for aerospace
applications.
Wedge cracking and intercrystalline cracking
At low strain rates and higher temperatures where
grain boundary sliding occurs under shear stress and
when the diffusional rates are not fast enough,19
wedge cracking occurs at the grain boundary triple
junctions. The state of stress will have a significant
influence on the manifestation of these cracks. Wedge
cracking is reduced by increasing the strain rate or
decreasing the temperature, both of which reduce the
extent of grain boundary sliding or by grain growth
which lowers the area of sliding. In the processing
maps, the wedge cracking and superplasticity domains
appear similar since the fundamental process involved
(grain boundary sliding) is the same. To distinguish
between these two requires detailed microstructural
examination and/or tensile ductility measurements.
The catastrophic propagation of cracks along the
grain boundaries during hot deformation results
in intercrystalline cracking which may be caused by
formation of low melting compounds or segregation
of alloying elements at the grain boundaries. This
process is often encountered at higher strain rates
and higher temperatures and the adiabatic temper-
ature rise at higher strain rates may aggravate crack-
ing by causing incipient melting.
Adiabatic shear bands and flow localisation
At higher strain rates since the time is short, the heat
generated by plastic deformation is not conducted
away to the colder parts of the body, a drop in the
flow stress occurs locally and therefore slip becomes
localised. This is called adiabatic shear band and this
generally occurs sharply at 45° with respect to the
principal stress axis. When intense, adiabatic shear
bands may result in cracking within the band or when
the conditions are favourable, recrystallisation or
phase transformation may OCCUr.73Several criteria
have been derived19,74 for predicting this process and
all of them consider that when the decrease in the
strength due to heating is more than the increase due
to combined strain and strain rate hardening, the
material exhibits adiabatic shear bands. Detailed
modelling and analysis of adiabatic shear bands in a
wide range of viscoplastic materials are presented by
Batra and Kim.75
Flow localisation is a less intense form of adiabatic
shear band formation and is also undesirable in the
microstructure of components. The manifestation of
flow localisation is generally in the form of curved or
wavy type macroscopic bands which are oriented at
International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 No.6
for microstructural control
about 35-40° with respect to the principle stress axis.
A phenomenological criterion for the occurrence of
flow localisation is that developed by Semiatin and
co-workers,76 where a parameter a given by
a = - v(O"m) = (1/e:)(de:/d8) . (19)
where v is the work hardening rate (negative when
flow softening occurs). A value for a higher than 5
will result in flow localisation. The agreement with
the experimental results is good in titanium alloys
and stainless steels but the actual value for a may be
different for different materials. However, the con-
tinuum criterion given by ~(e:) equation (12) has
been found to predict the occurrence of adiabatic
shear bands and flow localisation in hot working in
a consistent fashion and the predictions are micro-
structurally validated in a wide range of materials.31
Other metallurgical effects
In addition to the processes mentioned above, the
processing maps have brought out several other
important features that are of significance to micro-
structural control. Three such aspects are discussed
below.
The occurrence of any phase transformation, pre-
cipitate formation, or dissolution including carbides
or carbonitrides, is shown by inflexions in the effi-
ciency contours at the transformation temperature.
Indeed, the temperature for such transformation as
revealed by the maps has agreed accurately with those
obtained independently by other methods such as
DTA or DSC. Even if such data are not available for
complex alloy systems, the maps do not fail to reveal
them. This is not surprising since the efficiency con-
tours are nothing but the variations of the 'relative'
rate of entropy production which exhibits points of
singularity when phase changes occur. This feature is
of great assistance in designing processes for advanced
materials like titanium alloys, nickel base superalloys,
and aluminide alloys.
In view of the sensitivity of maps to the initial
processing history and microstructure of the preform,
it is possible to apply the technique for designing
multiple step processing routes such that workability
is enhanced in a connected fashion. Processing maps
may be used as effective tools for optimising homo-
genisation treatments, intermediate forging sequences
to refine grain size, or 'condition' P/M billets for
enhanced workability.
Processing maps have also been effectively used77
to understand the effect of preform microstructures
in titanium alloys (e.g. equiaxed v. WidmansHitten)
on the mechanisms of hot deformation in the a + f3
and f3 ranges. In a + f3 titanium alloys, for example,
the Widmanstatten preform deforms by strain depen-
dent spheroidisation while the equiaxed preform exhi-
bits superplastic deformation. The mechanisms of hot
deformation of f3 are also sensitive to the preform
microstructures.
Materials 'driven' process design
Modelling the constitutive behaviour of the material
and identifying the processing conditions for different
 Prasad and Seshacharyulu Modelling of hot deformation for microstructural control 257

mechanisms offer a great advantage in designing bulk Malas, Dr W. G. Frazier, and Mr S. Medeiros of the
metal working processes. The key aspects here are Materials Process Design Branch, Wright-Patterson
the optimisation of intrinsic workability and the Air Force Base, OR, USA, for many stimulating
control of microstructure in the broadest sense. The discussions, and to the National Research Council,
vast amount of hot deformation data31 has revealed Washington, DC, for support through a Research
that the constitutive behaviour is very sensitive to the Associateship Award.
initial conditions including alloy chemistry, initial
microstructure, and thermomechanical processing his-
tory. The single most important mechanism for bulk References
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to process materials such as powder compacts and
intermetallic materials.
Acl<nowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to Mr S. Sasidhara
and Mr R. Ravi of the Department of Metallurgy,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and to
Dr S. Venugopal of the Indira Gandhi Centre for
Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam, India, for
their help in several ways in preparing this review.
One of the authors (YVRKP) is thankful to Dr J. C.
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International Materials Reviews 1998 Vol. 43 NO.6