1.

Introduction
2. Installing Required Software
3. Starting to write code
4. Basic Concepts
5. Variables and Data Types
6. Operators
7. Control Flow
8. Arrays
9. Functions
10. Character Strings
11. Debugging
12. Pointers
13. Structures
14. File Input and Output
15. The Standard C Library
16. Conclusion
17. Extra Information - Source code, and other stuff

1) Fundamentals in C
2) Operators and Expressions
3) Input-Output Functions
4) Control Statements
5) Arrays
6) Strings
7) Pointers
8) Functions
9) Storage Classes
10) Preprocessor Directives
11) Structures, Unions, Enumerations and Typedef
12) Command Line Arguments
13) Graphics

Preprocessor Directives - C Programming

The C preprocessor is a macro processor that is used automatically by the C compiler to transform
your program before actual compilation (Proprocessor direcives are executed before compilation.).
It is called a macro processor because it allows you to define macros, which are brief abbreviations
for longer constructs. A macro is a segment of code which is replaced by the value of macro. Macro
is defined by #define directive.

Preprocessing directives are lines in your program that start with #. The # is followed by an identifier
that is the directive name. For example, #define is the directive that defines a macro. Whitespace is
also allowed before and after the #.

The # and the directive name cannot come from a macro expansion. For example, if foo is defined as
a macro expanding to define, that does not make #foo a valid preprocessing directive.
All preprocessor directives starts with hash # symbol.

List of preprocessor directives :

#include
#define
#undef
#ifdef
#ifndef
#if
#else
#elif
#endif
#error
#pragma
1. #include
The #include preprocessor directive is used to paste code of given file into current file. It is used
include system-defined and user-defined header files. If included file is not found, compiler renders
error. It has three variants:

#include <file>
This variant is used for system header files. It searches for a file named file in a list of directories
specified by you, then in a standard list of system directories.

#include "file"
This variant is used for header files of your own program. It searches for a file named file first in the
current directory, then in the same directories used for system header files. The current directory is
the directory of the current input file.

#include anything else

This variant is called a computed #include. Any #include directive whose argument does not fit the
above two forms is a computed include.

2. Macro's (#define)
Let's start with macro, as we discuss, a macro is a segment of code which is replaced by the value of
macro. Macro is defined by #define directive.

Syntax

#define token value

There are two types of macros:

Object-like Macros
Function-like Macros
1. Object-like Macros
The object-like macro is an identifier that is replaced by value. It is widely used to represent numeric
constants. For example:

#define PI 3.1415
Here, PI is the macro name which will be replaced by the value 3.14. Let's see an example of Object-
like Macros :

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
main()
{
printf("%f",PI);
}
Output:

3.14000
2. Function-like Macros
The function-like macro looks like function call. For example:

#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))

Here, MIN is the macro name. Let's see an example of Function-like Macros :

#include <stdio.h>
#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))
void main() {
printf("Minimum between 10 and 20 is: %d\n", MIN(10,20));
}
Output:

Minimum between 10 and 20 is: 10

Preprocessor Formatting
A preprocessing directive cannot be more than one line in normal circumstances. It may be split
cosmetically with Backslash-Newline. Comments containing Newlines can also divide the directive
into multiple lines.

for example, you can split a line cosmetically with Backslash-Newline anywhere:

/*
*/ # /*
*/ defi\
ne FO\
O 10\
20
is equivalent into #define FOO 1020.

3. #undef
To undefine a macro means to cancel its definition. This is done with the #undef directive.

Syntax:

#undef token
define and undefine example
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
#undef PI
main() {
printf("%f",PI);
}
Output:

Compile Time Error: 'PI' undeclared

4. #ifdef
The #ifdef preprocessor directive checks if macro is defined by #define. If yes, it executes the code.

Syntax:

#ifdef MACRO
//code
#endif
5. #ifndef
The #ifndef preprocessor directive checks if macro is not defined by #define. If yes, it executes the
code.

Syntax:

#ifndef MACRO
//code
#endif
6. #if
The #if preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition. If condition is true, it executes
the code.

Syntax:

#if expression
//code
#endif
7. #else
The #else preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition if condition of #if is false. It
can be used with #if, #elif, #ifdef and #ifndef directives.

Syntax:

#if expression
//if code
#else
//else code
#endif
Syntax with #elif
#if expression
//if code
#elif expression
//elif code
#else
//else code
#endif
Example

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NUMBER 1
void main() {
#if NUMBER==0
printf("Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);
#else
print("Value of Number is non-zero");
#endif
getch();
}
Output

Value of Number is non-zero

8. #error
The #error preprocessor directive indicates error. The compiler gives fatal error if #error directive is
found and skips further compilation process.

C #error example

#include<stdio.h>
#ifndef __MATH_H
#error First include then compile
#else
void main(){
float a;
a=sqrt(7);
printf("%f",a);
}
#endif
9. #pragma
The #pragma preprocessor directive is used to provide additional information to the compiler. The
#pragma directive is used by the compiler to offer machine or operating-system feature. Different
compilers can provide different usage of #pragma directive.

Syntax:

#pragma token
Example

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void func() ;

#pragma startup func

#pragma exit func

void main(){
printf("\nI am in main");
getch();
}

void func(){
printf("\nI am in func");
getch();
}
Output

I am in func
I am in main
I am in func

C Language: #include Directive

This C tutorial explains how to use the #include preprocessor directive in the C language.

Description
In the C Programming Language, the #include directive tells the preprocessor to insert the contents
of another file into the source code at the point where the #include directive is found. Include
directives are typically used to include the C header files for C functions that are held outsite of the
current source file.

Syntax
The syntax for the #include directive in the C language is:

#include <header_file>
OR

#include "header_file"
header_file
The name of the header file that you wish to include. A header file is a C file that typically ends in
".h" and contains declarations and macro definitions which can be shared between several source
files.
Note
The difference between these two syntaxes is subtle but important. If a header file is included within
<>, the preprocessor will search a predetermined directory path to locate the header file. If the
header file is enclosed in "", the preprocessor will look for the header file in the same directory as
the source file.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to use #include directives in your C program.

In the following example, we are using the #include directive to include the stdio.h header file which
is required to use the printf standard C library function in your application.

/* Example using #include directive by TechOnTheNet.com */

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
/*
* Output "TechOnTheNet began in 2003" using the C standard library printf function
* defined in the stdio.h header file
*/
printf("TechOnTheNet began in %d\n", 2003);

return 0;
}
In this example, the program will output the following:

TechOnTheNet began in 2003

Header Files
This is a list of the header files that you can include in your program if you want to use the functions
available in the C standard library:

Header File Type of Functions

<assert.h> Diagnostics Functions
<ctype.h> Character Handling Functions
<locale.h> Localization Functions
<math.h> Mathematics Functions
<setjmp.h> Nonlocal Jump Functions
<signal.h> Signal Handling Functions
<stdarg.h> Variable Argument List Functions
<stdio.h> Input/Output Functions
<stdlib.h> General Utility Functions
<string.h> String Functions
<time.h> Date and Time Functions
You will find these header files very useful as you become more familiar with the C language
Data Types in C
Difficulty Level : Easy
Last Updated : 03 Nov, 2020

Each variable in C has an associated data type. Each data type requires different amounts of memory
and has some specific operations which can be performed over it. Let us briefly describe them one
by one:
Following are the examples of some very common data types used in C:

char: The most basic data type in C. It stores a single character and requires a single byte of memory
in almost all compilers.
int: As the name suggests, an int variable is used to store an integer.
float: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point value) with single precision.
double: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point value) with double
precision.
Different data types also have different ranges upto which they can store numbers. These ranges
may vary from compiler to compiler. Below is list of ranges along with the memory requirement and
format specifiers on 32 bit gcc compiler.

Data Type
Memory (bytes)
Range
Format Specifier

short int
2
-32,768 to 32,767
%hd

unsigned short int

2
0 to 65,535
%hu

unsigned int
4
0 to 4,294,967,295
%u

int
4
 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
%d

long int
4
-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
%ld

unsigned long int

4
0 to 4,294,967,295
%lu

long long int

8
-(2^63) to (2^63)-1
%lld

unsigned long long int

8
0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
%llu

signed char
1
-128 to 127
%c

unsigned char
1
0 to 255
%c

float
4
%f

double
8
%lf

long double
16
%Lf

We can use the sizeof() operator to check the size of a variable. See the following C program for the
usage of the various data types:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 1;
char b = 'G';
double c = 3.14;
printf("Hello World!\n");

// printing the variables defined

// above along with their sizes
printf("Hello! I am a character. My value is %c and "
"my size is %lu byte.\n",
b, sizeof(char));
// can use sizeof(b) above as well

printf("Hello! I am an integer. My value is %d and "

"my size is %lu bytes.\n",
a, sizeof(int));
// can use sizeof(a) above as well

printf("Hello! I am a double floating point variable."

" My value is %lf and my size is %lu bytes.\n",
c, sizeof(double));
// can use sizeof(c) above as well

printf("Bye! See you soon. :)\n");

return 0;
}
Output:

Hello World!
Hello! I am a character. My value is G and my size is 1 byte.
Hello! I am an integer. My value is 1 and my size is 4 bytes.
Hello! I am a double floating point variable. My value is 3.140000 and my size i
s 8 bytes.
Bye! See you soon. :)