Consumer Behavior (MBA 61073)

MBA – University of Kelaniya , Sri Lanka

Supervisor- Dr Bandara Wanninayake

C C B Basnayaka MBA/2015/004
 Impulsive and Compulsive Buying Behavior

Introduction
The marketing concept of business behavior focuses on consumers, their preferences,
wishes, needs and expectations that need to be met and exceeded so that the company can
achieve business success quantified by the levels of revenue, profit, market share and
loyal customer basis. Marketing as a science, with all its derived disciplines, has been
striving ever since its emergence to investigate the causes, factors, action mechanisms and
consequences of consumer behavior, and despite the fact that much has been discovered
and achieved in this aspect, marketing theory and practice are still far from having
explained all the aspects of consumer behavior.
Consumer behavior is the most complex issue of marketing theory and practice, due to its
marked heterogeneity and a multitude of factors exerting a combined impact on it, in
more or less diverse ways, depending on the occasion. One of the highly specific
manifestations of consumer behavior on the market is impulsive behavior resulting in
unplanned purchases. Marketing researchers have been trying to ascertain all the aspects
of consumers’ impulsive buying behavior, for decades now, during which period the
research focus was redirected from researching the types and categories of products
inducing impulsive buying and defining the companies’ marketing offer accordingly, to
current research into the broad range of factors affecting and shaping consumers’
impulsive buying behavior and setting marketing strategies based on these findings.
Impulsive and compulsive buying are considered some of the most persistent and
idiosyncratic phenomenon in consumer lifestyle. This distinctive nature of impulsive and
compulsive buying has increased the attention from consumer researcher and theorists in
these phenomenon (Rook, 1987; Rook and Fisher, 1995). Historically, research on
impulsive and compulsive buying behaviors have been focused on; its definitional
elements distinguishing and differentiating them from other form of buying behaviors
(Cobb and Hoyer, 1986; Rook, 1987). Moreover, theorists have traditionally focused on
providing theoretical frameworks for examining impulsive and compulsive buying (Rook
and Fisher, 1995). Lately, many studies have been conducted to develop and validate
scales to measure the tendency of consumers to display impulsive and compulsive buying
behaviors. There is still a lot of work that needs to be done to identify and examine the
factors that affect impulsive and compulsive buying.
Compulsive Buying
Research on the phenomenon of compulsive buying was presented into the consumer
behavior literature by Faber et al. (1987) and other works have extended those first
findings (Faber and O'Guinn, 1987; O'Guinn and Faber, 1989; Valence et al., 1988;
d’Astous and Tremblay, 1989). This abnormal form of consumer behavior is
characterized by chronic buying episodes of a somewhat stereotraited fashion in which
the consumer feels unable to stop or significantly moderate the behavior. Although
compulsive buying may produce some short-term positive feelings for the individual, it
ultimately is disruptive to normal life functioning and produces significant negative
consequences (O'Guinn and Faber, 1988).
Compulsive behavior is defined as “repetitive and seemingly purposeful” acts that are
“performed according to certain rules or in a stereo traits fashion” (American Psychiatric
Association, 1985: 234). In marketing, manifestations of compulsive behavior include
purchasing behaviors that cannot be controlled, are excessive, time consuming, and/or
patterned in nature. Although compulsive buying can be associated with emotional
attachment to objects, it is more likely that the pleasure derived from the act of buying is
the primary motivation (O’Guinn and Faber, 1989). It is distinct from impulsive
behaviors because compulsive buying involves an “inability to control the urge” (Faber et
al., 1995: 297). A theoretical framework of compulsive buying is presented, incorporating
constructs/data themes from previous research in psychiatry, psychology, sociology, and
marketing. Personality antecedents and short and long term consequences describe the
addictive consumer disease.

Compulsivity and Compulsive Buying

Goldenson (1984) describes obsessive-compulsive disorder as “an anxiety disorder in
which obsessions or compulsions are a significant source of distress, that interfere with
theindividual’s ability to function. Obsessions are persistent, recurrent ideas and impulses
(e.g.,thoughts of committing violence; ideas of contamination or doubt) that appear
senseless or repugnant to the individual but force themselves on consciousness and cannot
be ignored or suppressed,” (p. 506). Compulsive buying is viewed as part of a broader
category of compulsive consumption behaviors. Defined by the American Psychiatric
Association (1985) as “repetitive and seemingly purposeful behaviors that are performed
according to rules or in a stereotyped fashion,”compulsions are often excessive and
ritualistic behaviors designed to alleviate tension, anxiety, or discomfort aroused by an
obtrusive thought or obsession.
O’Guinn and Faber (1989) began work toward providing the theoretical underpinnings of
the compulsive buying construct that conceptually links it with the larger category of
compulsive consumer behaviors such as alcoholism, drug abuse, eating disorders, and
compulsive gambling.
Compulsive buyers have been found to exhibit a number of personality traits commonly
included within these diverse compulsive consumption types. Building on this research,
Hirschman (1992) provided a general theoretical model of addictive consumption
suggesting that people exhibiting some forms of compulsive consumption have similar
characteristics, and that these behaviors have common causes and follow similar patterns
of development. In addition to personality linkages, theories of disease, socio cultural
influences, affluenza, and social learning theory are provided as theoretical underpinnings
to explain the compulsive and addictive consumption phenomena.

Theories of Compulsive Buying

Disease theory and biological factors- The field of medicine has provided research in the
area of disease theories, a model that is currently the dominant metaphor used to
conceptualize both drug addiction and alcoholism in American treatment programs such
as Alcoholics Anonymous. The focus of research attention on the disease model is on the
development of physical dependence (Tabakoff & Rothstein, 1983), the identification of
genetic predispositions (Petrakis, 1985), and the assumption that the disease will worsen
if left untreated. The presence of genetic abnormalities or tendencies that predispose some
persons to be susceptible to the effects of alcohol and/or certain narcotics have been
evidenced to support that these traits can be inherited (Donovan, 1988; Hirschman, 1992).
Research on brain activity and intervention has pointed to a link with serotonin and
compulsive behavior. An amino acid based neurotransmitter, serotonin helps relay
impulses between neurons in the brain. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with
several impulse control disorders, and treatment with medications to enhance serotonin
levels has appeared to alleviate these disorders in many patients (McElroy, Pope, Hudson,
Keck, & White, 1991a; Nathan & Rolland, 1987; Popkin, 1989; Winchell et al., 1989).
While medications are one method of regulating serotonin levels, certain activities are
also believed to regulate the production of neurotransmitters (Sunderwirth, 1985).
Many behaviors that increase the neurotransmission are also associated with arousal
(Milkman & Sunderwirth, 1982). Schmitz (2005) suggested that impulse control disorders
such as compulsive buying may be better understood on the basis of dysfunctional
neurocircuits and reward-based behaviors. That is, the process and act of buying is
reported as pleasurable by most patients. Compulsive shoppers have described their
shopping experiences as a high or a rush and they indicate that both the shopping
experience and its consequences are experienced as heightened states of arousal (Faber &
O‘Guinn, 1991; Faber et al., 1987). Dr. Donald Black has begun testing a drug for
treatment of shopaholics, who, he says, represent between 2-8% of the population. So far,
almost all of the participants (16 women and 1 man) in his study reported that their
shopping ardor has cooled (Black, Monahan, & Gabel, 1997). Thus, Faber (1992)
suggested that compulsive buying may be a way of achieving a change in brain chemistry
that is associated with the desired increase in neurotransmission. This relationship
between addictive or excessive behavior and brain chemistry may explain why arousal is
viewed as a critical component in a general theory attempting to account for a wide range
of addictions (Faber, 1992; Jacobs, 1989).
Socio cultural theory- The field of psychology has produced socially based theories that
also provide explanation for drug addiction and alcoholism. Socio cultural theory
proposes that some ethnic groups such as Jews, Italian Americans, and Chinese-
Americans, have lower rates of alcoholism. This is due to the groups having specified
appropriate ceremonial, nutritional, or festive uses of alcohol, but negatively sanctioning
overindulgence and drunkenness. In contrast, other nationality groups such as Irish-and
English-Americans, who have positively sanctioned alcohol consumption have also
experienced a higher rate of alcoholism (Davison & Neale, 1986). Relative to other
cultures, Americans are widely perceived across the globe as materialistic due to patterns
of consumption that are perceived as excessive. Thus, based on socio cultural theory as
well as the relatively high economic status of the U.S., it is reasonable to believe that
compared to other countries, Americans will represent a higher percentage of compulsive
buyers.
Social learning theory- The social learning theory of Becker (1953, 1969) proposes that
novice drug users must learn from their more experienced peers how to detect and
respond to the pharmacological properties of marijuana, LSD, and opiates. In addition,
Ray (1961) described the relapse of recovering drug addicts as attributable to their social
discomfort and inability to identify with non addicts. Their continual association with the
addict subculture, thus, has a negative impact on their ability to recover (Hirschman,
1992).
With regard to compulsive buyers then, it would follow that if they remain isolated and/or
separated from non compulsive consumers, the probability for decreasing or
discontinuing excessive shopping would remain low. Similarly, compulsive buyers
receiving predominantly positive feedback about their shopping behaviors would feel
psychologically validated and reinforced toward continuing the shopping behavior.
It is apparent that many compulsive buyers could reasonably fit into the previously
described personality, disease, socio cultural, and social learning theoretical models.
Hirschman (1992) holds that compulsive behavior is intimately related to coming from a
family that is characterized by patterns of alcohol/drug abuse, physical violence, and/or
emotional conflict such as divorce or separation, characteristics which can be explained
by these theories.

Research on Compulsive Buying

As early as the turn of the last century, compulsive buying was recognized by Kraepelin
(1915) and Bleuler (1924) as a mental disorder, referred to as oniomania, buying mania,
compulsive consumption, compulsive shopping and addictive or impulsive buying. It has
been largely unexamined by modern psychiatry (McElroy et al., 1994; McElroy et al.,
1991; Black, 1991; Christenson et al., 1994), and only recently recognized within the
marketing discipline as a construct worthy of further investigation (Faber, O’Guinn, and
Krych, 1987; Faber and O’Guinn, 1989; 1992; O’Guinn and Faber, 1989 and 1991; Peter,
1991). Compulsive buying has been characterized in psychology as an irresistible urge to
buy (Krueger, 1988; McElroy et al., 1991), with some form of tension relief or
gratification (usually temporary) following the purchase (Glatt and Cook , 1987; Krueger,
1988; McElroy et al., 1991;1994). Evidence of comorbidity for compulsive buying and
other impulse control disorders has indicated it is linked to alcoholism (Glatt and Cook,
1987; Valence, d’Astous, and Fortier, 1988), kleptomania (McElroy et al., 1991; 1994),
bulimia and shoplifting (Norton, Crisp, and Bhat, 1985; Mitchell et al., 1985; Williamson,
1990), alcoholism and drug abuse (Mitchell et al., 1985; Williamson, 1990), and binge
eating disorder and bulimia nervosa (Faber et al., 1995). Thesedisorders have occurred for
some individuals as simultaneous, while for others they have emerged serially after a
previous one has been established, or after the initial disorder has been controlled
(Hirschman, 1992; Mitchell, 1990; Oxford, 1985). While efforts are being made to
theoretically link the related disorders, there is much debate in the psychiatric literature
over which disorders should be grouped together (Christenson et al., 1992; 1994;
McElroy et al.,1994; Milkman and Sunderwirth, 1982).
Within the marketing literature, Faber, O’Guinn and Krych (1987) identified three
characteristics that appeared to be common across addictive and compulsive phenomena:
(1) the presence of a drive, impulse, or urge to engage in the behavior, (2) denial of the
harmful consequences of engaging in the behavior, and (3) repeated failure in attempts to
control or modify the behavior. Correspondingly, compulsive consumption was defined in
the marketing literature by Faber and O’Guinn (1989) as “chronic, repetitive purchasing
that becomes a primary response to negative events or feelings [which]…becomes very
difficult to stop and ultimately results in harmful consequences,” (Faber and O’Guinn,
1989, p. 155).
Although previously described in the literature as a dichotomy of compulsive and non
compulsive consumers (d’Astous, 1990; Faber and O’Guinn, 1988a; 1988b; 1989; 1992;
O’Guinn and Faber, 1987b; 1989; Valence, d’Astous and Fortier 1988), it has been
reasoned that compulsive buying occurs and is more appropriately described as degrees of
behavior on a continuum (d’Astous, 1990; Nataraajan and Goff, 1991; Hirschman, 1992).
As with impulsive behavior, the various abilities/inabilities of individuals to delay
gratification (i.e., levels of impulse control) as well as other combined personality
attributes, and their strengths provide a continuum of compulsive behavior. Nataraajan
and Goff (1991) have suggested that the levels of compulsive buying are distinguished by
a continuum of control over behavior that the individual is able to manage, combined
with a continuum of motives. Past research has identified the addictive nature of
compulsive buying behavior (Briney, 1989; Edwards, 1992, 1993, 1994a; Hirschmann,
1992; Scherhorn, 1990; Scherhorn Reisch and Raab, 1990). It has been suggested that
addiction to spending can occur progressively, starting when the recreational buyer, who
may shop as an escape, finds the experienced “high” to be an easy and gratifying way to
deal with stress or negative emotions. Anxiety overload caused by a crisis then triggers
the individual to buy compulsively. As progressively less relief is experienced with each
shopping spree, the person requires another “fix,” thus beginning to depend on shopping
and spending as the primary means of coping with anxiety. Thus, viewed as an addiction,
compulsive buying may be considered a progression from normal to impulsive spending,
to a means of escape from stress and anxiety, and finally to addiction (DeSarbo and
Edwards, 1996).
The primary criterion to determine whether buying behavior is innocuous or potentially
compulsive (abnormal) buying is whether or not such behavior is causing disruption in
the normal life of the individual (Faber and O’Guinn, 1989; Nataraajan and Goff, 1991).
Black (1996) described compulsive buyers as shopping excessively to the point that their
lives are literally organized around a broad range of shopping experiences. Schlosser et
al. (1994) reported that 85 percent of their subjects expressed concern about their
compulsive buying related debts, and that 74 percent felt “out of control.” Thus, if buying
behavior begins to interfere with other spheres of an individual’s life, such as
relationships with family and friends, financial well being, or aspects of employment, and
acts as an impediment to normal functioning, then it is deemed disruptive and is
indicative of abnormality (Nataraajan and Goff, 1991).
Compulsive buying manifestations are viewed as possibly having an addiction component
or a general compulsion component or both. It is reasoned that if buying has an addiction
component, then compulsive buying tendencies should be strongly linked to some general
addictive propensity. When employing the MacAndrew Scale (1965) with a variety of
compulsive buying tendencies discussed in the literature, it was indicated that addictive
propensity correlated significantly with many aspects of credit card usage, self-realization
of excessive spending, and self-acknowledgment that significant others had noticed and
commented about the individual’s spending excesses (Nataraajan and Goff, 1990; 1991).
Based on their findings and the consideration of five widely used definitions of
compulsion (American Psychiatric Association, 1985; American Psychoanalytic
Association, 1987; Campbell, 1981; Rycroft, 1968; Stone, 1988), Nataraajan and Goff
(1991) developed the following definition of compulsive buying: “Compulsive buying
has an addictive propensity and/or compulsive trait, and arises from persistently assailing,
repetitive motive(s) to buy (or perform the ritual of buying) which may or may not be
irresistible and may or may not be pleasurable or relieving but that which is
fundamentally disruptive to normal functioning,” (p. 321).
Summary of Compulsive Buying Research
Researchers have found that compared with other consumers, more compulsive buyers
are female than male (Kraepelin, 1915; Bleuler, 1924; O’Guinn and Faber, 1989, 1992;
d’Astous, 1990; Scherhorn et al., 1990; Christenson et al., 1992; Scherhorn et al., 1990;
McElroy et al. 1994; Black 1996; 2007). In addition, compulsive buyers tend to possess
low self-esteem (Schmitz, 2005; Dittmar, 2005; d’Astous, Matais, and Roberge, 1990;
O’Guinn and Faber, 1989a; Scherhorn, Reisch, and Raab, 1990; Christenson et al., 1992;
McElroy et al. 1994; Black 1996; 2007); a greater tendency to fantasize (O’Guinn and
Faber, 1989a); have higher levels of depression (Schmitz, 2005; Dittmar, 2005; Scherhorn
et al., 1990; Valence, d’Astous, and Fortier, 1988; Christenson et al., 1992; McElroy et al.
1994; Black 1996; 2007); and higher levels of anxiety reactions and obsessions (Schmitz,
2005; Dittmar, 2005; O’Guinn and Faber, 1989a; Scherhorn et al., 1990; McElroy et al.,
1994, Black 1996, 2007). Materialism has been linked to some compulsive buyers as a
result of family stress during developmental years, where purchases are used as
surrogates for personal relationships that are lacking (Xu, 2008; Dittmar, 2005;
Rindfleisch, Burroughs, and Denton, 1997), as well as relating specific products to
compulsive buyers as a function of their desired self images (Black 1996; 2007; Dittmar,
Beattie, and Freise, 1998).
Although long-term consequences of compulsive buying have been described as generally
negative and harmful to the individual as well as to others, compulsive buyers derive
short-term benefits from the act of shopping such as reduced anxiety, increased self-
esteem, and positive emotional feelings (Christenson et al., 1992; McElroy et al. 1994;
Schlosser et al., 1994; Black 1996; 2007). These short-term benefits serve to provide an
operant conditioned response within high compulsive buyers to repeat and continue the
behavior.

Impulsive Buying
Impulsivity is a personality trait defined as a tendency towards acting without
forethought, making quick cognitive decisions, and failing to appreciate the
circumstances beyond the here and now (Barratt, 1993). It is one of those dimensions of
individual differences that are frequently associated with the biological bases of
personality; a state involving non-specific physiological activation and the non-
directional component of alertness (Anderson and Revelle,1994). Impulse buying is an
outcome of a sudden consumer’s irresistible urge to buy an item spontaneously (O’Quinn
and Faber, 1989).

Impulsive buying has been described as making unplanned and sudden purchases, which
are initiated on the spot, and are accompanied by a powerful urge and feelings of pleasure
and excitement (Rook, 1987). In response to this definitional problem, researchers began
to focus on identifying the internal psychological states underlying consumers’ impulse
buying episodes (Rook, 1987; Rook and Gardner, 1993; Rook and Hoch, 1985). Impulse
buying was redefined as occurring “when a consumer experiences a sudden, often
powerful and persistent urge to buying something immediately. It is important to note that
although diverse literatures have historically focused on the negative outcomes of
impulsive and compulsive human behaviors, thus serving as a warning to rational humans
to “think before they leap,” marketers have traditionally been interested in encouraging
“leaping before thinking” consumption behaviors, where purchases are made swiftly
and/or repeatedly before deliberation of possible alternatives and consequences is given
more time. Selling additional goods to more consumers is, after all, one of the major
objectives when the goal is to increase market share and generate increased profits.
Millions of dollars each year are appropriated by corporations to discover additional
effective tactics that encourage rapid and repeated consumption behavior.

For a long time, the basic starting tenet of economic science was Homo Economicus, i.e.
the economic consumer, whose behavior is expressly cognitive and rational, and whose
shopping habits are always guided by their interests and consideration in order to achieve
maximum benefits with minimum invested resources. Reality, however, has refuted such
a narrow view of consumers, as they very often buy products and services not only to
satisfy their physiological and other rational needs, but also to satisfy some personal
psychological needs and desires that other consumers may find irrational. A purchase
decision can be and very often is prompted by aesthetic and symbolic motives, or simply,
desire for entertainment. Such deviation from standard and rational consumer behavior is
referred to as impulse buying. Generally, there are numerous examples of various
products and services that can ascribe their sales levels to such shifts away from rational
consumer behavior. It is therefore not a rare occurrence; on the contrary, impulsive
buying is a unique, but ubiquitous phenomenon, one that might even be classified as a
routine form of consumer behavior.
Dholakia (2000) argues that impulsive buying behavior is a moment during the shopping
trip occurring at the retail outlet, so that the greatest interest in the study of this
phenomenon and the initial body of knowledge about it originate from retailing sources,
where factors such as shelf arrangement, product packaging and point-of-sale promotion
significantly increased the consumers’ impulsive buying behavior.
Researching the relationship between gender and material symbols in relation to
impulsive buying, Dittmar, Beattie and Friese (1995) argue that the level of impulse
intention characterizes every individual consumer, different from one consumer to the
other, but directly determine the real impulsive purchase. Although it is the consumers
that manifest impulsive behavior, it is triggered by products and services, i.e. the latter
two are the main marketing stimulus of impulsive buying behavior available to
companies. Products such as clothing and accessories, music, and product categories that
imply social and personal visibility and involvement, as well expressing one’s personal
image, tend to encourage consumer impulsive buyer behavior.
One of frequently cited authors dealing with consumer impulsive behavior, Rook (1987)
defines it as unexpected purchases unplanned before entering a retail outlet, resulting
from rapid purchase decision, preceded by sudden and strong urge to possess a noticed
product or service. Impulsive purchase is an unplanned purchase decision made at the
point of sale, which is, in most cases, a consumer’s emotional, or cognitive, or combined
response to a sudden stimulus.
Tendai and Crispen (2009) devote the most attention to researching the element of point
of sale on consumers’ impulsive buying behavior, underlining that it is, basically, a
purchase decision made at the retail outlet, so that it is necessary for marketing theory and
practice to constantly investigate which retail outlet elements may produce impulsive
buying behavior and satisfy the consumers’ need innovatively. Product display,
packaging design, relaxing interior and atmosphere at the retail outlet make a positive
impact on consumers’ impulsive buying behavior. Tendai and Crispen (2009) specify that
the retail outlet ambience and atmosphere have two positive impacts on impulsive buying
(p. 103): promotion effect, as a combination of information and economic effect produced
by stimuli such as price reductions, coupons, gifts, etc. involvement effect, where the
atmosphere causes a high level of customer involvement, positive agitation and pleasure
by means of appearance and interior decoration, music, sales promotions, sales staff
attitude, etc.
Solomon (2002) defines consumers’ impulsive buying behavior as behavior that “occurs
when a consumer a sudden irresistible urge to buy” (p.301). Most frequently, impulse
purchases occur in situation when the consumer deems impulsive buying behavior totally
appropriate, such as buying a present for someone else. Salomon further categorizes
consumers according to the degree of manifestation of impulsive buying behavior
(p.303): planning consumers, who always decide in advance what, how much and which
brands they will buy; partially planning consumers, who either choose only the category,
or only the amount of product to buy; and impulsive buyers, without any prior shopping
plan. Hanna & Wozniak (2001) opine that consumers’ impulsive buying behavior is a
common occurrence on the market, and consider it to be within the consumer’s non
programmed problem resolution pattern during the purchase decision making process.
Impulsive behavior and purchases imply very little time used for decision-making, limited
presence or total absence of cognitive effort in decision making, where emotional appeals
make a decision-making impact on the consumers.
Mowen (1993) defines impulsive purchases as “hedonically complex impulses to buy that
may stimulate emotional conflict.” (p. 381). Impulsive purchases tend to appear in
situations when the consumer’s consideration and the significance of consequences of
these purchases diminish. Impulsive purchases occur when consumers have no prior
perception of any problem or consequences of these purchases, or prior intention to buy.
Mowen claims that between 39 and 67% of purchases are completely unplanned and
impulse-driven. Impulsive buys happen automatically and without control, but always
entail strong affective conditions in consumers.
Maričić (2011) regards what he terms affects as specific acts of manifesting consumer
buying behavior. An affect or emotion refers to consumers’ feelings, whereas cognition or
consideration refers to consumers’ planned behavior, and both these extremes are, in fact,
consumers’ psychological responses to stimuli and events in the environment. Affects are
almost always responsive behavior, which means that they reflect the consumers’
immediate and automatic response to stimuli they are exposed to. Maričić (2011) lists the
following types of consumers’ affective responses, their effect on behavior, and
characteristics of response to it (p.133): Types of consumer’s affective responses:
emotions; specific and subjective feelings; moods; assessments. Effect of affects on
consumer behavior: positive mood accelerates the consumer education process and
shortens the decision-making time when choosing products or services; invigorated mood
favors products with positive connotations; emotions activate consumers’ motivation to
buy. Characteristics of affect-driven response: affect is always an immediate and
automatic response to an external stimulus, which cannot be planned; affect-driven
responses are either beyond or under negligible control of the consumer; intensive
affective conditions also include consumers’ physiological responses; most affect-driven
responses are learnt.
Maričić (2011) argues that consumers’ affective and cognitive systems are mutually
dependent and related, and continuously influence each other, which often results in
unplanned and impulsive purchases. These purchases are characterized by sudden
spontaneous urge to buy, which can be completely contrary to the consumer’s earlier
behavior, followed by a state of psychological imbalance and loss of control over the
consumer’s own behavior, occurrence of psychological conflict caused by the analysis of
satisfaction and consequences, decrease in the consumer’s cognition, and finally,
manifestation of impulse-driven behavior. There are five types of impulsive purchases
(Maričić, 2011, p. 143): pure impulsiveness; suggestion effect ; planned impulsiveness:
recall effect; and planned purchase of a category, but not also a brand of product and
service.
Making an impulsive purchase requires certain mood, i.e. excitement, and the consumer’s
positive attitude. The most common impulsive purchases are those caused by hedonic
urges and comprise the so-called hedonic consumption; these purchases, however, also
cause emotional conflict, so that impulsive purchases are often also termed ‘emotional
purchases’ (Maričić, 2011, p. 144). Although impulsive purchases include a situation
where the consumer cannot resist the marketing stimulus, this does not mean that im-
pulsive purchases do not also include cognitive consumer behavior. On the contrary;
often a cognitive analysis of, for instance, excellent offer in a retail outlet is the trigger of
impulsive purchase.

Theories of Impulse Buying Behavior

The emotional/impulsive decision making theory and impulsive buying Impulsive buying
is grounded and theoretically underpinned within the emotional or impulsive decision
making view to consumer decision making by Schiffman and Kanuk (2007). This view
postulates that consumers are likely to associate some highly involving feelings or
emotions such as joy, love, fear, hope, sexuality, fantasy and even some little magic with
certain purchases or possessions. Rather than carefully searching, deliberating and
evaluating alternatives before buying, consumers are just as likely to make many of these
purchases on impulse, on a whim, because they are emotionally driven (Schiffman &
Kanuk, 2007). Park et al. (2005) had even earlier concluded that unless a store has a
distinct product offering or pricing strategy, retailers can distinguish their store by
building on the relationship between the store's atmosphere and the consumer's emotional
state. Even if consumers are in a negative emotional state upon entering a store, they may
become emotionally uplifted and spend more than intended. All this implies that
impulsive buying may largely be an unconscious buying behavior driven by an affective
force beyond the control of the individual.
Shahjehan, Quereshi, Zeb & Saifullah (2012.) regard compulsive behavior as an abnormal
form of individual consumer behavior, characterized by chronic purchases where the
consumer feels unable to stop or adjust it. Although this deviant behavior form can also
cause a certain form of short term pleasure, viewed in the long run, compulsive behavior
tends to usurp the consumer’s normal life and cause highly negative consequences. The
authors quote the American Psychiatric Association’s definition, stating that compulsive
behavior is “repetitive and apparently purposeless activity that an individual performs
according to strict rules in a stereotypical manner” (2012, p. 2188).
A manifestation of compulsive behavior in marketing implies purchases that a consumer
cannot control, which are excessive, persistent, and become a part of everyday life. Al-
though compulsive purchases appear to be a consequence of the product and service that
are the object of devotion, which is a characteristic of impulse purchases, the primary
urge and drive of compulsive purchases is disturbed feeling of delight in and because of
shopping.
Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney & Monroe (2006.) point out that the basic distinction of
compulsive purchases in relation to impulse-driven ones is the consumer’s inability to
control and influence the urge to buy, and markedly negative consequences of this type of
purchases, which is not present in impulsive buying (p. 131). Compulsive behavior
definitely leads to highly unpleasant consequences for the consumers, i.e. their private
and social lives, career, and financial standing. Compulsive behavior is a behavioral
disorder with a growing incidence in society, causing disturbing consequence for it.
Dittmar (2005, p. 468) presents compulsive behavior in three dimensions – irresistible
desire to buy something, total lack of control over behavior, and incessant excessive
shopping despite all the negative consequences for the consumers and their families.
Workman & Paper (2010, p. 89) state that as many as 18 million Americans suffer from
this behavioral disorder, i.e. compulsive buying disorder.
Factors influencing impulse-driven consumer behavior
Impulse-driven consumer behavior is not rare on the market, so that marketing theory and
practice have invested significant efforts in clarifying it as much as possible, in order to
reach certain knowledge that companies could use in practice. Over the past decades,
many marketing researchers have attempted to identify factors encouraging impulsive
buying behavior.
Karbasivar & Yarahmadi (2011.) investigate the effect of external marketing stimuli on
impulsive buying behaviour. The authors state that impulsive purchases are situations
where the consumer does not evaluate or even identify all the shopping alternatives, nor
does he evaluate the consequences of his/her decision. Consumers are only focused on
instant gratification of their strong need, not thinking of the real problem, which is to be
resolved in a higher-quality manner. Impulsive purchases are always instant, affective and
hedonic. The authors state numerous forms of impulsive purchases – rationally
unplanned, emotionally impulsive, objectively impulsive and many others, but devote
special attention to factors influencing impulse purchases and consumer behavior (p.
175): External impulsive purchase factors are under full control of companies, which try
to use them to incite the impulse buying mechanism, i.e. strong urge to buy something
that consumers cannot resist: store apparent characteristics; in-store displays; the in-store
shopping environment – music, scents, colors, sales staff etc.; price discounts and point-
of-sale promotions .Internal impulsive purchase factors are related solely to the consumer,
and the company can influence them to a minor extent, but cannot control them: the
consumer’s personality traits; the consumer’s emotional and affective state; demographic
factors; situation factors – time, purpose of the purchase and disposable income.
Coley & Burgess (2003, p. 283) claim that simultaneous effect of external and internal
stimuli results in positive shopping emotions and guides consumers’ moods, followed by
strong urge and desire to buy that the consumer cannot resist, resulting in the emergence
of impulse-driven behavior and, eventually purchase. The authors have also identified
significant differences in the impulse-driven behavior of males and females, depending on
product categories.
Virvilaite, Saladiene & Bagdonaite (2009.) argue that impulsive buying behavior occurs
as a consequence of action of diverse marketing stimuli in the retail outlet, focused on
low prices and appealing promotions, resulting in unplanned purchase. In their opinion,
factors influencing consumers’ impulsive buying behavior: characteristics of a consumer;
peculiarities of purchase environment; characteristics of the product or services; and
situation factors .
Pleasant and stimulating atmosphere in the sales outlet, appealing prices, friendly sales
staff, product displays, products and services with a strong effect of expressing the
consumer’s personality etc. have a powerful effect on the strong manifestation of the
consumers’ impulsive buying behavior. Factors with a stronger experiential, entertaining
and hedonic effect also have a comparatively stronger effect on the consumers’ impulsive
buying behavior.
Chen (2008) deems that impulsive purchase add hedonic value to the act of shopping
itself, and consequently, products and services with a high level of hedonic dimension
provoke higher level of emotion and the consumer affective response, eventually resulting
in impulsive purchase. The same author lists a range of factors influencing the impulsive
buying behavior (p. 155): the product’s characteristics; the consumer’s mood or
emotional state; the shopping task; availability of time and money; etc.
The combination of these factors influences the consumers’ impulsive buying inclination
spontaneously, immediately and kinetically, and, at the same time, determines the con-
sumers’ involvement, which is dependent on the interest and significance of purchase for
the consumer. The author deems that the most frequent objects of impulsive purchases are
“consumer goods which appear to have potential for self-presentation, self-expression,
mood adjustment, diversion and entertainment” (p. 156).
Yang, Huang, & Feng (2011) study the factors affecting the impulsive purchases of
cosmetic products, terming them as consumers’ “weakness of will” (p. 275). The authors
claim that impulse-driven behavior, i.e. the intensity of its manifestation is individually
determined by the inclination to it, affected by the company’s marketing stimuli and the
situation itself. The factors of economic, personal, temporal and cultural nature affecting
impulsive purchases are (p. 276) external stimuli – display of products in the retail outlet,
promotion, atmosphere, purchasing frequency of the product category, etc.; internal
perceptions – lifestyle, the customer’s personality traits, emotions, disposable money and
time; buying behavior – price, payment terms and conditions, and time of purchase;
demographic characteristics – age, gender, income; profession, education level, marital
status, social position etc.
Yang, Huang, & Feng (2011) conclude that there is a significant correlation between
gender structure and impulsive buying intention, but this correlation did not turn out to be
significant enough in terms of real impulsive buying behavior. Maričić (2011, p. 144)
highlights that unplanned and impulsive purchases stand in “close correlation with the
consumers’ income and overall economic situation”. The rise in the number of impulsive
purchases is directly related with the increase in the consumers’ discretionary income and
vice versa.
Gasiorowska (2011) focuses the major part of her research into consumers’ impulsive
buying behavior on the analysis of differences between genders on encouraging and
manifesting impulsive behavior. The author points out that females regard impulsive
purchases as a game of chance that offers them a high level of stimulation and the feeling
of sensational, while impulsive purchases made by males are in most cases the result of
action of companies’ marketing stimuli and unwanted situation of information overload
that they wish to avoid by accelerating the purchase decision. Furthermore, the author
states that females spend much more time shopping, which arises the feeling of pleasure
and delight in them. Male consumers, on the other hand, make purchase decision much
faster, and are less prone to unplanned purchases. However, male consumers devote more
attention to companies marketing stimuli, placing themselves under higher probability of
impulsive purchase. Females’ impulsive purchases are determined by emotions and
materialism, whereas the same is of instrumental character in males’ case, that is,
gratifying the sudden urge as soon as possible.
Generally speaking, the correlation between gender and consumer behavior is one of the
most discussed topics in marketing theory and practice. A notably detailed overview of
significant analyses of correlation between gender and consumer behavior was given by
Professor Kay M. Palan from Iowa State University (2001), who was the first one to point
out the importance of differentiating between the notions of biological sex and gender
identity – “the fundamental, existential sense of one’s maleness or femaleness” (p.1).
Palan notes that there are numerous studies confirming some hypotheses on differences in
behavior, but also that most of them have no major scientific relevance, for instance a
1980 study claiming that the biological sex is a better predictor of consumer behavior in
terms of their categorization of products and services as males’ and females’ than gender
identity. He lists a couple of significant studies that proved scientifically that sexual
identity in males much better accounts for purchase intention than biological sex, that
female gender identity results in higher involvement level in purchasing votive candles at
Christmas time, that promotional appeals about financial services are much better
responded to by females with male personality traits, and that males remember benefits of
the presents they got, whereas females remember more who the gift came from.
Tifferet & Herstein (2012) study gender difference and their influence on brand
commitment, impulsive buying, and hedonic consumption. These authors prove in their
research that females as consumers are more inclined to hedonic consumption and
impulsive purchases. The authors find a partial explanation in females’ personality
structure and the fact that they are more prone to depression, and regard these impulsive
purchases as a means of improving their own mental state (p. 178).
Kovač Žnideršić & Marić (2013) look into the gender differences and their correlation
with consumer behavior in terms of the application of ethical standards, and highlight all
the complexity of this aspect, as female consumers are more prone to using double
standards when assessing their behavior. Despite the immense body of research into
impulsive buying behavior, the need to study it has not diminished; on the contrary, any
change in the marketing environment results in new consumer behavior patterns, and thus
new forms of expressing impulse-driven behavior and impulsive purchases.

Conclusion
The competition in every industry is getting fiercer. Even minor differences between
shoppers are becoming important for firms in their efforts to get target consumers.
According to the literature there are many factors influencing the impulse buying of
consumers in both in-store and online. This shows that there is a lot of scope for further
research in same direction related to impulse buying.
Impulse purchasing does not match with rational decision making model of a consumer:
when need emerges, a consumer buys impulsively and does not search for alternatives.
Various factors such as consumer characteristics, store characteristics, situational factors,
and product characteristics have strong influence on consumer’s impulse purchasing
behavior. Although recently impulse buying is considered to be an unethical appeal to the
consumers, in perspective of marketers, it brings revenues rather than blame. In
perspective of consumers, it should not be that much negative aspect, because who have
purchasing power, can spend their money according to their wish. But post purchase
dissonance should not be occurred due to impulse purchase. In fact consumers sometimes
love to purchase impulsively. So we have to consider both sides of impulse purchasing.
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