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On Phrases and Clauses: Alina Preda
On Phrases and Clauses: Alina Preda
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ALINA PREDA*
ABSTRACT. On Phrases and Clauses. The aim of this study is to point out the
reasons why the distinction between phrases and clauses is sometimes difficult to
make, by tracing the roots of the problem back to the terminological confusion
brought about by the challenging similarities exhibited by these two linguistic
items whenever non-finite verb forms feature in their configuration. A solution to
the terminological problem is put forward in the form of a more systematic clear-
cut classification of the various phrases and clauses in English Syntax.
*PhD. Reader at The School of Letters, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Dr.
Preda finished her doctoral studies in 2006 with a thesis in Philology, namely English
Literature. An active member of The Centre for Research of the Contemporary British
Novel, she currently teaches B.A.-level courses in English Syntax, Discourse Analysis, Gender
and Discourse, Psycholinguistics and Formal Semantics, as well as M.A.-level courses in
Contemporary English Literature and Gender Studies. E-mail: alinapreda74@gmail.com.
1 “phrase.” Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. Last updated on 3.06.2011.
back formation process that led to the creation of this noun from the Latin
clausula (the feminine form of clausus, the past participle of claudere, meaning
“to close”). In Medieval Latin clausa meant “the closing of a rhetorical period”
and the word “clause” entered Middle English through Old French sometime
between 1175 and 1225.2
Here are the most relevant definitions that have been given to the
English word “phrase”:
• a brief, apt, and cogent expression3
• a sequence of words intended to have meaning4
• a word or group of words forming a unit and conveying meaning:
expression, locution5
• any small group of words within a sentence or a clause6
• a word or group of words read or spoken as a unit and separated by
pauses or other junctures7
• a group of grammatically connected words within a sentence8
• a sequence of two or more words arranged in a grammatical
construction and acting as a unit in a sentence9
• a word or group of words forming a syntactic constituent with a single
grammatical function10
• two or more words in sequence that form a syntactic unit that is less
than a complete sentence11
• a sequence of grammatically related words lacking subject and
predicate12
• a sequence of two or more words that does not contain a finite verb
and its subject or that does not consist of clause elements such as
subject, verb, object, or complement […]13
2 For more information on phrases see Alina Preda, Phrasal Syntax, Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca, 2011,
p. 7-67. For further details regarding clauses see Alina Preda, “Finite Subordinate Clauses
Revisited”, in Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai.Philologia, LVII, 3, 2012, p. 207- 216.
3 Ibid.
4 http://www.thefreedictionary.com/phrase
5 Roget's II: The New Thesaurus, Third Edition, published by the Houghton Mifflin Company.
http://www.answers.com/library
6 http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/phrase.htm
7 Ibid.
8 The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, edited by James S. Trefil, Joseph F. Kett, and Eric Donald
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14 Collins Thesaurus of the English Language – Complete and Unabridged Second Edition, 2002 ©
HarperCollins Publishers 1995, 2002
15 The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000
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• The three kids took turns taking care of me – Don in the morning, Stu
in the afternoon, and Pip at night.
A non-finite clause is a subordinate clause that contains only a non-finite
verb form and no finite verb forms (marked for tense, aspect and/or voice).
• The court procedures being over, we were allowed to leave.
• The court procedures finished, we were allowed to leave.
• Although feeling terribly upset, she managed to keep a reassuring smile
on her face for us to see.
• The three kids took turns taking care of me – Don being there in the
morning, Stu working in the afternoon, and Pip doing his shift at night.
A finite clause contains both a subject and its predicate, consisting of a
finite verb form (marked for tense, aspect and/or voice) around which the
other components of the predicate cluster.
• Once the court procedures were over, we were allowed to leave.
• Although Maya was feeling terribly upset, she managed to keep a
reassuring smile on her face for us to see.
• The three kids took turns taking care of me: Don was there in the
morning, Stu worked in the afternoon, and Pip did his shift at night.
All the highlighted examples in the first two of these three sets clearly have
many more things in common with the finite subordinate clauses in the third
set than with any kind of phrase. Consequently, there is no denying that they
are clauses, even though they do not contain both a subject and a tensed verb.
If we compare these three groups of sentences, the first containing verbless
clauses, the second non-finite subordinate clauses and the third finite
subordinate clauses, the differences marking the three types of clauses are
revealed. Thus, a finite clause has a finite verb marked for tense, aspect
and/or voice (were, was feeling, was, worked, did). A non-finite clause
contains a non-finite verb form (being, feeling, working, doing, finished). A
verbless clause contains no verb forms whatsoever, hence its name.
It was actually the existence of non-finite structures that led to a
terminological confusion: thus, some linguists use the term “non-finite clause” for
groups of words containing infinitives or participles (to be more specific
“infinitive clause” and, respectively, “participle clause” or “participial clause”),
whereas others employ the term “verbal phrase” for the same structures (more
specifically “infinitive phrase” and, respectively, “participle phrase” or “participial
phrase”), hence the challenging problem of differentiating between phrases and
clauses when non-finite verb forms feature in their configuration.
2.1. Phrases. Each phrase acts like a single part of speech, namely a
noun, adjective, adverb or the verb of a clause, and any phrase must have a
head, its central constituent, which determines the syntactic type of that
particular phrase. Depending on the core element around which all the other
phrasal constituents cluster, the central word that gives the phrase its
syntactic properties, eight different types of phrases can be identified – Noun
Phrases, Prepositional Phrases, Adjective Phrases, Adverb Phrases, Verb
Phrases, Gerund Phrases, Infinitive Phrases and Participial Phrases.
2.1.1. The Noun Phrase consists of a noun, called the head-noun (or,
less frequently, of a pronoun, an adjective or an adverb) plus any determiners,
premodifiers and/or postmodifiers. Whereas premodifiers are words or
phrases modifying a noun placed after the determiner and before the head-
noun, postmodifiers are words, phrases, or clauses modifying a noun which
immediately follow the head-noun.
Here are some examples of premodifiers expressed by the structures
in question:
• Infinitive Phrases: an extremely cheap wear-at-night-and-throw-
away-in-the-morning outfit
• Gerund Phrases: a reading lamp
• Participial Phrases: our quickly sinking ship, my deeply hidden
feelings19
Here are some examples of postmodifiers expressed by the structures
in question:
• infinitive clauses: the idea to leave her here
• nominal clauses: The idea that we should leave her here was not
mine.
• participial clauses: the children digging a ditch; the women injured
in the accident
• relative clauses: The children, who were digging a ditch, seemed
undisturbed by the crash.; The women who had been injured in the
accident were soon taken to hospital.; The idea that he had come up
with was excellent. 20
19 For the distinction between gerunds and present participles see Alina Preda, Phrasal Syntax,
Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca, 2011, p. 17.
20 For the distinction between relative clauses introduced by the relative pronoun ‘that’ and nominal
clauses introduced by the conjunction ‘that’ see Alina Preda, Phrasal Syntax, Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca,
2011, 23-27 and Alina Preda, Clausal Syntax, Casa Cǎrţii de Ştiinţǎ, Cluj-Napoca, 2012, 12-15.
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2.1.5. The Verb Phrase versus the Verbal Phrase. There is one
compulsory constituent in the case of both the Verb Phrase and the Verbal
Phrase, namely the Verb Group. The Simple Verb Group consists of only one
verb, the lexical verb, whereas the Complex Verb Group contains one or
more auxiliary verbs plus the lexical verb. The Verb Group may be classified
as finite or non-finite. Finite Verb Groups contain a tensed verb, non-finite
Verb Groups contain a non-tensed verb, also known as a verbal. A Verb Group
together with its objects and complements forms a Verb Phrase. Consequently,
Verb Phrases may also be either finite or non-finite. The former are called
Verb Phrases proper, and the latter Verbal Phrases.
The Finite Verb Phrase must have a clearly stated subject (except for
imperatives in which the subject you is understood). Since the Finite Verb
Phrase consists of a Finite Verb Group plus all its objects, complements and
modifiers, it always performs the syntactic function of Predicate.
E.g.: No one but a clever man would have taken such liberties with his
appearance; and though these eccentricities were revolting to Soames, he
derived a certain satisfaction from them.
(John Galsworthy – The Forsyte Saga. Vol. I The Man of Property, p. 37)
Non-finite Verb Phrases are called Verbal Phrases, because the central
element in their Verb Group must be a non-finite verb form, also known as a
verbal. Depending on the type of verbal they contain, Verbal Phrases may be
classified as gerund, participial and infinitive.
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• She brought me a flask filled with old Irish whiskey. (participle clause,
postmodifier of the head-noun)
• Being a perfectionist, Dana always double-checks everything.
(participle clause, Adverbial Modifier of Reason)
• Washed in cold water, this shirt will not shrink. (participle clause,
Adverbial Modifier of Condition)
• She forgot to hand in both her essay and her project, failing History
twice. (participle clause, Adverbial Modifier of Result)
REFERENCES
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