sot ee “AL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS | GiaENGINEERS India’s Best Institute for CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GHEMICAL ENGINEERING Revised as per GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS @) FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS al1 ee CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ww. i 2 13. We GATE-2019 INTRODU ON FLUID STATICS AND ITS APPLICATION BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION. FLUID KINEMATICS DYNAMIC OF FLUID FLOW... FLOW THROUGH PIPES..... VISCOU: FLOW AND TURBULENT... FORCES ON SUBMERGED BODIES... BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW. DIMENSIONAL MODEL ANALYS! ‘TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS. GATE BASED QUESTION. PRACTICE SET-1...... PRACTICE SET-I...... FLUID MECHANICS 03-19 31 32-38 39-51 52-69 70-85 86-93 94-103 104-109 110-119 120-131 132-147 148-157 158-162 ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©2019 08 61 ol Sra Near Hows Rhus Metra Ststion Gate No: NewNGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS 4 CHAPTER-1 i INTRODUCTION s is the study of fluids at rest or in motion, Fluid mechanics r ' esaties Fluid Dynamics (Study oF Nuids at rest) (Study of fluids in motion) y Hydrodynamics Gas dynamics (Study of incompressible (Study of incompressible fuids like water & gases fluids like gases through at low speeds) nozzles at high speed) Hydraulics Aerodynamics {Study of liquid flows in (Flow of gases over bodies } pipes and open channels) such as Airerafts, Rockets) » 4esituais of Muid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. A Muid is a substance that deforms continuously under the utilization of a shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the shear be. As shown in figure when a shear stress is applied at any location in a fluid, the element * is initially at rest, will move to oBb', then to occ, odd’ and so on. divi a | Fig.: Shear stress on a fluid only ial stress in a fluid body relies on the velocity of deformation, and vanishes as the velocity nection between a solid and a fluid ‘ules of a solid are more tightly packed as compared to that of the fluid + teformation of solid body undergoes either a definite angular deformation as shown in fig. The amount i deiormation is proportional to the magnitude of utilized stress up to some limiting conditions ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©7019 alghsRevrwod a {16 ot Sr eros Kos Mer Stain Ga Me New ORS016 PhO 2AM se neaariei hn : | | | : | i { | | iENGINEERS INSTITUTE o¢ .—————_—_____—_ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS Sa ee Solid / ry V 2 Figure: Deformation of a solid body The angle of deformation cy js called shear strain or angular displacement. Siress is defined as force per unit area, Normal a ! component of a force acting on a surface per unit area is called normal stress, and pet COMPONEN! OF force acting on a surface per unit area is called shear stress, Here tis the shear stress. -In solids, stress is pr SOAS, SESS 8 PrOPortional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate -When this was an ele, infinitesimally small sh -lt can be simply said only under Dynamics ment of fluid, there would have been no fixed and even angular deformation an hear stress was utilized. that while solids can resists tangential stres Situation, under static conditions, fluids ean do it Gas and Vapour; “Gas and vapour are used as synonymous words. “The vapour pliase ofa substance is customarily called 2 gas when itis above critical temperature , __,, The branch of applied mathematics Mechanics —> 4 -atings with motion and { tendenciesto motion Study of mosoa Kinematics Dynamics, Sa, SF motion Study of motion with the The bnt the consideration consideration the basic cause tong Gause of of motion ie. Force motion ie Force © S=distance in V=— (mis) aa7 ims —§, ar : a ow * [CCS system} # aacceteration iy yes) A d ) dt ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF magia oroisapns towed eee conn Ae amend cn°7'\, ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS am: In macro system of fluid particles, the inter molecular distances can be treated as »mpare to the characteristics dimension of systems, so therefore we can assume adjacent 10 ve is another molecule and iwe n Seated as.a continuous distribution of mass which continuum. *T idealization allows us to treat that the properties (like density) are varying continually in +9 jump discontinuities. i.e. high elevation, mean free path becomes large than characte : >< amnot be modelled as a continuum, stic length of system. CGS units: oi oye [English system | [CGS System ‘Mass > Ibm (pound mass) Mass ~> g Length — ft (foot) Length — om : Time + s (second) Time +s ‘on (N) C.G.S. system: Dyne English svstem: pound force (10!) ee ldyne = 1g cm/s? Mop = [G20 7ayibm ps? u Other commoi unit: kilogram force (kgf) Ikgf= 9.807N fork or energy) Si unit: Joule or Nm English system: Btu (British thermal unit) IBtu= 1055.1 3 Note: Electrical energy is usually expressed in KWH. 1 KWH = 3.6 « 108! (Kilo watt hour) PROPERTIES OF FLUI It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volur=<. Hence mass per unit constant while that of 1. Mags density (p) voltime of fluid is said to density. The density of liquids may be considered as eases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. Density of Water > 1000 kg! m’ Atmospheric air 1.21 kg/ m* b of most gases is directly proportional to pressure and inversely to temperature. For liquids (.uhopen the change in density is negligible with temperature & pressure), still deasity of liquid & solids penis more strongly on temperature than pressure, ’ where, p = density in kg / m ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©2019 Al tights Reserved 62 Ku Soe Near HOU Hes Mee Stton Gee No, 3, Mew Uehl-1L0OE Ph OL1-26S14858 wim engaeeriatit.cmCKEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS 2. Specific weight or weight density(y): As it represents the fowwe exerted by gravity on a unit volume of a fluid, SI unit of specific weight is N/m" It rely on the gravitational acceleration and mass density therefore gravitational acceleration (g) changes from place to place, thus, weight density will also vary. It depends upon temperature and pressure because the mass density changes with temperature and pressure, Weight _ mg Volume V g|N/m y for water is 9.81 kN/m* Specific weight = fe He 3. Specific volume (\/): It is defined as volume per unit mass of a fluid. Hence itis reciprocal of mass density. SI unit: m’/kg For liquids the density, weight density, specific volume changes only slightly with the variation of pressure and temperature. For gases the values of density, weight density and specific volume vary greatly with variation of either pressure, or temperature or both. 4. Specific gravity (S): It is the ratio of weight density of a fluid to the weight density of a standard Vi fluid. \ — For gas; air is taken as standard fluid, in the other hand; water is taken as standard fluid, for liquid. | | i | | | | i | | | | Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity. The substances with S <1 are lighter than water and thus they would float on water (if immiscible) scosity: It is properly of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over the adjacent layer. It is due to the cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, >> Let us suppose two plates sufficiently large placed a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with fluid. > _ The lower plate is supposed to be at rest, whereas the upper one is moved parallel to it with a veiocity V by the utilization of force F, corresponding to the area A, of the moving plate in contact with the fluid. Particles of the fluid in contact with each plate will adhere to it when the distance ¥ and velocity V are not too great, the velocity v at 2 distance y from the lower plate will changes unifermly from zero at the lower plate which is at rest, to v at the upper plate which is moving, v Ik may be seen from similar triangles in fig. that the ratio 5> can be replaced by the velocity pradient ( ), which is the rate of angular deformation of fluid. ay) ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©7019 Al fights Reserved a (16 aS Near hot eto atin Got Ma, ew Dei 3001 7 OF 251488, manners som| | | | ee CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS Moving plate 1 L» Stationary plate Fig. Fluid motion between two parallel plates When a constant of proportionality jt be introduced, the shear stress equal to between any two thin sheets of fluid may be termed as a = (0) Y The above equation is said to be Newton's equation of viscosity, rap ay is called coefficient of viscosity, or dynamic viscosity, or viscosity of the fluid. in other words, viscosity is the shear stress required to produce unit rate of angular deformation. Where, shear stress is N/m” 2 — rae of shear sain (2) or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient of Viscosity: In SL unit N.Sim’ PaS_ [1 N/m? = 1 Pal In CGS unit dyne.see/ em? =I poise In MKS unit kgf-see/m? stress versus rate of deformation i.e. velocity gradient) Newton’s Law of Viscosity: The viscous shear stress between the adjacent layer at a distance y from surface will be directly proportional to the rate of shear strain ay| ie ieee dy = Viscosity is direct measurement of the internal resist ace between the two layers in flow. ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA © 2019 1RighisReervedCHEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS ~ A plot of shear stress versus rate of deformation is a straight line for a Newtonian fluid Note: Viscosity is independent of rate of deformation for Newtonian fluids. Viscosity is actually a coefficient in stress — strain relationship. Kinematic Viscosity (x): Defined as the ratio of coefficient of dynamic viscosity (jt) to the density (p) Tal of fluid ie. ej 1 Viscosity| Unit of kinematic viscosity: SL unit m?/s CGS unit cm?/sec = stoke I stoke= 10% m?/s Temperature > 1 — stoke 109 1 centistokes * Variation of Viscosity with temperatu: f y 7 Liquid —- aie BeBe ear +B | 12 — viscosity of liquid at PC (in poise) 1, — viscosity of liquid at °C (in Poise) af constants with increase in temperature, viscosity decreases as cohesive forees are predominant, which get decreases with increase in temperature. Gas, pw =n, tart Be With increase in temperature, viscosity increases: Here, molecular momentum transfer predominates which increases with increase in temperature. Kinetic theory of gases predicts that the viscosity of gases is directly proportional to the square root of ~ Device used to measure viscosity ~ ‘Viscometer* TwPES OF FLUID: Newtonian fluid: In which linear relationship between the magnitude of shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation it means that constant of proportionality does not changes with the rate of deformation, * —Non-Newtonian Fluid: in which there is @ non-linear relation between the magnitude of the utilized shear stress and the rate of angular deformation, ‘+ Ideal fluid: Which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is termed as an ideal fluid. It is only imaginary fluid &s all the fluids, which exist, have sme viscosity t=0 © Real fui Which posses viscosity, is said to be real fluid, all the fluids. in actual practice, are real fluids. Viscous, compressible Surface tension exist offer resistance against fluid ‘Thixotropie fluid: It is a non-Newtonian fluid, and has a non-linear relationship be ween the shear stress and the rate of angular deformation, beyond au initial yield stress. ¢ g. printers ink. The study of non-Newtonian fluid is termed as ‘rheology’. Dilatants fluid: In this case apparent viscosity increases as the rate of shear deformation increases. So that this fluid called shear thickning fluid ~.g, sugar in water, butted. © Pseudo-plastic fluid: “prarent viscosity decreases as the rate of shear deformation increases $0 this fluid is said to be shear thining Muids, e.g, blood milk ete. ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©2019 Atfights Rexerved 96 fat Sova. tor Ht hos Metro Stoton Gote Ma I. Ruetoas.ttenne ==CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS © Bingham Plastic: Bingham plastic is one which has an initial yield stress after which it acts as @ Newtonian fluid, called Bingham plastic e.g. sewage, mud, clay, tooth paste ete. Elasti sede Thixotzopic -~|— Bingham plastic J Pende plas (shear thinning) Newtonian fluid A___Dilatant fluid (Ghear thickening) Ideal fluid Fig.: Variation of shear stress with velocity gradient See \w) (i) B= 0 and n< 1 => Pseudo plastic e.g. blood and milk. (ii) B= 0 and n> 1 = Dilatent fluid e.g. sugar in water. Gif) B Oand => Bingham plastic e.g. tooth paste. (iv) B= 0 and n= 1=> Newtonian fluid e.g. water. Bulk modulus, K: it is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain. dP where, dP — change in pressure = Compressive stress AV _ volumetric strain = *h#Rge in volume v original volume = Bulk modulus for water at normal temperature and pressure is 2.0610" Nim? ~ Bulk modulus for air at normal temperature and pressure is 1.03% 10° N/m ~ Thus, airis about 26000 times more compressible than water, — It is temperature dependent ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©7019 Alnights Reserved BS90 ale nce ener CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS Compressibitity and Elasticit All fluids (Liquid as well as gases) may be compressed by the application of external force, and if the ee a eevee, Vole of id xen te teil or sal sna es eee pe also posses elastic characteristics like elastic solids. ~ Compressibility i the inverse ofthe bulk modulus of elasticity K of the fluid ~ is a measure of the incremental change in pressure oP which take"place when a volume V of the fluid is changed by an imeremental decrease in volume dV is negative Let us suppose that a cylinder fited with a piston as shown in fie dv tk Piston es P y en Cylinder aa! V= volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder P= pressure of gas when volume V. Consider the pressure is increased to p + d P, the volume of gas reduces from V to V —d'V lucrease in pressure = dP decrease in volume = dV av Therefore, volumetric stain = —S* g Negative means the volume decreases with increase of pressure eeccee Ko airy airy (®) we P | For an ideal yas P= pRT and || ») SRP == and thus Kot uy =) I Py p “ 1 Compressibitity B= = "hus the bulk modulus of compressibility or elasticity is equal to is absolute pressure (for an ideal £28). Coefficient of volume expansion (B): "84 quantity which represents the variation of volume of fluid with temperature at constant pressure, ariv = (at constant pressure) B rem s Foran ideal gas * . P= pRr 1 yet ideal gas = | B ideal gas = (-") where T is the absolute temperature. ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©2019 Ai tigna nonouca (5 Kt sora ear Hs ee Sin Ste 1 Nes Dee Sy caAL ENGINEERING GATE-2019 FLUID MECHANICS asion and Capillarity: ‘ons of molecular attraction, liquid posses certain properties. on means inter-molecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. sis.sion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of solid boundary face in contact with the liquid. Surface tension is because of cohesion between liquid particles at the surface, on the other hand ‘arity due to both cohesion and adhesion Major cause of surface tension is cohesion thematically F = unit Nim L where, © ~surface tension (Nim) —_-F tensile force 1 Sength (m) 2 ie dependent on the fluid in contact with the liquid surface. temperature dependent and decreases with rise in temperature and becomes zero at critical point. tension also represents the stretching work that needs to done to increase the surface area of “unit amount, Work done id ‘ote: The effect of pressure on surface tension is usually negligible. Surface tension for water at 20% For mercury = 0.440N/m ssface tension of mercury is large enough that mercury droplets form nearly spherical balls. ‘ow to reduce surface tension: 1 chemicals, called surfactants, are a added to liquid to decrease its surface tension, For e.g. soaps & detergents lower the surface tension of water. 0.073Nim Excess Pressure ‘A curved interface indicates a pressure difference across the interface with pressure being higher on neave side. Coxe I: Pressure Intensity inside a liquid dropiet or air bubble. inner pressure P AP=B -B, = excess pressure \. = circumferential area 2 AP nR? AP xR? =o.2nR (Surface tension Circumferential area) ap=28 ° ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA ©2019 AiRights Reserved [1]