MPC-003

1. Discuss the structural model of personality.

Sigmund Freud explained that adult personality emerges as a composite of early

childhood experiences, based on how these experiences are consciously and
unconsciously processed within human developmental stages, and how these
experiences shape the personality.

The Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud proposed that the unconscious

forces act as determinants of personality. He advocated the method of free
association, which means the person, should say everything that comes to the
mind regardless of how trivial and embarrassing it might be. He said that a body
has two types of neurons:

Phi neuron: concerned with condition of emotion

Psi neuron: concerned with storage of emotion

When the emotions reach a certain level, a discharge is sparked off and this
over-display of emotions is called archaic discharge. Freud compared the
human mind to an iceberg. The small part that shows above the surface of water
represents the unconscious store house of impulses, passions and inaccessible
memories that affect thoughts and behaviours. He did not exactly invent the
idea of the conscious versus the unconscious mind, but he certainly was
responsible for making it popular.

The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular moment, your
present perceptions, memories, thoughts and fantasies.

The preconscious mind works closely with the conscious mind or available
memory; anything that can be easily made conscious like the memories you are
not at the moment thinking about but can readily be brought to mind.

The unconscious mind is the source of our motivations whether they may be
simple desires of food or sex, neurotic compulsions or the motives of an artist or
scientist and yet we are often driven to deny or resist becoming conscious of
these motives and they are often available only in disguised form.

For example: A man trying to make an impressive first impression on a woman

he met at a party intends to say,” I don’t believe we have been properly
introduced,” but instead ends up saying, “I don’t think we have been properly
seduced.” The error which may seem to be a mere slip of tongue to us, is
interpreted as revealing the speaker’s unconscious sexual desires according to
Freudian theory.

Sigmund Freud in 1923, made the Tripartite Structural Model of Id, Ego and
Superego and hypothesized three structures in this theory to understand the
intra-psychic process called the psychic triad. The three components are not
actual physical structures in the nervous system. They represent abstract
conceptions of a general model of personality that describes the interaction of
forces that motivate behaviour.

The Id is the raw, unorganised, inborn part of personality. From birth, the id
attempts to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex,
aggression, and irrational impulses. The id operates in accordance with the
pleasure principle in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and
the maximization of satisfaction. However, at times the reality prevents the
fulfilment of the demands.

The ego, which begins to develop soon after birth, strives to balance the desires
of the id and the realities of the objective outside world. In contrast to the
pleasure seeking id, the ego operates according to the reality principle in which
the instinctual energy is restrained to maintain the individual’s safety and to
help integrate the person into society. It makes decisions, controls actions, and
allows thinking and problem solving of a higher order than the id’s capabilities
permit.

The superego, the final personality structure to develop in childhood, represents

the rights and wrongs of society as taught and modelled by a person’s parents,
teachers and other significant individuals. The superego includes the
conscience, which prevents us from behaving in a morally improper way by
making us feel guilty if we do wrong.

Both the superego and the id are unrealistic in that they do not consider the
practical realities imposed by the society. The superego, if left to operate
without restraint, would create perfectionists unable to make compromises the
life requires. An unrestrained id would create a primitive, pleasure-seeking
thoughtless individual seeking to fulfil every desire without delay. As a result,
the ego must mediate between the demands of the superego and the demands of
the id.
 The ego spans all three topographic dimensions of conscious, preconscious and
unconscious. Logical and abstract thinking are verbal expressions associated
with conscious and preconscious fluctuations of the ego.

(Fig. 20.1, Page 164, Nikhil Marwah)

Freud also provided a view of how the personality develops through a series of
five psychosexual stages during which children encounter conflicts between the
demands of the society and their own sexual urges (in which sexuality is more
about experiencing pleasure and less about lust). According to Freud, failure to
resolve the conflicts at a particular stage can result in fixations and this is
believed to be the cause of many personality and behavioural disorders.

These stages are:

 Oral (0 – 1.5 years of age): In this stage, the fixation is on all things
oral. If not satisfactorily met there is the likelihood of developing negative
oral habits or behaviours.
 Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated, this stage is primarily
related to developing healthy toilet training habits.
 Phallic (3 – 5 year of age): The primary source of pleasure shifts to the
genitals and pleasures derived from fondling them.
 Latency (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant
sexual feelings for the opposite sex.
 Genital (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are
integrated into the mind allowing for the onset of healthy sexual feelings and
behaviours.
It is from these structures and the inherent conflicts that arise in the mind that
personality is shaped. According to Freud while there is an interdependence
among these three levels, each level also serves a purpose in personality
development. Within this theory the ability of a person to resolve internal
conflicts at specific stages of their development determines future coping and
functioning ability as a fully-mature adult.

2. Elucidate Catell’s Theory of Personality.

Catell’s Theory of Personality is a trait approach towards understanding of

development of personality by the interactions and transactions between the
personality system and the socio-cultural environments. There was always
dissatisfaction with the emphasis given by the psychoanalytical theory to the
unconscious processes in a person’s behaviour. This led to the development of
trait-based approaches to understanding personality.
A trait theory is a model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits
necessary to describe a personality. Traits are the consistent personality
characteristics and behaviours displayed in different situations. Trait theorists
do not assume that some people have trait and others do not; rather they propose
that all people possess certain traits but the degree to which a particular trait
applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified.

The attempts to identify the primary personality traits have focused on statistical
technique known as factor analysis. It is statistical method of identifying
associations among a large number of variables to reveal more general patterns.

In 1965, on the basis of factor analysis, Raymond Catell proposed the Trait
Theory of Personality. The goal of Cattell's personality theory was to establish a
"common taxonomy" of personality traits. He refined previously established
lists of personality traits and narrows it to simplify the descriptions of
personality even further than his predecessors. 

Source Traits: They are the building blocks or sources of human personality.
Cattell believed there are 16 of these source traits. 

Surface Traits:  When you put the source traits together along with other
variables in the environment they make up the surface traits, which are the traits
we see and think of as personality. Surface traits are considered one construct of
multiple traits that go together. 

For example, being altruistic would be a surface trait while source traits that
comprise this would be being unselfishness, not greedy, sharing, and being
thoughtful. A surface trait is comprised of the source traits that can be observed
in an individual and are easily observable and common clusters of behavior.
Cattell considered source traits to be more influential than surface traits in
studying personality.

Constitutional Traits: These traits are the one’s which are biologically
determined and resistant to change.
Environmental Traits: These are the one’s which is determined by surroundings.

For example, a person cannot choose how tall he/she wants to be since the
characteristic is predetermined biologically, but the person can freely choose
which religion to follow, which is influenced by the environment in which the
person grows.

Ability traits – The basic talents or skills a person possesses like athleticism and
intelligence.

Temperament traits – The characteristics like being shy, moody, or irritable

which shows how a person moves towards the goal.

Dynamic traits – It involves motivations and interests like being "ambitious."

Cattell took a statistical, measurable approach to studying personality rather

than utilizing observational and qualitative data. He wanted to apply factor
analysis to personality. To do this, he categorized data into three parts to
achieve a large, comprehensive method of sampling. The three data types were:

 Life Data (L-data): Information about an individual's everyday behaviors

and their behavioural patterns. This included things such as the grades
they received in school, their marital status, social interactions, and more.
 Experimental Data (T-data): Recorded reactions to standardized
experiments in a lab setting, designed to test study participant's response
to certain situations.
 Questionnaire Data (Q-data): Responses to questions about the
participant's behaviour and feelings. This data was introspection based
and provided a deeper look at the person's personality that is not always
clear through behavioural data.

Catell also differentiated between two types of intelligences:

 Fluid Intelligence: It reflects the information processing capabilities,

reasoning, and memory. It encompasses the ability to reason abstractly.
For example, we use fluid intelligence when we rapidly solve a puzzle.
 Crystallized Intelligence: It is the accumulation of information, skills and
strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can
apply in problem solving. It reflects our ability to call up information
from long term memory.
He believed that intelligence was an inherited trait.

His theory of personality described 16 personality traits that each person

possesses to varying degrees. The personality traits are referred to as "primary
factors," of which someone can be in the "low range," or "high range." Within
those rangers are descriptors of attributes someone may possess, or ways
someone may act, who falls within those ranges. The sixteen primary factors of
personality as described by Cattell's personality theory are as follows:

 Warmth
 Reasoning
 Emotional stability
 Dominance
 Liveliness
 Rule-consciousness
 Social-boldness
 Sensitivity
 Vigilance
 Abstractedness
 Privacy
 Apprehension
 Openness to change
 Self-reliance
 Perfectionism
 Tension

In connection with Cattell's theory of personality came the sixteen personality

factor questionnaire (16PF). The 16PF is a personality test used by individuals
as well as psychologists and mental health institutions to help evaluate patients.
Unlike personality tests that explicitly ask the respondent about their personality
traits, the 16PF asks about certain situations and their response to those
situations.

(Include SEMS, ERGS and ATTITUDES if possible)

3. Discuss the various debates in personality research.

The personality research, over the years, has been done in multiple perspectives.
Each theory is built on different assumptions and focuses on somewhat different
aspects of personality. Furthermore, there is no clear way to scientifically test
the various approaches and their assumptions against each other. The given
complexity of an individual makes it seem reasonable that personality can be
viewed from a number of perspectives simultaneously.

(Pg 459, Robert S Feldman, Figure 7) Include Table

Nature Vs Nurture Debate

The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which particular aspects
of behaviour are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e.,
learned) influences.
Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic
inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the
influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life
experiences and learning on an individual.
The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that both
influences make to human behaviour, such as personality, cognitive traits,
temperament and psychopathology.

Reductionism Vs Holism
Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it
down into smaller component parts.
Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to
look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the
simplest explanations to understand how they work.
In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations
(e.g. genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviours such
as schizophrenia, gender and aggression. It is based on the scientific assumption
of parsimony - that complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest
underlying principles possible. Strong supporters of reductionism believe that
behaviour and mental processes should be explained within the framework of
basic sciences. Behaviourism and Structuralism are examples of reductionism. 
Holism refers to any approach that emphasizes the whole rather than their
constituent parts. In other words ‘the whole is something else than the sum of its
parts’. Humanistic and psychoanalytical approaches are examples of holism.
Nomothetic Vs Idiographic
Psychologists who adopt nomothetic approach are mainly concerned with
studying what we share with others. That is to say in establishing laws or
generalizations. This approach typically uses scientific methods such
as experiments and observations to obtain quantitative data. Group averages are
statistically analysed to create predictions about people in general. Raymond
Catell’s 16PF trait theories and Hans Eysenck’s type theories are the examples.
The idiographic approach tries to discover what makes each of us unique. The
approach tends to include qualatitative data, investigating individuals in a
personal and detailed way. Methods of research include: case study,
unstructured interviews, self-reports, autobiographies and personal documents.
Free Will Vs Determinism

The determinist approach proposes that all behaviour is determined and thus
predictable.
External (environmental) determinism sees the cause of behaviour as being
outside the individual, such as parental influence, the media, or school.
Approaches which adopt this position include behaviourism and social learning
theory.
Internal determinism is the one which adopts biological perspective.
Free will assumes that we are free to choose our behaviour, in other words we
are self determined e.g. people can make a free choice as to whether to commit
a crime or not. Humanist approach is an example of free will.
Animal Research
This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use
animals. Main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are
almost always to humans and costs to animals.
Gender Issues
If research is biased towards men or women, it does not provide a clear view of
the behaviour that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as
an androcentric bias.
Person-situation Debate
The person–situation debate in personality psychology refers to the
controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in
determining a person's behaviour. Personality trait psychologists believe that
people have consistent personalities that guide their behaviors across
situations. The opponents of the trait approach, argue that people are not
consistent enough from situation to situation to be characterized by broad
personality traits.

(300 words less) 

4. In the light of Horney’s theory of personality, discuss the concept of neurotic

needs.

Karen Horney, who often criticized Freud’s theory, sought to debunk his view
of feminine experience and psychopathology being due to ‘disappointed’ male
sexuality and that of penis envy, by exposing his lack of scientific evidence and
she set about constructing her own theory of personality that better
encompassed the range of female experience. She gave the social foundation of
personality, and suggested that children whose basic needs are met as they grow
up (e.g. safety, food, love) develop healthy self-concepts and ways of
interacting with others. Conversely, children who grow up feeling unsafe and
under-valued develop anxiety and consequently adopt maladaptive strategies to
cope with this anxiety. 

Horney observed that many females are born in male-dominated societies

wherein they may be limited or oppressed due to their sex. This experience
leads many women to develop a masculinity complex, originating from feelings
of inferiority, as well as frustration at the disparity between sexes.

Horney’s theory is explained under these aspects:

 Basic Anxiety
 Neurotic needs
Basic evil is defined as parental indifference and may refer to any behaviour
that does not meet a child’s psychological needs such as - abuse, neglect,
preference for one sibling over another – which may lead to psychological
maladjustment.
Basic anxiety refers to the maladaptive patterns that develop when children are
exposed to basic evil.
Neurosis
Neurosis is defined as a mental or emotional disorder affecting part of the
personality with experiences of anxiety, obsessive thoughts, and physical
discomfort as well.
Neurotic Needs
Neurotic needs can be understood as coping mechanisms developed to manage
anxiety. Horney detailed ten neurotic needs, which are divided into three
groups: those behaviours that move toward others, against others,
and away from others.
Moving Toward Others
1. People pleasers need affection and approval at any cost.
2. Overly dependent people need a partner to take over their life. They
fear being deserted by their partner.
3. Those with the need to restrict their lives appear to lack ambition. Life
is experienced in "safe" ways.
Moving Against Others
4. A neurotic need for power is the craving of power.
5. Individuals with a neurotic need to exploit others believe that they can
only achieve success by taking advantage of others.
6. Neurotic need for social recognition is expressed when people base
their self-esteem on the recognition and compliments they receive from
others.
7. A neurotic need for personal admiration means that people desire
admiration and have an inflated self-image.
8. The neurotic need for personal achievement derives from a person's
sense of insecurity; they seek superiority.
Moving Away From Others
9. Those who need independence seek freedom from commitment. This
need usually follows a disappointing relationship.
10.With a need for perfection comes the fear of failure and criticism. These
people try to hide their flaws.
5. Define self-efficacy. Discuss the role and sources of self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief in one’s personal capabilities. It

underlies people’s faith in their ability to carry out a particular behaviour or
produce a desired outcome. People with high self-efficacy have higher
aspirations and greater persistence in working to attain goals and ultimately
achieve greater success than those with lower self-efficacy.

Albert Bandura, in his theory of Social Cognitive Approaches to Personality,

emphasizes the influence of cognition (thoughts, feelings, expectations and
values) as well as observation of others’ behaviours on personality.

Bandura proposed that perceived self-efficacy influences what coping behaviour

is initiated when an individual is met with stress and challenges, along with
determining how much effort will be expended to reach one’s goals and for how
long those goals will be pursued. He suggested that self-efficacy is a self-
sustaining trait; when a person is driven to work through their problems on their
own terms, they gain positive experiences that in turn boost their self-efficacy
even more.

The role of self-efficacy is huge when it comes to attaining goals in life.

Virtually, all people are aware of what they want to achieve and change in life,
but only a few possess the understanding of right approach. This understanding
is gained by the ability of possessing high self-efficacy.

People with high self-efficacy:

 Do not hesitate to take up challenging tasks and try to master it.

 They always possess an optimistic attitude towards the work that needs to
be done.
 They show a keen interest in the activities they are participating.
 They are thoroughly committed to whatever they are doing.
 They do not get disappointed easily by setbacks and failures.

People with low self- efficacy:

 They are not keen on taking up challenging tasks.

 They have lack of interest in the activities and possess a laid-back
attitude.
 They blame others for their failures and have difficulty in accepting their
mistakes.
 They are afraid of failures and set-backs.
 They lack confidence in themselves.

According to Bandura, there are four main sources of self-efficacy beliefs:

1. Mastery experiences
2. Social Modelling
3. Verbal persuasion
4. Psychological responses
 

Mastery experiences refer to the experiences we gain when we take on a new

challenge and succeed. The best way to learn a skill or improve our
performance is practice, and in this way we are teaching ourselves that we are
capable.

Social Modelling is having a role model to observe and emulate. When we have
positive role models who display a healthy level of self-efficacy, we are likely
to absorb some of those positive beliefs about the self. The sources include
parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles, older siblings, teachers, etc.

The verbal persuasion factor describes the positive impact that our words can
have on someone’s self-efficacy; telling a child that she is capable can
encourage and motivate her.

Psychological responses to particular situations play major role.Paying attention

to our own mental state and emotional well-being (or that of your child’s) is a
vital piece of the self-efficacy.

6. Elucidate the concept of values proposed by Allport.

Gordon Allport gave the dispositional theory of personality, in which he defined

personality as a dynamic organisation within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment.

For decades after its initial development in 1931, the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey

Study of Values (SOV) had a substantial impact on psychological practice and
research. It was designed primarily for use with upper-level high school
students, college students, and adults, it became popular because it reflected a
number of positive features, the most important being its multiplicity of
applications. Firstly, it provided a vivid classroom demonstration. Secondly, it
was widely used in vocational and educational guidance. Thirdly, it was integral
to hundreds of research projects, such as those concerning group differences,
changes in individual values over time, and ascertaining patterns of value
agreement among friends and family members.
Allport believed that an individual's philosophy is founded upon their values, or
basic convictions that he/she holds about what is and is not of real importance in
life. He outlined six major value-types.  They are as follows:

1. The Theoretical person is primarily concerned with the discovery of

truth, to which they seek in a cognitive way.
2. The Economic individual places highest value on what is the most useful.
They are often times practical and is often times stereotypically the
successful American business man.
3. The Aesthetic person places high value of form and harmony. They
believe life to be a series of events that are to be enjoyed for its own sake.
4. The Social type seeks out the love of people.
5. The Political person's dominant drive is power.
6. The Religious individual places highest value on unity. They seek to
understand and experience the world as a unified whole.

Following is the meaning of these values:

1 .The theoretical -- a scientist, for example, values truth. 
2.  The economic -- a businessperson may value usefulness. 
3.  The aesthetic -- an artist naturally values beauty. 
4.  The social -- a nurse may have a strong love of people. 
5.  The political -- a politician may value power. 
6.  The religious -- a monk or nun probably values unity.
By the late 1980s, though, the Study of Values was no longer in print. It is
likely that it fell into disuse due to:

 It’s increasingly archaic content;

 A lack of religious inclusiveness;
 Dated cultural assumptions (especially concerning love and marriage);
and
 Obsolete linguistic terminology.
7. Discuss the neurophysiological basis of traits and types.

Hans Eysenck believed that biological factors, including cortical arousal and

hormone levels, along with environmental factors, such as behaviour learned
through conditioning, influence a person’s score on these personality
dimensions.

PEN Model
The PEN model is a biological theory of personality developed by psychologist
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997). The model focuses on three broad personality
factors: psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism (PEN).

Prior to developing the PEN model, Eysenck sought to measure personality

based on two dimensions: extraversion-introversion and neuroticism-
emotional stability.

Extraversion-Introversion

Individuals with high levels of extraversion engage more in social activities.

They tend to be more talkative, outgoing and feel more at ease in groups.
Introverts tend to be quieter, shying away from large social gatherings, and they
may feel uncomfortable engaging with strangers. Instead, they maintain smaller
groups of close friends.

Extraversion and Cortical Arousal

Eysenck believed that extraversion is linked to levels of brain activity, or

cortical arousal. Extraverts experience lower levels of cortical arousal, resulting
in them seeking arousal from external stimuli. Higher arousal levels in
introverts leads them to avoid stimuli which may lead to a further increase in
arousal.

Neuroticism-Emotional Stability

Eysenck proposed a second dimension: emotional stability to emotional

instability, or neuroticism.

Individuals scoring highly on neuroticism measures tend to experience higher

levels of stress and anxiety. They may feel envious of others who they feel are
in a more advantaged position.
Neuroticism is also characterised by perfectionism, and a tendency to feel
dissatisfied, angry or frustrated with others when their expectations are not met.

A person with a low neuroticism score will generally experience more

emotional stability and are able to cope with stressful events.

Psychoticism-Normality

This third dimension of personality ranges from normality (low psychoticism)

to high psychoticism.

Individuals with higher psychoticism scores are more likely to engage in

irresponsible or miscalculated behaviour.

Eysenck suggested that psychoticism was influenced by biological factors, and

was correlated with levels of hormones such as testosterone.

According to the PEN model, high levels of traits such as psychoticism reduce a
person’s responsiveness to conditioning, which means that they do not adopt the
social norms. As a result, the theory suggests that individuals may be more
prone to criminal behaviour as they seek to fulfil their own interests even if it
means violating the rules.

The association of personality traits such as psychoticism with criminal

tendencies, has led some to criticise his theory. But, on the other hand, the
theory is widely popular because it received considerable empirical support for
the existence of three personality traits through factor analyses methods.

8. Discuss the measures to overcome the weaknesses of self-report tests.

Self-report measures are a method of gathering data about people by asking
them questions about a sample of their behaviour. The sampling of self-report
data is then used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics.

One of the most commonly used personality tests is the MMIP-2, Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2. Others include 16 Personality Factor
Questionnaire, California Personality Inventory, etc.

Self-report inventories are often a good solution when researchers need to

administer a large number of tests in relatively short space of time. Also the
results of self-report inventories are generally much
more reliable and valid than projective tests.

However they have their weaknesses as well. The self- report inventories are
susceptible to deception because of ‘faking good’ or ‘faking bad’ attitudes of
the participants. Also, the participants may be influenced by the responses
available. They may be prone to social desirability and may answer accordingly
which may not be the true-self of the person. It is also very tedious and time-
consuming.

For example, a person applying for a job may ‘fake good’ to impress the
employers and also to demonstrate being socially-desirable may not be genuine
or true to self.

There are various methods which can be used to overcome the weaknesses of
self-report inventories which include:

1. If the participants find themselves in an unfamiliar and unfriendly

environment, they are sure to feel a sense of discomfort which may lead
to bias in the tests. It is of great importance to be made sure that the
participants are in a very warm ambience, and should be approached in a
very co-operative manner.
2. Faking or forced-choice technique can be used with options that are
equal in desirability so that his/her choice will not be influenced by social
desirability.
3. The main purpose of the test should not be revealed since when the
participants know the real motive; they tend to fake their answers and are
more defensive in their responses. So, the two ways which we can use to
conceal the main purpose is either by stating a believable explanation or
 by inserting information which are not true along with the genuine
information.
4. For different tests, different verification or correction keys are available
which can be used to identify whether the participant was true to the test
or not.

9. Personification

Sullivan, in his theory of personality, suggested that people acquire certain

images of self and others throughout their developmental stages, and he referred
to these subjective perceptions as personifications. During, infancy children
acquire three "me" personifications:

 the bad-me, which grows from experiences of punishment and

disapproval
 the good-me, which results from experiences with reward and approval
 the not-me, which allows a person to dissociate from experiences related
to anxiety.

10. Generalization and Discrimination

In Classical Conditioning Theory by Ivan Pavlov, stimulus generalization is a

process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular
response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same
stimulus. On the other hand, stimulus discrimination is the process that occurs if
two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a
conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between
stimuli.

11. Deficiency Needs

Abraham Maslow’s, Humanistic approach to personality, gave a five-stage

model which can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first
four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs) which arise due
to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the
motivation to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they
are denied.
12. Jungian Personality Types

Jung’s personality typology is built on

  two personality attitudes: extroversion and introversion;
 four functions (or modes of orientation): thinking, sensation, intuition,
and feeling.

The four functions are divided into what Jung called rational (or judging)
and irrational (or perceiving) functions. Thinking and sensations are rational,
according to Jung, while intuition and feeling are irrational.

13. Observation techniques in assessing personality.

Observation techniques are behavioural assessment techniques, which are direct

measures of an individual’s behaviour used to describe personality
characteristics. This may be directly carried out naturalistically by observing
people in their own settings: workplace, home, school, etc. It is carried out
objectively and behaviour is quantified. These techniques, based on learning
theories of personality have been used to treat certain kinds of psychological
difficulties.

14. Case study method

Case study research refers to an in-depth, detailed study of an individual or a

small group of individuals.  They are typically qualitative in nature, resulting in
a narrative description of behaviour or experience.  It is not used to determine
cause and effect, rather, the emphasis is on exploration and description of a
phenomenon. The main characteristics are that it is narrowly focused, provides
a high level of detail, and is able to combine both objective and subjective data
to achieve an in-depth understanding.

15. Apperception test

The term apperception was introduced by Leibniz. These tests include mainly
pictures (visual) or sounds (auditory) as stimuli and the respondents are asked to
perceive and tell a story related to the stimuli. It can be broadly classified into 3:

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Senior Apperception Test (SAT)

Children Apperception Test (CAT)

16. Temperament in Guilford’s Trait Theory.

Temperament is the innate disposition that emerges early life. A person’s

temperament may be impulsive or patient or intolerant etc. Guilford pointed out
that there are three levels of traits: hexic level, primary trait level and type level.
The behaviour that is shown most of the time comes under primary traits
whereas those which are displayed under specific situations are hexic traits.

17. Cardinal Trait

A cardinal trait is a single characteristic that directs most of a person’s

activities. For example, a totally selfless woman may direct all her energy
toward humanitarian activities; an intensely power-hungry person may be
driven by an all-consuming need for control. Most people, however do not
develop a single, comprehensive cardinal trait.

18. Nomothetic versus Idiographic Approach

The nomothetic and idiographic approaches are personality based research

approaches, both of which were first suggested by Gordon Allport. The
nomothetic approach is mainly concerned with what we share with others (i.e.,
similarities between people).

The idiographic approach tries to explore what makes each of us unique. No

generalization is possible because of free will, chance and uniqueness of
individuals.