617

Durability and structural performance of carbon

fibre reinforced polymer – reinforced concrete
parking garage slabs
S. El-Gamal, B. Benmokrane, E. El-Salakawy, P. Cousin, and A. Wiseman
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Abstract: This paper presents a laboratory investigation on the durability and structural performance of carbon fibre rein-
forced polymer (CFRP) – reinforced concrete (RC) slab specimens extracted from the Laurier-Taché Parking Garage (in
the National Capital Region, Canada) after being subjected to service field conditions for about 8 years (1997–2005). The
laboratory investigation comprised two phases. The first phase evaluated the durability of the CFRP bars, the concrete,
and the interface between the two materials by conducting microstructural and chemical analyses on core samples ex-
tracted from the slabs. As part of this phase, five CFRP bar samples were extracted and tested in tension to investigate if
the CFRP bars experienced any degradation in strength or stiffness. The second phase investigated the structural behaviour
of the slabs by testing four slab segments (3.0 m long  1.0 m wide  0.2 m deep) in flexure. Test results showed that
neither the CFRP bars nor the CFRP–RC slabs have been adversely affected after being in service for 8 years.
Key words: concrete, parking garages, slabs, fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, durability, testing.
Résumé : Cet article présente une étude de laboratoire sur la durabilité et le comportement structural d’échantillons de
dalles en béton armé-polymères renforcés de fibres de carbone (PRFC) extraits du garage à étages Laurier-Taché (Région
de la Capitale nationale – Canada) une fois qu’elles ont été en service pendant environ huit ans (1997–2005). L’étude en
laboratoire comportait deux phases : la première portait sur l’évaluation de la durabilité des tiges PRFC, du béton et de
For personal use only.

l’interface entre les tiges PRFC et le béton en réalisant des analyses chimiques et microstructurales sur des carottes de fo-
rage tirées des dalles. Lors de cette phase, cinq échantillons de tiges PRFC ont été extraits et testés en tension afin
d’étudier la dégradation de la résistance ou de la rigidité des tiges PRFC, le cas échéant. La seconde phase examinait le
comportement structural des dalles en soumettant quatre segments de dalles (3,0 m de long  1,0 m de large  0,2 m
d’épaisseur) à des essais de flexion. Les résultats des essais ont montré que ni les tiges PRFC ni les dalles de béton armé-
PRFC n’avaient été affectées après huit ans de service.
Mots-clés : béton, garages à étages, dalles, tiges polymères renforcées de fibres (PRF), durabilité, essays.
[Traduit par la Rédaction]

Background ability of concrete, employing cathodic protection, and coat-

Conventional concrete structures are reinforced with steel,
which is initially protected against corrosion by the alkalin-
ity of the concrete. For many structures subjected to aggres-
sive environments, such as marine constructions, bridges,
and parking garages exposed to de-icing salts, combinations
of moisture, temperature, and chlorides result in the corro-
sion of the reinforcing steel. To address corrosion problems,
professionals have turned to alternative protective methods,
such as increasing the concrete cover, improving the perme-
ing the reinforcing bars with epoxy, but none has been
totally successful in eliminating corrosion (ACI 2006).
Therefore, a different approach — that of using materials
highly resistant to corrosion — has been raised recently. As
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) materials are non-corrodible,
the problems related to steel corrosion can be avoided. In
addition, FRP bars exhibit several mechanical properties,
such as high tensile strength and modulus, that make them
suitable for use as structural reinforcement (Benmokrane
and El-Salakawy 2002, 2007).

Received 26 June 2007. Revision accepted 18 November 2008. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cjce.nrc.ca on 9 April
2009.
S. El-Gamal, B. Benmokrane,1 and P. Cousin. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of
Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada.
E. El-Salakawy. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 5V6,
Canada.
A. Wiseman. Public Works Government Services Canada, 11 Laurier Street, Place du Portage, Phase III, 8B1, Gatineau, QC K1A 0S5,
Canada.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be received by the Editor until 31 August 2009.
1Corresponding author (e-mail: brahim.benmokrane@usherbrooke.ca).

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 36: 617–627 (2009) doi:10.1139/L09-016 Published by NRC Research Press
 618
Fig. 1. Test area (a) schematic drawing (all measurements are in millimetres), and (b) after the slab panels had been removed.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Canadian Science Publishing on 06/07/17
For personal use only.
These properties encouraged Public Works and Govern-
ment Services Canada (PWGSC) to investigate the use of
FRP bars as reinforcement in parking garage slabs. In 1997,
as a demonstration project, PWGSC implemented FRP tech-
nology by using CFRP bars (Leadline) as reinforcement for
two structural slab panel replacements in its largest parking
garage in Canada (Laurier-Taché Parking garage, Gatineau,
Quebec, Canada). The garage is a skeletal building made of
reinforced concrete columns, post-tensioned girders, and one-
way slabs. The 20 m long one-way slabs were continuously
supported over a clear span of 3.6 m (4.1 m centreline to cen-
treline). The CFRP–RC demonstration area consisted of two
adjacent slab panels measuring 8.7 m  8.2 m, as shown in
Fig. 1a. Since, for PWGSC, it was the first demonstration
project using CFRP materials, the slab design was conserva-
tive. The slab sections were over-reinforced and the design
was governed by the serviceability limits (deflection and
crack width). The design of the slabs, however, was compa-
rable to CSA-S806–02, Design and construction of building
component with fibre reinforced polymers (Cl.8.2.1) (CSA
2002), which specifies that FRP reinforced concrete sections
should be over-reinforced. In early 2003, owing to serious
corrosion problems in the garage slabs’ reinforcing steel,
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 36, 2009
PWGSC decided to rehabilitate the whole parking garage
by replacing all the structural slabs. The demolition and re-
placement of the slabs, including those reinforced with
CFRP bars, started in 2005. In collaboration with the Uni-
versity of Sherbrooke, PWGSC took this opportunity to
evaluate the performance of the CFRP–RC slabs after
being in service for about 8 years. Three slab panels (3 m
long  2 m wide  0.2 m deep) were extracted from the
demonstration area, as shown in Fig. 1a. The slab panels
were supported on hydraulic jacks and a saw cut was
made in each slab. The slabs were then jacked up, re-
moved from the site by a forklift, and placed on a flatbed
for transportation to the laboratory. Figure 1b shows a
photo of the demonstration area after the slab panels had
been removed. It should be noted that, prior to cutting, the
CFRP reinforced area was visually examined and there
were no signs of deterioration except for some minor trans-
verse hairline shrinkage cracks, which had appeared within
few weeks of the slab casting back in 1997. It is also
worth mentioning that all the steel reinforced slabs in the
garage were protected by a thin membrane layer, while
the demonstration slabs with the CFRP bars did not have
any protection.
Published by NRC Research Press
 El-Gamal et al.
Fig. 2. Typical optical microscopy micrographs of carbon fibre reinforced polymer bars embedded in concrete.
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Objectives
The main objectives of this project are (i) to identify and
quantify the damage, if any, in the CFRP bars, concrete, and
the interface between the two materials, that was incurred
after the slabs were under service conditions for 8 years;
(ii) to evaluate the residual mechanical, thermal, and physi-
cal properties of the CFRP bars after 8 years in service and
compare them with the original bar properties; and (iii) to
evaluate the structural behaviour of the slabs, in terms of re-
sidual strength, stiffness, deflection, cracking, and mode of
failure after these same 8 years of service.
Laboratory investigation
These objectives were achieved by conducting a labora-
tory investigation that included two phases. The first phase
For personal use only.
focused on the durability evaluation of the CFRP bars, the
concrete, and the interface between the two materials. The
second phase investigated the structural behaviour of the
slabs. Each slab panel was cut into halves, which resulted
in six slab segments 3 m long  1 m wide  0.2 m deep.
Two slab segments were tested in phase I, while the remain-
ing four were tested in phase II.
Phase I: Durability evaluation
Materials and microstructural analyses
For the durability phase, eight 100 mm diameter core
samples were taken from the slabs at different CFRP rein-
forced locations. These cores were used to conduct micro-
scopic and physicochemical analyses to investigate the
degree of degradation in the CFRP bars or in the interface
between the CFRP bars and surrounding concrete. Four ad-
ditional 50 mm diameter core samples were taken to deter-
mine the free chloride content in the concrete slabs at
various depths. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that
the CFRP bars contained approximately 20% resin and 80%
carbon fibre by weight.
The following techniques were used:
 optical microscopy (OM), to evaluate the quality of bond
between CFRP bars and concrete;
 scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), to examine the
two components of the bars, resin matrix and fibres, and
the adhesion between them;
 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), to evaluate the
degree of degradation of the resin and, eventually, the
presence of non-cured (non-polymerized) material;
 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), to determine the pre-
sence of a chemical degradation process called hydrolysis
affecting the vinyl ester resin; and
619
 chemical analysis of free chloride in concrete cores, to
determine the concentration of free chloride due to the
intrusion of de-icing salts in the concrete cores as a func-
tion of the depth.
Observations and discussion
Optical microscopy
Figure 2 shows typical micrographs of CFRP bars em-
bedded in concrete at three different magnifications (4,
10, and 20). All bars in four core samples were exam-
ined using OM. Analysis of the micrographs showed that
the adhesion of the CFRP bars to the concrete was adequate,
and that no voids or gaps developed during service. More-
over, the bars and surrounding concrete were in very good
condition. For all examined samples, the CFRP bars did not
seem to have been affected by the alkali environment of the
concrete. Also, the concrete did not seem to have been af-
fected by the presence of the CFRP composite bars.
Scanning electronic microscopy
Longitudinal and cross sections of extracted bars were ex-
amined using the SEM technique and then compared with a
reference sample. The portion of the composite bar sample
closest to the surface was selected for examination since it
is the portion most sensitive to water and aggressive chemi-
cal diffusion.
Figures 3 and 4 present typical longitudinal and cross sec-
tion micrographs, respectively, of extracted samples com-
pared with reference samples at different magnifications. The
figures show no specific or significant difference between the
extracted and reference samples. The state of the fibres were
similar and the resin itself did not show any signs of deteriora-
tion or microcracking. Also, the interface between the carbon
fibres and the resin did not appear to have been affected.
However, a small gap at the fibre–resin interface can be ob-
served around some fibres in both the extracted and reference
samples. This small gap may have occurred during the prepa-
ration (sectioning and polishing) of the samples, and should
not be a reason for any decrease in the mechanical properties
of the CFRP bars. In general, it can be seen clearly that no
damage occurred to the CFRP bars during their service life.
Differential scanning calorimetry
Two heating runs were performed to check whether the
first heating scan affected the material or not. Figure 5
shows the two thermograms of an extracted CFRP sample.
The first heating run showed a glass transition temperature,
Tg, of 111 8C with a wide peak after 150 8C, whereas the Tg
obtained during the second run was 149 8C. This behaviour
shows that the curing during the manufacturing process was
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 620 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 36, 2009

Fig. 3. Scanning electronic microscopy micrographs of longitudinal sections of (a) reference and (b) extracted carbon fibre reinforced poly-
mer bars.
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For personal use only.

Fig. 4. Scanning electronic microscopy micrographs of transverse Fig. 5. Differential scanning calorimetry thermogram of an ex-
sections of (a) reference and (b) extracted carbon fibre reinforced tracted carbon fibre reinforced polymer sample.
polymer bars.

not fully completed. Consequently, the first heating scan led

to a post-curing/polymerization step, which shifted Tg to-
wards higher temperatures. This phenomenon was observed
for both the reference and extracted samples, as presented
in Table 1. It can be noted also that the Tg values obtained
for the extracted bar samples were equal or superior to those
of the reference samples. This means that there was no de-
gradation in the polymeric resin due to service conditions.
If there had been a degradation of the resin, it would have

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 El-Gamal et al.
Table 1. Glass transition temperature of reference
and extracted carbon fibre reinforced polymer
bars.
First heating Second heating
Sample scan (8C) scan (8C)
Reference 112 144
Extracted (1) 111 149
Extracted (2) 110 152
Extracted (3) 111 145
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broken some covalent bonds in the backbone of the polymer
chains and lead to shorter chains. Shorter chains, being more
flexible, would have resulted in a reduction in the Tg of the
material, which was not observed in this investigation.
Fourier transform infrared
An FTIR analysis was conducted on a reference and two
extracted samples to determine if chemical degradation had
affected the resin during the service life of the material. Fig-
ure 6 presents the spectra of the two extracted samples com-
pared with the reference spectra. The figure shows very
small spectral changes at 3200 cm–1, which is a region
where hydroxyl units absorb infrared light. The two ex-
tracted samples showed small absorbance peaks, whereas
the baseline of the reference sample remained flat. The sam-
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ples were then heated to remove any trace of water, which
could have been absorbed in this region, and the new spectra
obtained still presented absorbance peaks. Since the pres-
ence of hydroxyl-containing compounds is not related to the
presence of absorbed water, two other causes may be out-
lined. First, concrete residue and ionic species containing
hydroxyl groups may have diffused through the resin during
the service life or have contaminated the samples during the
extraction/preparation steps. Secondly, degradation caused
by alkalis that diffused into the bars could have occurred
through a hydrolysis process. At this stage, it is not possible
to determine which of these two phenomena led to the pres-
ence of hydroxyl units in the examined samples. However,
the intensity of hydroxyl peaks, and therefore the amount of
related units, was very small. The associated degradation, if
any, would have been very limited and should not have af-
fected the integrity of the material. However, further investi-
gations would be helpful to clarify this phenomenon.
Chemical analysis of free chloride in concrete cores
The objective of this chemical analysis was to determine
the concentration of free chloride due to the intrusion of de-
icing salts into the concrete cores as a function of the depth.
The test was performed according to ASTM C1218, Stand-
ard test method for water-soluble chloride in mortar and
concrete (ASTM 2008). Two core samples were used to de-
termine the free chloride content. Each core was cut into
five disks, as shown in Fig. 7. The first disk, A, was 12 mm
thick and was cut from the top surface. Disks B, C, and D
were each 25 mm thick and corresponded to deeper zones,
the disks B to D being cut from top to bottom, respectively.
A 12 mm thick reference disk, R, was taken from the very
bottom of the cores. Identical results were obtained from
the two core samples; therefore no more cores were exam-
ined. Figure 7 shows that the two first disks, A and B, which
621
Fig. 6. Fourier transform infared spectra of carbon fibre reinforced
polymer bar samples.
corresponded to a depth of between 0 and 37 mm, contained
large amounts (>6000 ppm) of free chloride, whereas disks
R and D (obtained from depths below 62 mm) were not con-
taminated (i.e., contained <200 ppm). The figure also indi-
cates that the intrusion of de-icing salts reached disk C,
which contained 1100 ppm. This shows that the top layer of
CFRP reinforcement was subjected to a high concentration
of chloride ions; however this high chloride concentration
did not have any adverse effect on the CFRP bars. Had steel
reinforcement been used, this high concentration of chloride
would have resulted in a high rate of corrosion in the top
steel layer of the slabs. As time passed, the high concentra-
tions of chloride could have also reached the lower layer of
steel reinforcement, especially at the locations of cracks,
and caused corrosion. In fact, it was the heavy corrosion
of the steel reinforcement found in both the top and bot-
tom of the slabs of the Laurier-Taché Parking Garage that
led to the replacement of the parking garage slabs in 2005
(Benmokrane et al. 2004, 2006).
Tensile test of extracted carbon fibre reinforced polymer
As part of the durability phase, CFRP bar samples were
extracted and tested in tension to investigate whether there
had been any degradation in the strength or stiffness of the
CFRP bars over their service life. Three concrete strips, each
measuring 3000 mm  200 mm  100 mm, were cut from
one of the slab segments used for the core samples. Each
strip contained two 3000 mm long CFRP bars. Using a
small hammer, the two CFRP bars were carefully extracted
from each strip, which produced the six 3000 mm long
CFRP bars used in the tensile tests.
The tensile tests were carried out according to the test
method of CSA-S806–02 (CSA 2002). Each end of the five
tensioned CFRP specimens were anchored using steel tubes
filled with epoxy. Each specimen was instrumented with a
linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) over a
gauge length of 200 mm, which was used to capture speci-
men elongation during testing. The test was carried out using
a universal testing machine and the load was increased mo-
notonically until tensile failure occurred. The results of the
tensile tests are given in Table 2. Results show that the
mean values of the tensile strengths of the CFRP bars ex-
tracted from the slabs was similar to that of the virgin bars,
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 622 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 36, 2009

Fig. 7. Typical chloride content across the depth of the concrete slabs.
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Table 2. Tensile test results of carbon fibre reinforced polymer transducers (LVDTs) were installed at the midspan to meas-
bars extracted from garage slabs. ure the maximum deflection of the slabs, as shown in
Fig. 8b, and one high-accuracy LVDT (0.001 mm) was in-
Tensile Modulus of
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stalled at the position of the first crack to measure crack

Maximum strength elasticity
Specimen load (kN) (MPa) (GPa)
width. Furthermore, to measure the midspan strains in the
CFRP bars, the bottom concrete cover under one of the
Reference bar main bottom CFRP bars was removed in slabs S1, S3, and
Reference —– 2800* 155* S4, and ESGs were attached to the bars. Figure 8c shows a
Extracted bars photo of one of the slab segments during testing.
1 138.6 2828 189 The load was monotonically applied at a stroke-controlled
2 139.9 2854 187 rate of 1.2 mmmin-1. The loading was stopped when the
3 139.1 2838 196 first cracks appeared and the initial crack widths were meas-
4 137.3 2801 176 ured using a 50 microscope. Afterwards, the high-accuracy
5 129.6 2644{ 171 LVDT was installed to measure the crack width electroni-
Mean 2830 182.8 cally. A data acquisition system monitored by a computer
Standard Deviation 22.25 8.79 was used to record the readings of the load, the LVDTs,
Coeffient of 0.79 4.81 and the ESGs. A similar setup was used in a previous work
variance (%) (Benmokrane et al. 2004). During loading, the development
*As provided by the manufacturer (MCC 1994). of cracks on one side of the slabs were marked and re-
{
This value was not taken into account when calculating the average or corded.
standard deviation as it is a low outlier at the 1% significance level. To measure the concrete compressive strength, six
100 mm diameter cores were taken from the slabs and tested
in compression. The average concrete strength was 44 MPa
as reported by their manufacturer (MCC 1994). Hence, it can
with a standard deviation of 3.6 MPa.
be concluded that there was no degradation in CFRP bar
strength or stiffness, even after the bars had been in severe
service conditions for about 8 years. Test results and discussion
Test results are presented in terms of deflection at mid-
Phase II: Structural behaviour of the slabs span, cracking, strains in concrete and reinforcement, ulti-
mate capacity, and mode of failure. The test results were
Test specimens and setup analyzed and compared with the service midspan moment,
Four concrete slab segments (3 m long  1 m wide  Ms (15.64 kNm) and the factored midspan moment, Mf
0.2 m deep) were tested in four-point bending over a simply (21.87 kNm) as calculated according to CSA-S413–94,
supported clear span of 2.5 m and a shear span of 1.0 m as Parking structures (CSA 1994); these calculations are
shown in Fig. 8a. All the tested slabs were reinforced with 8 shown in Appendix A.
mm diameter (area of 49 mm2) CFRP bars as shown in
Fig. 8b. For each slab, six electrical resistance strain gauges Deflection
(ESGs) were attached to the top surface of the slabs at the Figure 9 shows the midspan deflection versus the applied
middle and quarter span. Two linear variable displacement moment for the tested slabs. It can be noted that the

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 El-Gamal et al.
Fig. 8. Test slab (a) reinforcement and instrumentation drawing, (b) test setup schematic drawing; and (c) testing. (All measurements are in
millimetres unless otherwise indicated.)
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For personal use only.
Fig. 9. Moment–deflection relationship for slabs S1, S2, S3, and S4.
moment–deflection curves were bilinear for the four slabs.
The first part of the curves up to the cracking moment, or
from 15.35 to 18.65 kNm (excluding the 3.67 kNm mo-
623
ment due to the self weight of the slab), represents the be-
haviour of the uncracked slabs. The second part represents
the behaviour of the cracked slabs with reduced inertia. All
tested slabs had very similar deflection behaviour, as was
expected. The relationship between the measured deflection
of the test slab segments (which had spans of 2.5 m) and
that of the real slab in the field (which had a span of 3.6 m)
is explained in Appendix B. Thus, the allowable deflection
limit, according to CSA-S806–02 (CSA 2002), is 5.76 mm
(Benmokrane et al. 2004).
At service moment (15.64 kNm), the measured deflec-
tions ranged between 1.42 and 3.82 mm. For slabs S2 and
S3, which had cracking moments higher than the service
moment, the measured deflections at service were small, or
2.35 and 1.45 mm, respectively. However, for slabs S1 and
S4, which had cracking moments lower than the service mo-
ment, the measured deflections were higher, or 3.82 and
3.62 mm, respectively. However, it can be noted that all de-
flection values were well below the allowable code limits
(5.76 mm). At failure, the maximum recorded deflections
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 624 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 36, 2009

Fig. 10. Photo of the tested slabs S1, S2, S3, and S4 at failure.
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Table 3. Summary of test results.

Maximum strain in Maximum strain in

Cracking Failure reinforcement concrete
Deflection (mm) (microstrain) (microstrain)
moment moment Crack width at
Slab (kNm)* (kNm) Service Failure failure (mm) Service Failure Service Failure Mode of failure
S1 19.02 109.0 3.82 59.91 3.22 506 9240 –69 –2150 Compression shear
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S2 22.32 120.5 2.35 75.34 3.87 — — –64 –2220 Compression shear

S3 21.87 109.0 1.42 55.00 3.21 474 10200 –78 –2190 Diagonal tension
S4 19.16 112.7 3.62 55.34 — 517 — –78 — Compression shear
*Including the moment due to the self weight of the slab (3.67 kN
m).

ranged between 55.00 and 75.34 mm. It can be noted from Fig. 11. Moment – crack width relationship for slabs S1, S2, and
Table 3 that the ratio of the measured deflections at failure S3.
to those at service ranged between 15 and 38, which indi-
cates that the CFRP reinforced slabs would give ample
warning before failure.

Cracking
The cracking moments of the four tested slabs are listed
in Table 3. These cracking moments included the moment
due to the self weight of the slab (3.67 kNm). Crack forma-
tion was initiated in the flexural span at a moment between
19.02 and 22.32 kNm, which is consistent with the theoret-
ical value of 22.83 kNm calculated using the CSA-S806–02
code (CSA 2002).
Cracks were vertical in the pure bending zone. With in-
creasing load, vertical cracks started to appear in the shear
span and then propagated in the inclined direction. Figure
10 shows a photo of tested slabs at failure. It can be seen
that all the slabs have similar crack patterns, and that the
number of cracks at failure ranged between 9 and 11. Fig- Strains in reinforcement and concrete
ure 11 shows the variation of the maximum measured Figure 12 shows the moment–reinforcement strain rela-
crack width against the applied moment for the tested tionship for slabs S1 and S3. At service moment, the maxi-
slabs. Owing to a problem in the data acquisition system, mum measured reinforcement strains were 506 and 474
the crack width and strains for slab S4 were not recorded microstrain for slabs S1 and S3, respectively. Those strains
after a moment of 20 kNm. For all slabs, the moment – were less than 4% of the CFRP bars’ ultimate strains.
crack width relationships were linear up to failure. Table 3 (Table 3). At failure, the measured strains were 9 240 and
shows that the maximum measured crack width at failure 10 200 microstrain, respectively, which were less than 70%
was 3.22, 3.87, and 3.21 mm for slabs S1, S2, and S3, of the ultimate CFRP bars’ strains (15 500 microstrain). For
respectively. slabs S1 and S3, the ratios of the measured reinforcement

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 El-Gamal et al.
Fig. 12. Moment–reinforcement strain relationships for slabs S1
and S3.
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strains at service to those at failure were about 5.5% and
4.7%, respectively. This shows again that the slabs would
have a very wide safety range before failure. Furthermore,
the measured strains in the concrete ranged between –67
and –78 microstrain and from –2150 to –2680 microstrain
at service moments and at failure, respectively. Table 3 also
shows that the ratio of the maximum measured midspan
concrete strains at failure to those at service moments
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ranged between 28 and 34.
Ultimate capacity and mode of failure
The failure moments of the four tested slabs ranged be-
tween 109.0 and 120.5 kNm. All slabs failed in shear. This
is clear from the measured concrete and reinforcement
strains, which were much lower than the ultimate strains of
the concrete and CFRP bars. Three slabs (S1, S2, and S4)
failed in compression shear failure at moment levels of
112.4, 120.5, and 109.0 kNm, respectively. The fourth slab
(S3) failed in diagonal tension shear failure at a moment of
109.0 kNm, as shown in Fig. 10. It can be noted that these
failure moments are more than five times the factored slab
design moment of 21.87 kNm.
Deformability factor
Ductility in steel reinforced concrete elements is quanti-
fied by a ratio of steel displacement or curvature at ultimate
to that at yielding. Even though FRP does not yield, con-
crete flexural members with FRP reinforcement do exhibit
substantial deflection prior to failure (ISIS-Canada 2001).
Jaeger et al. (1995) introduced the concept of deformability
to quantify these deformation characteristics and to provide
a means of comparison between the level of safety at ulti-
mate and service states. The deformability factor calculated
for the slabs in this study ranged between 20 and 24, values
much greater than (i.e., five times) the minimum deform-
ability factorof four for rectangular sections, as specified by
CSA-S6–00, Canadian highway bridge design code (CSA
2006). This shows again that the CFRP reinforced slabs will
give ample warning before failure.
Summary and conclusions
In 1997, PWGSC implemented FRP technology in a pilot
project by using carbon FRP bars as reinforcement for two
625
structural concrete slab panel replacements in the Laurier-
Taché Parking Garage in Gatineau, Qué. To evaluate how
the slabs performed after they had been in service field con-
ditions for about 8 years (1997–2005), PWGSC extracted
three slab segments and sent them to the laboratories of the
University of Sherbrooke for evaluation. The laboratory in-
vestigation included two phases. The first focused on the du-
rability evaluation of the CFRP bars, the concrete, and the
interfaces between the bars and concrete. The second phase
focused on the structural behaviour of the CFRP reinforced
concrete slabs.
Based on the durability evaluation phase, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. Optical microscopy analysis showed that the CFRP bars
were intimately bonded to the concrete and that the ser-
vice conditions did not debond the bars.
2. Scanning electronic microscopy micrographs showed that
the carbon fibres, the matrix resin, and the interface be-
tween both components did not change over time.
3. No glass transition temperature changes in the resin were
detected by differential scanning calorimetry measure-
ments. Also, the concrete surrounding the composite mate-
rial seems not to have been affected by service conditions.
4. Fourier transform infared spectra showed a small spectral
change, but it was not clear if this change was due to a
small degradation of the polymeric matrix or to a con-
tamination that may have occurred during the preparation
of samples.
5. The chemical analysis of the free chloride shows that the
intrusion of de-icing salts reached the middle depth of
the slabs.
6. From the microstructural and chemical analyses, it can
be concluded that the integrity of the CFRP material
after 8 years in service is outstanding. This supports the
high expectations of a very long life of such CFRP rein-
forced structures under severe service conditions.
7. There was no degradation in strength or stiffness of the
extracted CFRP bars when measured values of these ma-
terial qualities were compared with those specified by
the manufactures.
Based on the results of phase II, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
1. At service moment, the measured deflections were much
smaller than those allowed by the code limits. Ratios of
measured deflections at failure to those at service ranged
between 15 and 38.
2. The maximum measured strains in the reinforcement at
service moment were less than 4% of the ultimate strains
of the CFRP bars. At failure, the measured reinforcement
strains were less than 70% of the ultimate strains of the
CFRP bars. The ratios of the measured reinforcement
strains at service to those at failure moment were about
5.5%.
3. The failure moments of the four tested slabs were more
than five times the factored design moment of the slabs.
4. The high ratios of the measured deflections and strains at
failure to those at service moment, along with the high
values of failure moments clearly show that there is an
ample safety factor inherent in the CFRP reinforced con-
crete slabs.
Published by NRC Research Press
 626
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the National Science and
Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada, the
Canadian Network of Centres of Excellence on Intelligent
Sensing for Innovative Structures (ISIS-Canada), and Public
Works and Government Services Canada (PWGSC).
References
ACI. 2006. Guide for the design and construction of concrete rein-
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forced with FRP bars. ACI 440.1R–06, American Concrete In-
stitute, Farmington Hills, Mich.
ASTM. 2008. Standard test method for water-soluble chloride in
mortar and concrete. ASTM C1218/C1218M - 99 (2008).
ASTM International, West Conshohoken, Penn.
Benmokrane, B., and El-Salakawy, E. (Editors). 2002. Proceedings
of the Second International Conference on Durability of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction (CDCC
2002), Montreal, Que, 29–31 May, 2002. UniversitÕ de Sher-
brooke, Sherbrooke, Que. 715 p
Benmokrane, B., and El-Salakawy, E. (Editors). 2007. Durability
and field applications of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) com-
posites for construction. In Proceedings of the Third Interna-
tional Conference on Durability and Field Applications of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction (CDCC
2007), QuÕbec City, Que, 22–24 May 2007. UniversitÕ de
Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Que. 569 p.
For personal use only.
Benmokrane, B., El-Salakawy, E., Cherrak, Z., and Wiseman, A.
2004. Fibre reinforced polymer composite concrete slabs of a
Public Works and Government Services Canada parking garage.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 31(5): 732–748. doi:10.
1139/l04-049.
Benmokrane, B., El-Salakawy, E., El-Ragaby, A., and Wiseman, A.
2006. Rehabilitation of the structural slabs of Laurier-Taché
parking garage (Gatineau-Quebec) using GFRP bars. In Proceed-
ings of the 34th Canadian Society of Civil Engineering Annual
Conference, Calgary, Alta.
CPCA. 1995. Concrete design handbook. Canadian Portland Ce-
ment Association, Ottawa, Ont.
CSA. 1994. Parking structures. CAN/CSA-S413–94. Canadian
Standards Association, Mississauga, Ont.
CSA. 2002. Design and construction of building component with
fibre reinforced polymers. Standard CAN/CSA-S806–02, Cana-
dian Standards Association, Mississauga, Ont.
CSA. 2006. Canadian highway bridge design code. CAN/CSA-S6–
06, Canadian Standard Association, Mississauga, Ont.
ISIS-Canada. 2001. Reinforcing concrete structures with fibre rein-
forced polymers. ISIS-M03–01 Manual. The Canadian Network
of Centres of Excellence on Intelligent Sensing for Innovative
Structures, ISIS-Canada, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
Jaeger, L.G., Tadros, G., and Mufti, A.A. 1995. Balanced section,
ductility and deformability in concrete with FRP reinforcement.
Research Report No. 2–1995, The Nova Scotia CAD-CAM Cen-
tre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S.
MCC. 1994. Leadline – carbon fiber tendon/bars, product manual,
Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, Tokyo, Japan.
Appendix A. Calculations of service and fac-
tored design moments
Given that:
Slab thickness = 200 mm
Slab self weight = 0.2  23.5 = 4.7 kN/m2
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 36, 2009
Self weight of wearing surface = 0.5 kN/m2
Span of the slabs in the parking garage = 4 m (continu-
ously supported one-way slabs)
Service dead load = 4.7 + 0.5 = 5.2 kN/m2
Factored dead load = 5.2  1.25 = 6.5 kN/m2(from the
National building code of Canada, NBC-05, (Cl.
4.1.3.2) (NRCC 2005)
Service wheel load = 11.0 kN (also from NBC-05)
Factored wheel load = 11.0  1.5 = 16.5 kN (from
NBC-05 (Cl. 4.1.3.2))
Then the service moment, Ms, and factored moment, Mf,
can be calculated as follows:
Ms = service dead load  [0.077(span)2] + service wheel
load  (0.21  span) = 5.2  (0.077  42) + 11.0 
(0.21  4) = 15.64 kNm
Mf = factored dead load  [0.077(span)2] + factored
wheel load  (0.21  span) = 6.5  (0.077  42) + 16.5 
(0.21  4) = 21.87 kNm
Reference
NRCC. 2005. National building code of Canada. NBC-05. National
Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ont.
Appendix B. Relationship between laboratory
measured and allowable midspan deflection
The maximum midspan deflection in an elastic member,
d, can be expressed as
Ms l2
½1 d ¼ ba
Ec ðle Þ
where ba is a coefficient that depends on the degree of fixity
at supports, the variation of the moment of inertia along the
span, and the distribution of loading; Ms is the service mo-
ment (Nmm); l is the span (mm), Ec is the modulus of elas-
ticity of concrete (MPa);and le is the effective moment of
inertia (mm4).
For the case of a continuous one-way slab with more than
three equal spans under uniformly distributed loads, the max-
imum deflection is expected to be in the first panel (span)
with a zero moment at the end support. In this case, the value
of ba is 1/12.16 (using the values of positive moment, M+ve,
equal to 0.077wl2, and negative moment, M–ve, equal to
0.107w l 2, where w is a uniform load (CPCA 1995). Thus,
the maximum deflection of the actual slabs (span of 3.6 m)
in the parking structure, dfield, can be given by
1 Ms ð3:6Þ2
½2 dfield ¼
12:16 Ec ðle Þ
For the case of a simply supported one-way slab under
two equal concentrated loads applying at a shear span of
0.4l (test setup), the value of ba is 1/10.17. Thus, for the
same value of applied moment, Ms, the maximum deflection
of the tested slabs (span of 2.5 m) in the laboratory, dexp, can
be given by
1 Ms ð2:5Þ2
½3 dexp ¼
10:17 Ec ðle Þ
and
Published by NRC Research Press
 El-Gamal et al. 627

12:16 ð2:5Þ2 ½6 dexp  0:576  10 ¼ 5:76 mm

½4 dexp ¼ dfield ¼ 0:576 dfield
10:17 ð3:6Þ2
At service load level, the allowable deflection limit by References
Canadian code CSA-S806–02 (CSA 2002) should not ex- CPCA. 1995. Concrete design handbook. Canadian Portland Ce-
ceed ment Association. Ottawa, On.
CSA. 2002. Design and construction of building component with
span 3600 fibre reinforced polymers. Standard CAN/CSA-S806–02, Cana-
½5 dfield  ¼ ¼ 10 mm
360 360 dian Standards Association, Mississauga, Ont.
Substituting eq. [4] into eq. [5] (CPCA 1995)
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by Canadian Science Publishing on 06/07/17
For personal use only.

Published by NRC Research Press